CYTOPLASM

Jsgyu 2015

CELL CYTOPLASM
CELLS are the basic structural and functional
units, the smallest living parts of the body.
Animal cells are eukaryotic, with distinct
membrane bound nuclei surrounded by cytoplasm
containing many membrane-bound organelles.
CELL DIFFERENTIATION

200 cell types all derived from the zygote (the

single cell formed from the union of an oocyte
and spermatozoa)

The zygote undergoes cell division to form a

mass of cells called blastomere that specialize
and eventually give rise to all tissue types

The specialization process is called cell

differentiation

- Synthesize specific proteins

- Change shape
- Acquire specific functions
Cellular functions in specialized cells:
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Movement - muscle cells and other contractile

cells
Form adhesive and tight junctions between cells
- epithelial cells
Synthesize and secrete components of the
extracellular matrix - fibroblasts, cells of bone
and cartilage
Convert physical and chemical stimuli to action
potential - neurons and sensory cells
Synthesis and secretion of enzymes - cells of
digestive glands
Synthesis and secretion of mucous substances mucus gland cells
Synthesis and secretion of steroids - adrenal
gland, testis and ovary cells
Ion transport - cells of the kidney and salivary
gland cells
Intracellular digestion - macrophages and white
blood cells
Metabolite absorption - cells lining the intestines
The cell is composed of two basic parts:
cytoplasm & nucleus.
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Plasma membrane (plasmalemma) defines the

external limit of the cell and separates the
cytoplasm from the extracellular environment

- Contains proteins called integrins that are

linked to both cytoplasmic cytoskeletal
filaments and ECM components; allows
constant exchange of influences

The cytoplasm is composed of a fluid

component called cytosol in which
metabolically active structures, the organelles
are found

The shape and motility of cells is determined by

the components of the cytoskeleton

Inclusions are cytoplasmic structures that

contain deposits of carbohydrates, lipids or
pigments.
PLASMA MEMBRANE

Limiting membrane composed of

phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins and
oligosaccharides covalently linked to
phospholipid and protein molecules

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Acts as a selective barrier that regulates the

passage of certain materials into and out of the
cell and facilitates transport of specific
molecules.

- Keeps ion content of cytoplasm constant

7.5-10 nm thick
Membrane phospholipids consist of two nonpolar (hydrophobic) long chain fatty acids
linked to a charged polar (hydrophilic) head
group

Organized into a double layer (bilayer) with the

hydrophobic chains towards the middle and
hydrophilic polar heads directed outward to
contact with water

Cholesterol molecules insert among

phospholipid fatty acids modulating fluidity and
movement of the membrane

Proteins are of two groups:

- Integral proteins are directly incorporated
within the lipid bilayer; may span the
membrane from one side to the other, thus
also called transmembrane proteins
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- Peripheral proteins loosely attached to one

membrane surface

The carbohydrate moieties of glycoproteins and

glycolipids project from the external surface of
the plasma membrane

- Constitute components of molecules called

receptors that participate in cell adhesion,
recognition and response to protein
hormones

Membrane proteins are synthesized in the

rough endoplasmic reticulum, modified and
completed in the Golgi apparatus, and
transported in vesicles to the cell surface

Glycocalyx is a carbohydrate rich region of the

external cell surface ; role in cell recognition
and attachment to other cells & extracellular
molecules
Membrane Transport
1.Passive diffusion- through ion channels
2.Active transport- via ion pumps using ATP
3.Endocytosis - bulk uptake of material across
the plasma membrane; involves folding and
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fusion of membranes to form vesicles which

enclose the material transported

- Phagocytosis - "cell eating"; vacuole is

called phagosome

- Fluid phase endocytosis/ Pinocytosis - "cell

drinking"; most vesicles fuse with
lysosomes; in other cells, like capillary
lining cells, vesicles move to the opposite
side of the cell membrane and release their
contents outside the cells (transcytosis)

- Receptor mediated endocytosis - transport

for protein hormones; binds to a receptor
and then aggregates in regions called
coated pits that is invaginate forming
coated vesicles
4. Exocytosis - cytoplasmic vesicle fuses with
the plasma membrane resulting in the release of
its contents to the extracellular space
Signal Reception and Transduction

Cells need to communicate with one another to

regulate development into tissues, to control
their growth and division, and to coordinate
their functions
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Signals may pass directly from cell to cell

through gap junctions

Soluble extracellular signaling molecules (ex.

hormones, neurotransmitters) only bind to
specific receptors found on target cells

MITOCHONDRIA

Membrane-enclosed organelles with enzyme

arrays specialized for aerobic respiration and
production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
which contains energy stored in high-energy
phosphate bonds

