Konnerup (2012) Design of Steel-Concrete Composite Structures For A High-Rise Building

Design of Steel-Concrete
Composite Structures
for a High-Rise Building
Masters Thesis
Peter Konnerup
Technical University of Denmark
Department of Civil Engineering
Masters Thesis
DESIGN OF STEEL-CONCRETE
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES FOR A
HIGH-RISE BUILDING
February 24, 2012
Peter Konnerup
Technical University of Denmark
Copyright DTU Byg and Peter Konnerup, 2012
Preface
This thesis is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. It is submitted on February 24th, 2012, to the Department of Civil
Engineering at the Technical University of Denmark. The contents are representative
for the work corresponding to 30 ECTS points carried out in the fall semester of 2011.
This thesis is written under supervision of Associate Professor Henning Agerskov
and Senior Structural Engineer Frank Schwartz. Their guidance and extensive knowledge has been a significant help and inspiration to me.
Kgs. Lyngby
February 24th 2012
Peter Konnerup
Acknowledgements
Henning Agerskov
Associate Professor at the Technical University of Denmark,

For the general guidance and supervision with the development of this thesis.
Frank Schwartz
Senior Structural Engineer at Buro Happold
For sharing his great knowledge and experience in the analysis and design of high-rise buildings.
Their help and support is greatly appreciated.
Additional acknowledgements go to my parents Thorkil and Lene Konnerup, for
their continuous support and encouragement. EDRMEDESO and Computer and Structures, Inc. for providing licensed software. And last but not least Louise D. Nielsen.
Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark
Abstract
High-rise buildings has evolved from being designed out of the necessity for a larger
building volume on a smaller footprint, to being iconic structures expressing power and
economic success. Their strive to function as international landmarks has entailed an
enormous evolution in high-rise construction and design within the past decades.
The strive to build taller and more architecturally advanced buildings has been
said to be reaching its limit. In spite of this, new height records have been set several
times just within the past decade. With taller buildings come more extreme conditions
under which the building must be safe and maintain its functioning. Requirements
for structural components with larger bending and combined compression and tension
capacities is a requisite for this.
Steel-concrete composite components is one of the most efficient methods of incorporating a higher stiffness and large compression and tension capacities into structural
elements. Significant development of structural systems for super tall buildings within
the past decade has lead to seven out of ten of the worlds tallest buildings today,
having structural systems based on steel-concrete composite structural components.
The design procedures for lateral force resisting systems of steel-concrete composite
walls and columns are described, based on the simplified method of design from the
Eurocode standardisation system. This method is further developed to encompass
tension members, whereas making it applicable for shear wall and super frame designs.
A design procedure for the application of steel-concrete composite flooring systems in
high-rise buildings is presented with reference to equivalent beam systems. The design
procedures encompass the inherent effects of dynamic loading that earthquakes has on
such structural elements in high-rise buildings.
The application of the design procedures described above is considered for a highrise building. A 100 meter tall residential building is modelled and analysed for design
in the commercial software ETABS. The high-rise structure considered is one benefiting greatly from the introduction of steel-concrete composite elements, as permanent
tension states are unavoidable in some of the structural elements. All relevant loading
cases are considered based on codified regulations and experimental results for wind
loading. From this, relevant example calculations for a wall, column and beam are
performed, based on the results obtained in the analysis.
The compliance criteria for a high-rise buildings global functioning is described by
considering the redundancy of the structural elements, the occupants comfort and the
lateral deflection limitations associated with total and interstorey drift.
Example calculations considering the redundancy of the above mentioned composite
elements is considered by analyses in ETABS for the cases of progressive collapse. The
comfort of the occupants is considered by evaluating the buildings acceleration when
affected by wind loads. Methods based both on codified provisions and results obtained
by building specific wind tunnel tests are considered for comparison. Finally the drift
indices related to both the buildings total and interstorey deflections are evaluated.
iii
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 High-rise buildings . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Structural design of high-rise buildings
1.3 Steel-concrete composite structures . .
1.4 Project building: The Pad . . . . . . .
2 Structural analysis
2.1 Loads . . . . . . .
2.2 Model description .
2.3 ETABS settings . .
2.4 Model verification
2.5 Analysis results . .
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3 Design of steel-concrete composite walls

3.1 First- and second-order effects . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Design considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Bending moment resistance . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Axial force resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Shear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Force interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Structural steel and concrete shear connection
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1
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43
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61
4 Design of steel-concrete composite columns

5 Design of steel-concrete composite beams
5.1 Concrete slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Elastic design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Plastic design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Instability failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Steel-concrete shear connection . . . . . .
5.6 Deflection and vibration . . . . . . . . . .
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69
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6 Building performance
99
6.1 Progressive collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2 Occupant comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3 Drift limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7 Conclusion
109
A Example calculations
A.1 Design of a steel-concrete composite wall . .
A.2 Design of a steel-concrete composite column
A.3 Design of a steel-concrete composite beam .
A.4 Building performance . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
I
XVI
XXIII
XXXV
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B ETABS settings
B.1 Materials . . . . .
B.2 Sections . . . . . .
B.3 Settings . . . . . .
B.4 Model verification
C Enclosed CD-ROM
vi
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XLV
. XLV
. XLV
. XLVIII
. LII
LV
Notation
Latin upper case letters

Aa
Cross-sectional area of structural steel
Aa,v
Cross-sectional area of shear affected part of structural steel
Ac
Cross-sectional area of concrete
Aex
Cross-sectional area of concrete shear zone
Ai
Area of transformed cross-section
Anet,a
Net cross-sectional area of structural steel
As
Cross-sectional area of reinforcement bars
As,hmin Minimum cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement bars
Ea
Structural steels effective modulus of elasticity
Ea,ef f,II Structural steels effective modulus of elasticity used when calculating section forces
Ec,ef f
Concretes effective modulus of elasticity
Ecm
Concretes secant modulus of elasticity
Ecm,ef f,II Concretes effective modulus of elasticity used when calculating section
forces
Es
Reinforcements effective modulus of elasticity
Es,ef f,II Reinforcements effective modulus of elasticity used when calculating section forces
(EI)ef f Effective flexural stiffness
(EI)ef f,II Effective flexural stiffness for use in second-order analysis
Ii
Transformed moment of inertia
Iv
St. Venant torsional constant
K
Effective length factor
Ke,II
Correction factor for the effective modulus of elasticity of cracked concrete
Ko
Calibration factor for the effective modulus of elasticity
L
Effective wall or column length
M0,Ed
First-order moment
M1,Ed
Second-order moment
Mcr
Critical moment
ME
Elastic moment resistance
MEd
Design moment
Mel,Rd
Elastic moment resistance
Mmax,Rd Maximum design moment resistance
Mpl,a,Rd Design plastic bending moment resistance of structural steel
Mpl,Rd
Design plastic bending moment resistance
Mpl,Rk
Characteristic plastic bending moment resistance
Mpl,t
Plastic tension moment
MRd
Design moment resistance
Mr,R
Resonant base moment
vii
Ncr
Critical normal force
Ncr,ef f
Critical normal force calculated with (EI)ef f,II
NEd
Design axial force
NG,Ed
Design axial force caused by permanent loads
Npl,a,Rd Design value of the plastic compression resistance of structural steel
Npl,Rd
Design value of the plastic compression resistance
Npl,t
Plastic tension force
Npm,Rd Design compressive resistance of concrete
Nt,Rd
Design tension resistance
Nu,a,Rd Design ultimate resistance of structural steel member
Pe
Elastic column force
PEv
Elastic torsion force
PR
Equivalent static wind load
PRd
Design shear resistance of a single headed stud
R
Response factor
T
Centroid
Va,Ed
Design shear force on structural steel
Va,Rd
Design shear resistance of structural steel
Vb,Rd
Combined resistance to shear buckling
Vbf,Rd
Flanges resistance to shear buckling
Vbw,Rd
Web-plates resistance to shear buckling
Vc,Ed
Design shear force on concrete
Vf,Rd
Design friction shear resistance betwen structural steel and concrete
Vpl,a,Rd Design plastic shear resistance of structural steel
Vpl,Rd
Design plastic shear resistance
VRd
Design shear resistance
Vs,Rd
Design shear resistance between structural steel and concrete
Wel
Elastic section modulus
Wpl
Plastic section modulus
Ypeak
Peak acceleration
Latin lower case letters
aa
Distance from transformed sections centroid to structural steels
ac
Distance from transformed sections centroid to concretes
apeak
Maximum (peak) acceleration
ba
Width of structural steel members cross-section
bbL
Minimum diameter of longitudinal reinforcement bars within a confined
hoop
b0
Distance between two headed studs center axes
bb
Width of column perpendicular to beams span direction
be
Concrete slabs effective width
bef f
Effective width
bei
Effective width contribution on one side
bex
Width of the concrete shear zone
bc
Width of column cross-section
bf
Width of structural steel members flange
bo
Minimum dimension of the confined concrete core
bw
Width of wall cross-section
viii
c
cf
cmin
cmin,b
cmin,dur
cnom
cnom,a
cw
cy
cz
d
dg
di
do
dr
e
e0
f0
fcc
fcd
fck
fsd
fsk
fuk
fyd
fyk
gR
h0
ha
hc
hsc
hw
k1
kk
k
k
l
lcl
lcr
n
n0
nf
nL
q0
q
Considered concrete cover

Flanges uniform width
Minimum concrete cover
Concrete cover for bonding conditions
Concrete cover for environmental conditions
Nominal concrete cover of reinforcement bars
Nominal concrete cover of structural steel member
Webs uniform width
Limit of concrete shear zone in the local y-direction of a structural steel
member
Limit of concrete shear zone in the local z-direction of a structural steel
member
Diameter of headed studs shank
Concrete aggregate size
Circular cross-sections inner diameter
Circular cross-sections outer diameter
Design interstorey drift
Eccentricity
First-order eccentricity
Beams natural frequency
Reduced design compressive strength of concrete
Design compressive strength of concrete
Characteristic compressive strength of concrete
Design yield strength of reinforcement bar
Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement bar
Characteristic ultimate tensile strength of steel
Design yield strength of structural steel
Characteristic yield strength of structural steel
Resonant peak factor
Notional size representing the part of concrete exposed to drying
Height of structural steel members cross-section
Height of column cross-section
Length of headed stud
Height of wall cross-section
Factor for second-order moment
Stiffness coefficient
Buckling factor for bending
Buckling factor for shear
Length of wall or column
Clear wall or column length
Length of critical region
Necessary number of headed studs in a partial shear connection
Transformed cross-section ratio
Necessary number of headed studs in a full shear connection
Transformed cross-section ratio considering time dependent effects
Basis value of behaviour factor
Design value of behaviour factor
ix
scl,max
scl,tmax
smax
Maximum spacing of confining hoop reinforcement within the critical region

Maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement bars
Maximum spacing of longitudinal reinforcement bars or structural steel
members
smin
Minimum spacing of longitudinal reinforcement bars or structural steel
members
ta
Thickness of structural steel section
tc
Thickness of concrete slab
tf
Thickness of structural steel members flange
tw
Thickness of structural steel members web.
u
Concrete perimeter exposed to drying
vb
Basic wind velocity
w
Deflection
z
Distance from wall or columns center of gravity to shear zones center of
gravity
Greek upper case letters
cdur,add Concrete cover contribution due to additional protection
cdur, Concrete cover contribution due to added safety
cdur,st Concrete cover contribution due to the use of stainless steel
cdev
Deviation contribution to the nominal concrete cover
Sx
First moment of area
Factor used to determined

Greek lower case letters
Confinement effectiveness factor
Imperfection factor for buckling

cr
Ratio between the axial elastic instability force and the design axial force
Equivalent moment factor

c
Factor to increase Rd
c
Factor for concretes post tension compression capacity.
Steel contribution ratio

sy,d
Design value of the tension steel strain at yield
a
Factor to consider the loss of strength due to circumferential tension
c
Factor to consider the increase of concrete strength due to confinement
Relative slenderness
LT
Relative slenderness for lateral torsional buckling

w
Web-plates slenderness
Coefficient of friction
d
Moment factor
Curvature ductility factor of the critical regions
Parameter related to the reduction of moment resistance when considering

shear
Reduction factor for reduced area

bd
Buckling stress
E
Euler stress
el
Elastic stress
md
Maximum normal stress induced by bending
R
Background peak factor
el
Rd
bw,min
max
min
sw,min
LT
wd
Elastic shear stress