Glucose is converted anaerobically to pyruvate

in the cytoplasm (glycolysis) ; pyruvate goes
into the mitochondria and oxidized to CO2 and
H2O releasing ATP and heat

Elongated but constantly changing in shape

Number is dependent on the cell's energy needs
On LM, seen as discrete eosinophilic organelles
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On TEM, is seen to have two membrane layers

separating two compartments, the inner matrix
and a narrow intermembrane space

- The outer membrane is sieve-like containing

numerous transmembrane proteins called
porins

- The inner membrane is folded forming

cristae that projects into the matrix;
impermeable to ions

- Matrix contains enzymes that oxidizes

pyruvate and molecules that provide
electrons for the respiratory /electron
transport chain

The matrix also contains a small circular

chromosome of DNA, ribosome, mRNA and
tRNA
RIBOSOMES

Small electron dense particles composed of 4

segments of rRNA and 80 different proteins;
mitochondrial ribosomes are smaller and
contain fewer constituents

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- RNA is synthesized in the nucleus, proteins

synthesized in the cytoplasm

For protein synthesis

Numerous ribosomes are found on mRNA as
polyribosomes / polysomes

- The nucleotide sequence of the mRNA

determines the amino acid sequence of the
protein synthesized

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Network of intercommunicating channels and

sacs formed by a continuous membrane which
encloses a space called cisterna

In some ER, polyribosomes cover the outer

membrane surface

Rough ER (RER)
- Prominent in cells specialized for protein
secretion ex. pancreatic acinar cells,
fibroblasts, plasma cells

- With polyribosomes on its outer membrane

Smooth ER (SER)
- Do not have polyribosomes
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- Contains enzymes for the synthesis of

phospholipid molecules of cell membranes,
steroid synthesis, enzymes for
detoxification of noxious substances

- Also sequesters and release Ca++ in muscle

cells (sarcoplasmic reticulum)
GOLGI APPARATUS

Packages, concentrates and stores proteins

synthesized in the RER

Composed of smooth membranous saccules

Proteins and products produced by cells are
stored in secretory vesicles or granules until its
release by exocytosis signaled by a metabolic,
hormonal or neural message
LYSOSOMES

Are sites of intracellular digestion and turnover

of cellular components

Membrane limited vesicles with 40 different

hydrolytic enzymes (proteases, nucleases,
phosphatases, sulfatases, phospholipids)

Abundant in phagocytic cells

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Material that enters the cell by endocytosis is

digested when lysosomes fuse with the
phagosome or pinocytic vesicle

Indigestible material is retained in vacuoles

called residual bodies

- Residual bodies can accumulate and are

called lipofuscin granules

Also removes non functional organelles and

excess cytoplasmic structures by autophagy
PROTEASOMES

Function to degrade denatured and

nonfunctional polypeptides; removes proteins
no longer needed by the cell

PEROXISOMES or MICROBODIES

Oxidize specific potentially toxic organic

substrates (alcohol, drugs) by removing
hydrogen atoms that is transferred to molecular
oxygen producing hydrogen peroxide which in
turn is broken down by catalase
CYTOSKELETON
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Determines the shape of cells, for movement of

cells, organelles and vesicles

Consists of microtubules, microfilaments (actin

filaments) and intermediate filaments
Microtubules

Fine tubular structures in the cytoplasm, cilia

and flagella

Composed of the protein tubulin

Role in formation and maintenance of cell
shape, intracellular transport of organelles and
vesicles, and acts as base for centrioles, cilia
and flagella

Microfilaments (Actin filaments)

Contractile activity of cells results from

interaction between actin and myosin

Responsible for changes in cell shape during

endocytosis, exocytosis and cell locomotion,
and movement of cell organelles
Intermediate filaments
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Four major groups:

- Keratins /cytokeratins - found in all
epithelial cells, nails, horns, feathers,
scales; strengthen the tissue and provide
protection against ion and water loss

- Vimentin - found in mesenchymal cells

derived from the middle layer of the embryo;
desmin is found in muscle cells; glial
fibrillation acidic protein (GFAP) is found in
astrocytes

- Neurofilaments - found in neurons

- Lamins - form a structural framework for the
nuclear membrane
INCLUSIONS

Composed mainly of accumulated metabolites

and are often transitory components of the
cytoplasm

Fat droplets are prominent in adipocytes, liver

cells and adrenal cortical cells

Glycogen granules found mainly in liver cells

Lipofuscin granules golden brown bodies
present in many cells; accumulate with age in
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stable non-dividing cells (neurons, cardiac

cells); material derived from residual bodies
after lysosomal digestion

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