Design friction shear resistance
Normalised design axial force
Diameter of considered longitudinal reinforcement bar
Minimum diameter of confining hoop reinforcement
Maximum diameter of longitudinal reinforcement bar
Minimum diameter of longitudinal reinforcement bar
Minimum diameter of transverse reinforcement bar
Creep coefficient
Reduction factor for buckling
Reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling
Stress ratio
Mechanical volumetric ratio of confining hoops within the critical regions
xi
Introduction
Introduction
High-rise buildings are in many ways a feat of the structural engineers ability to fulfil
some of societies increasing demands for architecturally demanding buildings in high
density urban areas. The increasing strive to build larger, taller, more distinctive and
spacious buildings, demands that the structural engineer does not limit the architects
vision of creating an iconic building.
The modern structural engineer is therefore required to apply highly technical solutions to accommodate the clients requirements. Having fewer and smaller columns and
walls, longer and wider beam and slab spans require structural elements with larger
stiffness.
A high-rise building which, because of its configuration, require the application of
steel-concrete composite structural elements is considered. The high-rise building to be
considered for analysis and design is described in Section 1.4. The structural analysis of
the project building is described in Section 2. The design procedures for the satisfactory
design is described in Section 3 to 6 and shown by design examples in Appendix A.
In the following the evolution high-rise buildings and the thoughts that should be
put into the design for them is briefly described. The application and evolution of steelconcrete composite structures are considered and the prerequisites for the analysis and
design of the project building are described. General references to the following are
Smith and Coull (1991), Eisele and Kloft (1999) and Taranath (2010, 2011).
1.1
High-rise buildings
Since the dawn of man the attempt to reach for the sky has been a fundamental
idealism. In ancient times the construction of tall buildings and structures was seen
as a strive to reach for the gods. The reasons for our modern society to build tall
buildings and structures are however more simplistic. Creating buildings with a large
capacity on a small footprint to supply housing or workspace in high density urban
environments was the original reason for increasing building volume vertically, instead
of horizontally. This is obviously still and advantageous characteristic, specially as it is
expected that 70% of the worlds population will reside in urban areas by 2018. Most
recently the creation of extravagant and iconic buildings or structures has been the
mist significant reason to build taller. The reasoning has thus shifted from a simplistic
need for more building volume to demonstrate power and economic success through
extravagant buildings.
The classification of a building as a high-rise building is not a clear science as several
factors come into play. One can not classify a building as a high-rise building only by
the its height or the number of stories. The buildings perception of the general public
must be considered. By this a 5 storey building in ancient Rome was at that time a
high-rise building, in the same way that the 88 storey Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur
is today. A high-rise building is from a structural engineers point of view classified as
a building where lateral loads, such as wind and earthquake, are important, and most
often dominating, factors in the structural design.
The first high-rise buildings were built to satisfy a formal need. An increase in
land prices and population density in Chicago in the 1880s made it more beneficial to
have buildings rise vertically instead of spreading horizontally. This was however first
possible after the invention of the electric elevator by W. v. Siemens in 1880. Until
then elevators, though invented by E. Otis in 1853, had only supported construction of
1.2
Structural design of high-rise buildings
buildings up to around five stories and were driven by steam.

The first building entitled the tallest building in the world was the Masonic Temple
(c. 1892) in Chicago. This commercial building rose nearly 100m with 21 stories and
held the title as the worlds tallest for two years. Subsequently this title has been held
by many well known buildings such as Empire State Building (c. 1931), World Trade
Center (c. 1972), Willis Tower (formerly know as Sears Tower) (c. 1974), Petronas
Towers (c. 1998), Taipei 101 (c. 2004) and Burj Khalifa (c. 2010). Here the latter is
currently the tallest building in the world with a height of 830m. In the first decade
of the 21st century the frequency of one building surpassing each other to claim the
title as the worlds tallest has increased. The three latter from above have all held
the title within the first decade of the 21st century. Comparing with the Empire State
Building which held the title for more than 4 decades. Current expectations are that the
Nakheel Tower in Dubai will claim the title as the worlds tallest building by 2018 being
in the range of 1000m tall. This ongoing strive to build taller and taller is owed to the
ongoing evolution within high-rise structural systems. It is expected that structural
systems with super frames and outriggers will reach the heights of 1 kilometre and
beyond. These and other structural systems are further discussed in the following.
1.2
Design of high-rise buildings differ from lower buildings because of the larger effect
lateral loads have with increasing height. The lateral force resisting system therefore
becomes the limiting factor as gravitational systems are considerably easier to configure
for the increasing loading with increasing height. Figure 1.1 show the effects on gravity, base moment and deflection by doubling a buildings height. For gravity control
a relation proportional to h, the building height, is seen. This is obvious as doubling
the building will also double the resulting mass. The relation between building height
and base moment is however h2 . This increases the tension and compression requirements for the buildings lateral force resisting system. This is similar for deflection
control, where a relation of h4 is seen. The relation to drift is thus h3 as this is height
dependent. This evidently shows that the structural engineer will most often have to
design the building with regard to its deflections and drift, rather than the capacity
of the structural elements. This relates the design of the lateral force resisting system
of high-rise buildings to be controlled by serviceability limit state requirements, rather
than ultimate limit state requirements which is normally the case for lower buildings.
High-rise buildings are rarely designed with uniform stiffness, as the requirements
for open spaces within a building and at its ground floor will lower the stiffness at these
locations. Stories with lower stiffness is termed soft storeys and are generally considered
as such if they only have a stiffness equivalent to 80% of the adjacent stories. Failure
modes most common in buildings with soft storeys are related to exceedance of a soft
stories shear capacity. Failure will thus occur by shear collapse of the lateral force
resisting elements or excessive shear deformation. Failure modes related to bending is
overturn of the building, failure of tension or compression elements or excessive deformation or drift. The limitation of excessive deformations and drift in high-rise buildings
is not only a comfortability criteria. With deformation and large gravitational loads
second order effects occur. As shown in Figure 1.1c these effects may have extensive
consequences in high-rise buildings and be of no or minor concern in low-rise buildings.
Since construction of high-rise buildings started in the late 19th century a race
to build the tallest building was initiated. This race primarily took place in North
2
(a) Gravity control.
(b) Base moment control.
Introduction
(c) Deflection control.
Figure 1.1: Building design impacts for high-rise buildings. Effects on gravity, base
moment and deflection for doubling the building height.
America, starting in Chicago, but ending in New York. The height race culminated
in 1931 with the completion of the Empire State Building at a height of 443m. This
increase in structural height was however not owed to an evolution of structural systems
and technology, but rather a more efficient development of the well established braced
steel frame. The first high-rise buildings were constructed by the most well know
structural material and system at that time; heavy external masonry walls. At the
base these let little room for spacious faades and were commonly seen as more than
2m in depth. This quickly led to the development of frame systems. Wrought iron
was the material of choice, but it was quickly replaced with steel, as this became the
new industry standard in the beginning of the 1900s. Rigid steel frames and steel
frames with bracing for lateral loads, became the structural system used for all highrise buildings at this time. As the application of analytical methods in the 1920s were
limited, many of that eras high-rise buildings are today found to be highly uneconomical
and over dimensioned.
After the completion of the Empire State Building in 1931, development and construction of high-rise buildings stood still for nearly 40 years. During World War II
and its aftermath the world economy was challenged and the construction of high-rise
buildings ceased. The new era of high-rise buildings began with the completion of the
World Trade Center in 1972. This new ongoing era is characterised by the advancement
and development of both new and existing structural systems. Through the 1950s rigid
and braced frames were replaced with in-filled frames to accommodate the increasing
need for lateral stiffness. During the 1960s in-filled frames were successively replaced
by shear walls and combined with frame structures. This led the way of combining
multiple structural systems with the focus of letting lateral loads be distributed by
the system most appropriate for this. E.g. an interior core structure of shear walls
placed near the buildings center and a hinged steel frame structure at the buildings
perimeter. In this configuration the core structure will distribute the large majority of
lateral loads and the hinged steel frame structure will be virtually unaffected by lateral
loads and only distribute gravity loads.
As mentioned in the preceding, high-rise structural systems are often considered
either as gravitational or lateral force resisting systems. Gravitational systems here
consider flooring systems, and systems that transfer gravitational loads to the buildings vertical structural elements, i.e. transfer structures. Kahn (1973) proposed a
1.2
classification system of high-rise structural systems for steel and concrete buildings. At
the time of its development it was in keep with the buildings constructed, but nowadays high-rise structural systems are mixed in a variety of ways that cannot always
have a clear classification as a steel or concrete building. In modern high-rise buildings
it may be more suitable to classify high-rise structural systems by the system that
distributes the lateral loading on the building. This leads to the categories of interior
structures and exterior structures as proposed by Ali and Moon (2007). A structural
system categorised with interior structures has its primary lateral load resisting system located within the interior of the building. A system categorised with exterior
structures thus has its primary lateral load resisting system located near the building
perimeter. A shear wall-hinged frame structure is hereby classified as a building with
interior structures. Here the shear walls will resist all lateral force and the hinged frame
will transfer gravitational loading only. The terms interior and exterior structures are
further described in the following Sections 1.2.1 and 1.2.2, respectively.
1.2.1
Interior structural systems
As mentioned above a building may be categorised with interior structures, if the

primary lateral load resisting structural system is located within the interior of the
building. Figure 1.2 shows some of the structural systems encompassed by this category
and the height of which they can be practically applied (from Ali and Moon, 2007).
The practical application implies to which approximate storey the structural system
is economically advantageous in relation to the next structural system shown in the
figure.
Figure 1.2: Interior structures (from Ali and Moon, 2007).

The two basic lateral load resisting systems that are defined for interior structures
are rigid frames and shear wall or truss structures. Moment resisting frames and braced
frames were the structural system of choice for many high-rise buildings up to the
middle of the last century. The lateral resistance of braced hinged frames is obtained
by the bracing, which creates a wall like behaviour of tension and compression struts in
4
Introduction
the frame bays. Moment resisting frames obtain their lateral stiffness by the bending
stiffness of the frame elements, particularly the beams. Increasing the structural depth
of a beam will thus increase the buildings resistance to lateral loading.
One of the most popular internal structures to resist lateral loads is the shear
wall. Shear walls of reinforced concrete has won their popularity amongst the worlds
high-rise designers because they efficiently satisfy several design criteria. The apparent
advantage is the high level of lateral stiffness, that shear walls offer. By this shear walls
may efficiently be combined with hinged frames, creating a system with separated
lateral and gravitational force efficient systems. Combining shear wall systems with
MRF of steel or concrete thus increases the buildings lateral stiffness and thereby
its potential height. With the wall-frame structural system the shear walls are often
configured in a cores structure near the buildings centre and the frame structure at
the buildings perimeter. When a wall-frame system is laterally loaded the walls will
deform in a flexural mode and the frame will in a shear mode. The flexural deformation
mode is however governing for the combined systems deformation. As the shear wall
core structure at the buildings centre will serve as passage ways for transportation
and installations within the building, its walls can rarely be made solid. Two parallel
vertical walls connected with spandrel beams then form coupled shear walls. These
coupled connections are of great importance in the design of core structures as their
effectiveness will have large results on the lateral stiffness of the building. The sum
of the stiffness of two uncoupled shear walls is thereby smaller than the sum of two
coupled shear walls.
An outrigger structure is shown as the absolutely most effective interior structural
systems. The structural system is based on a core structure, shear wall or truss, connected by truss outriggers to exterior columns, a core-outrigger system. The outrigger
may be several stories high and is sought to be as stiff as possible. It is therefore
often placed in conjunction with service levels, as levels with an outrigger structure
can not facilitate a buildings function. An outrigger structure can be compared to
the structure of a mast on a ship. The tall slender mast is affected by large bending
moments, but is connected to booms which are then tied down to the ship. The mast
is thereby equivalent to the core, the boom to the outrigger and the tie-downs to the
faade columns. The outrigger structures function is thus to reduce the bending moment in the core structure by transferring the moment to the faade columns. By this
steel columns are most advantageous for tension states and concrete for compression,
whereas steel-concrete composite columns may be applied. The moment distribution
in the core will thus increase as moving from the top of the building towards the base,
but will at the location of an outrigger experience a transfer, and thus reduction, in
bending moment. The perimeter columns thus participate in resisting lateral loads.
This type of structural system is seen applied in super tall buildings as Taipei 101 and
Burj Khalifa. The latter has outrigger wall-structures per 30th story in conjunction
with service levels.
1.2.2
Exterior structural systems
As mentioned in the preceding a building may be categorised as having an exterior

structure, if the primary lateral load resisting system is located at the perimeter of
the buildings enclosure. This type of structural system is more in tune with what
laid the foundation for the first high-rise buildings, than interior structures are. The
first high-rise buildings were build by frame structures. These resisted lateral loading
1.2
primarily by tension compression force couples in the exterior columns at opposites of

the building. These buildings thus relied greatly on their structural depth.
A further development of this structural system was introduced in the 1960s where
framed tubes lead the way for some of the worlds tallest buildings, such as the World
Trade Center and Willis Tower. The overall functioning of a tube structure may be
viewed upon as having the columns at the surfaces perpendicular to the lateral load,
hence windward and leeward sides for wind, act as flanges and the columns at the
surfaces in line with the lateral load act as webs. The key is thus the spatial functioning
of the connected planar frame systems. Tube structures are easily recognized as the
columns at the buildings faade are placed with an individual distance of approximately
1.5m to 4.5m. Two general types of tubes exist, the framed and the braced tube. As
per their names the framed tube consist of MRFs and the braced tube of hinged frames
with diagonal bracing. Tube structures may be configured in various ways, instead of
just having one tube pass through the entire height of the building. The bundled tube
concept is to create several smaller tubes next to each other, creating a large tubular
system at the ground level. Along the buildings height some of these smaller tubes
are normally discontinued, thus making the structure more slender towards its top. A
similar system is the tube-in-tube system. Here a core structure, which may be shear
walls or a frame system, is located at the buildings centre and an exterior tube of
columns is at the buildings perimeter. Tube structures are thus applicable for both
concrete and steel construction. Steel is however the preferred material for the tubes
themselves, as their lower weight is advantageous for the buildings dynamic properties.
It is however also possible to create dual or hybrid systems, where e.g. a concrete core
is constructed from the buildings base and then terminated and replaced by a steel
framed core structure to the buildings top.
Figure 1.3: Exterior structures (from Ali and Moon, 2007).

Braced tubes may be altered by adding large diagonal elements, thus creating space
truss systems. These diagonal elements, which may extend across several stories, are
placed both parallel to the faades and through the interior of the building. The super
6
Introduction
frame system consists of exterior columns of great dimensions and capacities. They are
often designed as steel-concrete elements to increase stiffness. They apply the concept
of outrigger structures described in the previous section, and thus form a large scale
column interaction system. Buildings like these are often referred to as having mega
columns and mega structures, due to the column diameter sometimes being several
meters. The space truss and super frame systems both offer very spacious buildings, as
the primary loads are efficiently resisted in large structural elements. This leaves room
for lighter faades and fewer interior columns.
1.3
Steel-concrete composite structures
Steel-concrete composite structures were first seen applied in bridge construction in

the 1890s. The composite structural element developed was a steel arch beam encased
in concrete. The engineer stated that the two materials worked together, though no
apparent connection between the two materials were made. This was improved upon
in 1903 where mechanical shear connectors, alike those used today, were introduced.
After this first application, steel-concrete composite beams were widely applied in both
bridge and building structures for slab and flooring systems. The first record of codified
design procedures for beams of concrete encased structural steel members were in the
1930 New York City Building Code. This code was however only based on the recorded
practice and not backed up by experiments to failure. The design rules therefore only
utilised the composite structural elements to a limited degree and the results were thus
rather uneconomical.
Up until the 1960s high-rise buildings were thought of as having either steel or
concrete structural systems. Composite elements were then applied primarily for floor
systems in steel buildings. Nowadays most high-rise structures are designed with concrete or composite elements in their lateral load resisting system.
The above mentioned high-rise building Taipei 101, utilises some of the most innovative structural methods. Its lateral load resisting structure is an exterior super frame
system continuing up to the 62nd floor, connected to an interior core structure by outriggers at every eighth floor. The core is a hybrid structure composed of shear walls at
the first 7 stories and then continued as a braced steel frame to the buildings top. This
has lead to a building with an interior space efficiency of 72%, which is considerably
more than the world average of about 66% for high-rise buildings. The average extra
floor area is thus more than 120m2 on all stories. Steel-concrete composite elements
are used extensively in Taipei 101. The 8 mega columns in the super frame are 2.4m by
3m reinforced concrete in-filled steel sections with an 80mm wall thickness. The floor
systems are reinforced concrete decks cast on steel sheeting supported in composite
interaction by structural steel beams.
The gravitational elements to consider as steel-concrete composites are thus generally flooring systems. Due to the efficient distribution of compression stresses to the
concrete deck and tension to the structural steel member, a composite flooring system
may lower the ceiling height and thus make room for more stories in the finished building. Composite elements advantage in lateral force resisting systems are their larger
stiffness and higher tensile strength, compared to reinforced concrete columns. They
are, as explained above, therefore often applicable in perimeter columns, especially if
these interact with an interior core structure by outriggers. The increase of stiffness
thus leads to more slender structural elements, which is desirable from many architectural aspects. A building supported by a core structure alone will often experience
1.4
Project building: The Pad
some degree of tension in the core walls, as they deflect upon lateral loading. A general
design criterion for such structures is to ensure sufficient gravitational loads, so that the
tensile loads are oppressed. This is however not always possible. Instead the tension
must be resisted by the concretes reinforcement or the tension capacity of a composite
structural steel member. The general application of steel-concrete structural elements
is thus where both the concrete and the structural steels advantages of compression
and tension resistance may be utilised to an economically sound degree.
1.4
In the following the high-rise building considered for analysis in Section 2 and design
in Appendix A, is described. The building considered is The Pad which is located in
Dubai Central Business District of Business Bay, United Arab Emirates. The building
is a 27 storey high-rise building with a height from terrain to the top of the roof of
99m. The building is designed by James Law Cybertecture and is at the time of its
completion to be the most technologically advanced building in the world. Designed
for residential use the occupants will in each apartment be equipped with integrated
technologies that can ease their everyday lives and enable them to live the future.
The architect describes the building by the futuristic tower is an interactive, intelligent
structure that pushes the boundaries of architectural design and revolutionizes the way
people interact with their surroundings. Figure 1.4 show the artists impression of the
buildings exterior. Its futuristic appearance is undeniable and it visual impact is
expected to impress the people who pass by. Although the building is for occupational
use the two bottom stories, named the podium and mezzanine levels, and the stories
from 21A to 22B, see Figure 1.5, are considered to be relevant as common areas for
larger gatherings of people.
Figure 1.4: Artists impression of The Pad in Dubai, UAE (by James Law Cybertecture).
The buildings plan measures approximately 45m by 16m, where the latter is based
on a mean storey width. The storey height distribution is comprised of 1 level of 7.6m,
8
Introduction
1 level of 4m, 24 levels of 3.5m and 3.4m from the roof to the top of the roof, from the
base towards the top.
1.4.1
Structural systems overview
As it is noticeable on the figures, the building tilts with an approximately 7 angle to the
horizontal plan. By the architectural drawings made available the buildings structural
system is presupposed as vertical concrete shear walls in a core configuration. The
tilting elements are additional concrete shear walls and a concrete moment resisting
frame. Figure 1.5 shows a typical floor plan and the buildings elevation in the y-z
plane. The structural systems relevant for a building of this height is from Figure 1.2
seen to be the rigid frames of steel or concrete. This is however not considering the
tilting configuration of the frame structure, whereas it is reasonable to add the vertical
core as lateral support for this.
(a) Typical floor plan.
(b) Elevation.
Figure 1.5: Building floor plan (20th floor) and elevation. [1] Steel-concrete composite
section of core structure. [2] Circular steel-concrete composite column. [3] Reinforced
concrete shear wall. [4] Steel-concrete composite floor system. [5] Reinforced concrete
moment resistant frame with solid slab.
1.4
The structural system considered for analysis in Section 2 is comprised of what is

shown in Figure 1.5. Only the buildings superstructure is thus considered and analysed
with no consideration of the substructure and earth-structure interaction.
The floors on all levels are made of solid concrete slabs supported by the shear walls
and the moment resisting frame, between grids 3 to 10. Due to the more arbitrary floor
shape between grids 1 to 3 and 10 to 12 it is chosen to use a steel-concrete composite
flooring system, [4] in Figure 1.5a. This is intended to reduce loads from self weight
and thus result in a better span-structural depth relation, than a concrete beam system
would.
The two circular columns supporting this composite floor system ([2]) is also chosen
to be steel-concrete composite elements. These columns are expected to be affected
by rather significant section forces due to their excluded location at the buildings
perimeter. For architectural reasons a maximum diameter of 1m is required for these
columns, whereas the increased stiffness of a concrete in-filled circular steel section is
an apparent advantage.
Because of the buildings tilting configuration permanent eccentricities are unavoidable. The buildings frame system thereby lean against the vertical core structure,
whereas the core is affected by lateral forces even in situations considering self weight
only. The wall section denoted by [1] in Figure 1.5 is expected to be the wall section
most affected by this. The expected constant tension state of this wall section is thus
a considerable reason to incorporate composite structural steel members.
The design procedures for a steel-concrete composite shear wall ([1]), column ([2])
and floor system ([4]) are described in Sections 3, 4 and 5, respectively. Example
calculations are shown for the wall section marked in Figure 1.5 and a column between
the ground floor and the podium in Appendices A.1 and A.2, respectively. The design
of the steel-concrete composite beam spanning between the composite columns as a
part of the floor system is shown as an example calculation in Appendix A.3. The
design is based on the analysis results obtained in Section 2.
The basis of design is the Eurocode standardisation system. From this the codes
listed below are applied within their general areas.
EN 1990
Definition of loads and relevant combinations of these to be considered in the design.
EN 1991
Assessment of specific loads as wind, thermal and accidental.
EN 1994
Design of steel-concrete composite structures. Further reference is
also made to EN 1992 and EN 1993.
EN 1998
Assessment of seismic loading and structural design.
10
Structural analysis
Structural analysis
This section considers the relevant topics for the structural analysis of the considered
building described in Section 1.4. Therein the buildings form and structural systems
are described. In the following, Section 2.1 describes the relevant loads acting on the
building. This includes seismic loads and wind loads defined both on the basis of Eurocode and results obtained in wind tunnel tests. The buildings structural system
is modelled in the commercial analysis and design software ETABS, see below. The
building is modelled as described in Section 2.2 and analysed for the loads and combinations of these as described in Section 2.1.5. To ensure a realistic representation of
the building and its behaviour the created model is verified in Section 2.4. The results
obtained in the analysis relevant for the design examples in Appendix A are presented
in Section 2.5.
For several years ETABS has been recognized as one of the industrys leading analysis and design softwares. Utilizing a three dimensional virtual modelling environment
and state-of-the-art numerical algorithms, ETABS is capable of performing both linear
and non-linear analyses and consider the effects of sequential construction. Loads may
be applied manually, e.g. live and superimposed dead loads, but earthquake loads with
static, dynamic and time history characteristics are easily included in the analysis and
applied in accordance with the standardisation code of choice. Wind loads may be
added in a similar manner. ETABS include several domestic and international loading and design codes such as Indian standards of ISI, American standards of IBC and
European standards of Eurocode, to name a few. General references to the following
sections concerning ETABS is the ETABS User Manual and Atkins (2007).
ETABS is produced by the company Computer and Structures, Inc. (CSI), based
out of University of California, Berkeley, USA. ETABS is a part of an engineering software package including well known programs such as SAP2000 and SAFE, developed
by this company since 1975. These well established products have entailed the application of CSIs software on many large building projects worldwide. One of the recent
being the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, UAE, where ETABS was utilized in the analyses of
the structure. This analysis comprised a full 3D model of the 830 meter tall high-rise
building, considering P effects and having wind and earthquake loading applied
by ETABS.
2.1
Loads
Within this section the basis of the loads relevant for the design of the considered
building is described. Their definition and application for the structural analysis in
ETABS is described in Section 2.3.1. The subsections herein each consider gravitational
loads, lateral loads and thermal effects. Material dependent effects as creep, shrinkage
and cracking of concrete elements are considered in the settings for the structural
analysis of the building, see Section 2.3, as are the settings relevant for loads defined in
ETABS also described in therein. The following culminates with the definition of the
ultimate and serviceability limit states load combinations that are applied.
The building is encompassed by design working life category 1, corrosponding to
a design working life of 50 years (clause 2.3, EN 1990). The ultimate limit state shall
ensure the safety and integrity of the building, whereas loading for case STR applies.
The serviceability limit state is to ensure a satisfactory functioning of the building and
structural elements, for frequently occurring events and during normal everyday use.
11
2.1
Loads
2.1.1
Gravity loads
Gravitational actions are considered within two categories, live and dead loads. The
general definition of live loads shall be all imposed loads and the dead load of all
potentially varying actions. Dead loads are thus all loads not assumed to vary, hence
self weight of all building components and similar. Dead loads, including superimposed
dead loads, are termed D when included in load combinations. Live loads, including
live loads from mechanical installations, are termed L. When mechanical live loads are
considered secluded they are termed LM .
2.1.1.1
Live loads
By the above definition of live loads, two types are defined; live loads due to occupants
and usage purposes L, and mechanical live loads from service installations LM . Table
2.1 below shows the relevant live loads according to the relevant usage category of
EN 1990. This includes the nominal contribution qk and a contribution to consider
moveable partitions qmp,k , both represented by uniform surface loads. A concentrated
load of Qk is also to be considered, and may for failure regarding punching shear be
distributed over a rectangular area of 2500mm2 .
Table 2.1: Live loads on each level of the building.
Level
0
1
2
3 to 21
22
23
24
25
26
27
All
[1] :
[2] :
Floor name
Usage
Loading
qk + qmp,k
Qk
2
[kN/m ] [kN ]
Description
Category
Ground floor
Podium
Mezzanine
1st to 20th floor[1]
21a
21b
22a
22b
Roof
Top of roof
Public area
Common area
Common area
Residential
Common area
Common area
Common area
Common area
Service and mantinance
Service and maintenance
C3
C5
C5
A
C5
C5
C5
C5
H
H
5.0+0.0
5.0+0.0
5.0+0.0
2.0+1.2
5.0+0.0
5.0+0.0
5.0+0.0
5.0+0.0
0.4+0.0
0.4+0.0
4.0
4.5
4.5
2.0
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
1.0
1.0
All
Staircases
C5
5.0+0.0
4.5
13th
floor is excluded
Assumed values
When a storey has three or more stories of the the same usage category above
it, the uniformly distributed loading qk and qmp,k may be reduced due to probabilistic
considerations of loads in multi storey buildings. This reduction is valid only when considering vertical structural members as walls and columns, and for the global structural
analysis of the building. Slabs must locally still be designed to resist the largest possible
individual loading. The live load reduction factor n is defined as (EN 1991-1-1, clause
6.3.1.2(11))
2 + (n 2)0
(2.1)
n =
n
12
where
n
0
Structural analysis
is the number of stories with similar loading above the considered story and
is equal to 0.7 (EN 1990, table A1.1).
By applying the reduction factor to the uniformly distributed loads qk + qmp,k the
loading is reduced on the affected stories, see Table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2: Live load reduction factor applied to qk + qmp,k due to similar loading on
multiple stories.
Level
1 and 2
3 to 21
22
All
Floor name
Podium and Mezzanine
1st to 20th floor
21a
All
Description
Live load
reduction factor
n []
Common area
Residential
Common area
Staircases
0.82 and 0.85

0.90 to 0.73
0.90
0.90 to 0.72
Usage
In designated areas within the core structure a live load of 6kN/m2 is added to
represent the MEP service installations. A larger area on the roof slab is also applied
with the same load representing ventilation aggregates, cooling platforms and similar.
2.1.1.2
Dead loads
As mentioned in the preceding the self weight of the building is defined as a dead load
D. The structural systems self weight is automatically calculated in ETABS before
the analysis. By this all materials defined in ETABS are associated with a density
equivalent to those shown in Table 2.8. By this the concrete density is that of reinforced
concrete, as the weight of the reinforcement is included herein. The remainder loading
of the buildings non-structural elements, such as flooring and the faade, is categorized
as superimposed dead loads and described in the following.
2.1.1.2.1
Superimposed dead loads
The superimposed dead loads added to the structure are assumed loads based on the
best conservative guess in compliance with Annex A in EN 1991-1-1. Superimposed
dead loads are represented in load combinations by D. On all stories with usage
category A, C3 or C5 an additional load representing hard wood flooring and a lowered
ceiling with installations is added, total 1.05kN/m2 . The roof at level 26 is only assigned
the weight of the lowered ceiling and installations, 0.7kN/m2 . The faade is a curtain
wall with 19mm thick glass panes. The weight of the curtain wall, including fixings,
is 0.6kN/m2 . This load affects the storey above the glass pane, presuming that the
faade is top hung at all levels. The stairs are installed between the sheer walls away
from the core and are assumed to be made of concrete with a self weight of 4.0kN/m2 .
The buildings superimposed dead loads are listed in Table 2.3.
2.1.2
Wind loads
The wind loading on the building is considered by applying equivalently static wind
loads in accordance with EN 1991-1-4 and force components obtained from wind tunnel
13
2.1
Loads
Table 2.3: Superimposed dead loads on the building.
Level
0
1
2
3 to 25
26
27
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.00
0.00
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.0
qF acad,k
qStair,k
qInst,k
[kN/m2 ]
Floor name
Ground floor
Podium
Mezzanine
1st to 22b
Roof
Top of roof
qCeil,k
qF loor,k
Loading
[kN/m]
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
0.0
0.0
4.6
2.4
2.1
2.1
2.0
testing of the building by Windtech (2008).

The wind speeds applied both when calculating the Eurocode wind loads and the
wind tunnel loads, correspond to measured wind speed at the Dubai International Airport at a height of 10m above ground. With a wind velocity shape profile applied, this
wind speed is corrected according to the relative height. This shape profile corresponds
to that of a regular atmospheric wind. In the area of the Persian Gulf, extreme winds
with a velocity shape profile different from those applied by Eurocode and in the wind
tunnel tests, occur on seasonal occasions. These winds, called Shamal winds, has a
peak velocity at a height around 300m. The velocity profile of a Shamal wind up to
this point however resemble, and is in some places surpassed by, the velocity profile
applied by Eurocode and in the wind tunnel tests. As the considered building has a
height of 100m, it is far from the Shamal winds maximum velocity at 300m height. It
is therefore not necessary to consider these extreme wind conditions for this particular
building.
2.1.2.1
Eurocode wind loads
Wind load in accordance with EN 1991-1-4 is represented by corresponding load actions

applied to the extent of the superstructures floor diaphragms. Two wind directions are
considered along the buildings main axes. The following considers the input parameters
to ETABS for this type of loading.
The mean gust wind speed for a 3 second average and 50 year return period is
VG = 39.3m/s in Dubai (Holmes, 2001). To comply with the procedures of EN 1991-1-4
this wind speed must be reduced to a 10 minute average mean wind speed with a 50
year return period. As described by Simiu and Scanlan (1978) this can be done by
applying a conversion factor of 1.43, hence the fundamental value of the basic wind
speed in Dubai is
39.3
m
VG
=
= 27.5
(2.2)
vb,0 =
b
1.43
s
where
b
is the ratio between 10 minute average basic wind speed and the related
3 second average gust wind speed with a 50 year return period (from
Simiu and Scanlan, 1978).
Winds from north-west to north-east directions crosses the most building-dense
14
Structural analysis
area of Dubai and could argumentatively be comprised by terrain category IV. Within
a foreseeable future, the remaining wind directions will most likely fall within the scope
of terrain category IV as well, but are for now defined by terrain category III. The buildings location at the outskirts of downtown Dubai thereby relates it to terrain category
III, regardless of the wind direction, in accordance with annex A.1 in EN 1991-1-4.
By this the roughness length and minimum height is z0 = 0.3m and zmin = 5m, respectively (EN 1991-1-4, table 4.1). Due to the flat terrain in the surrounding area no
additional effects due to orography are considered. The orography factor is thus taken
as co = 1.0.
The wind pressure coefficients ce , related to the windward and leeward sides of the
building are determined from table 7.1 in EN 1991-1-4. For wind along the x-direction
Wy , the buildings height to depth ratio is 99m/60m = 1.7 which defines the pressure
coefficients as 0.8 and 0.6 for the windward and leeward sides, respectively. The value
applied is that of cpe,10 as the global wind effects on the building are considered. Similarly in the y-direction Wy , 99m/20m = 5.0 whereas ce is 0.8 and 0.7 for the windward
and leeward sides, respectively. The turbulence factor is taken as its recommended
value kl = 1.0 as defined in EN 1991-1-4, clause 4.4(1).
The structural factor cs cd that takes into account the effect on wind actions from
the non-simultaneous occurrence of peak wind pressures on the buildings surface cs ,
together with the effect of the vibrations of the structure due to turbulence cd , is determined from annex D of EN 1991-1-4. This is done with the assumptions that the
structures logarithmic damping decrement at maximum is s = 0.1, the aerodynamic
logarithmic damping decrement is a = 0.0 and that the buildings extremity can be
assumed reasonably rectangular in shape. Presupposing these assumptions the structural factor is read from figure D.2 in EN 1991-1-4 to 0.85 and 0.93 for the x- and
y-direction, respectively.
2.1.2.2
Wind tunnel test loads
The Eurocode standardization system concerns generalized cases of wind loads on buildings. The methods of applying accurate values from Eurocode to a building with advanced architecture are therefore very limited. The correct representation of the terrain
and surroundings is inherently impossible to fully incorporate for wind loads assessed
by any codification system. Wind tunnel testing for wind load assessments is therefore important for all buildings that fall without the generalized proportions of the
applied code. Wind loads calculated by code will most often give very conservative
approximations. Wind loads obtained by wind tunnel tests resemble the unique wind
loading of the considered building and may very often result in the most economically
optimised design of the buildings structural and faade systems. The effects of wind
fluctuations and turbulence on a building is somewhat poorly represented by codified
wind loads. When considering accelerations and a buildings dynamic behaviour when
affected by wind, codes may often lead to un-conservative estimations. By this the
occupants perception of motion may be at risk. These effects are better covered by
wind tunnel tests, as special wind effects causing increased acceleration of a building
are represented better. The acceleration of a building and the comfort of its occupants
is further discussed in Section 6.2.
The set up of the wind tunnel test performed for the considered building is seen in
Figure 2.1. The building and those surrounding it are modelled in a 1 : 300 scale and
placed on a turntable inside of a 2.6m wide test section. The test model resemble that
15
2.1
Loads
of the proposed building with a tolerance of 1m.
Figure 2.1: Model (1:300) used in the wind tunnel tests (from Windtech (2008)).
The model used is a high frequency base balance model which is sensitive to forces
and moments in three main directions. The code of standard applied for the test
is BS6399-2. Annex D.3(1) of EN 1990 and clause 1.5(1) of EN 1991-1-4 does not
prescribe any specific requirements to wind tunnel testing, whereas the data from
Windtech (2008) is applicable in accordance with Eurocode.
The test report lists a total of 16 load combinations for wind from different angles
to the building. These are denoted WT 1 to WT 2 . They give the mean and dynamic
factors mean and dynamic , respectively, for the moment about the x- and y-axis, and a
factor for the moment about the z-axis z . With the reference point load distribution
described for each story of the building, two directional forces Px and Py , and the
moment Mz can be defined acting at the aerodynamic center of the building. The
forces represent a wind with a 50 year return period.
Px = y,mean Fy,mean + y,dynamic Fy,dynamic
(2.3a)
Py = x,mean Fx,mean + x,dynamic Fx,dynamic
(2.3b)
Mz = z mz
(2.3c)
As an example the forces Px = 0.71 9 + 0.82 45 = 43kN , Py = 0.62 88 + 0 136 =

55kN and Mz = 1.00 2733 = 2733kN m are added on level 19 for load combination 1
(see table 6 and 7 in Windtech (2008) and Figure B.6).
2.1.3
Seismic loads
The seismic loads on the building are represented by static horizontal loads, in accordance with EN 1998-1. Both static Estat , and dynamic Edyn , representations are
considered. The latter is calculated by the design response spectrum, with the incorporation of the necessary number of vibration building modes. The input and considerations relevant for the earthquake analysis preformed in ETABS are discussed herein.
16
Structural analysis
As the considered building is an ordinary residential building, it is resided to importance class II and the importance factor is therefore I = 1.0 (table 4.3 EN 1998-1).
As the building has both reinforced concrete and steel-concrete composite walls, a rigid
concrete frame and composite columns to dissipate energy, it is assumed adequate to
design the building for the medium ductility class (DCM). The building is according
to EN 1998-1 clause 5.2.2.1(1)P and 7.3.1(1)P classified as having a dual system with
type 2 steel-concrete composite walls. This entails a system dual with a wall-frame
dissipative system, where the composite walls have encased structural steel members.
The steel-concrete composite wall treated for design by Section 3 in Appendix A.1 is
considered to have a dissipative structural behaviour with composite dissipative zones
(concept b according to clause 7.1.2(1)P in EN 1998-1). The buildings core structure,
shear walls and frame structure is thereby considered as the primary seismic members of
the buildings structural system. Should any structural members be considered as nondissipative secondary seismic members, they need not be designed in accordance with
th requirements of EN 1998-1 (as per clause 4.2.2(1)P). They must however surely be
able to withstand the seismic loads affecting the building obtained by a global analysis.
Dubais location at the coast of the Persian Golf places it approximately 250km away
from the Iranian shore line. Due to the buildings location away from hills and near
the shore of a gulf with a relative low water level (average depth of 50m), earthquake
consequences such as volcanic eruptions, landslides and tsunamis can be discounted.
The earthquakes relevant for building design in Dubai most often occur in Iran where
the Arabian and Eurasian plates meet, and form the Zagros mountains. The seismic
activity at this strike-slip fault creates earthquakes with epic centres located near the
southern Iranian shore line or in the Persian Gulf. Different studies have been carried
out to asses the providence of earthquakes in Dubai. Sigbjornsson and Elnashai (2006)
gathered various studies and further estimated relevant earthquake impacts, to provide
a thorough seismic hazard assessment for Dubai. This provides a maximum peak ground
acceleration in Dubai of agR,N CR = 0.16g with a mean return period of TR = 475years
(PR = 10% probability of exceedance in TL = 50years) as recommended in EN 1998-1,
clause 2.1(1)P for the no-collapse requirement (NCR). According to this the mean
return period and its probability of exceedence in 50years is termed TN CR and PN CR ,
respectively.
EN 1998-1s requirements for damage limitation prescribes a structural analysis
with a seismic action different from the one used for the no-collapse requirement. The
mean return period of the damage limitation requirement (DLR) is TDLR = 95years
(10% exceedance probability in 10years) which yields a peak ground acceleration considerably lower than the one for the no-collapse requirement. It is generally recommended to apply a peak ground acceleration for the damage limitation requirement of
no less than = 50% of the peak ground acceleration used for the no-collapse requirement, for buildings in importance class I (Fardis et al., 2005, chapter 2.1). The peak
ground acceleration for the no-collapse requirement may be adjusted to a lower return
period by
agR,N CR
0.5agR,N CR
(2.4)
agR,DLR = q
TNCR
TDLR
From Equation 2.4 it is determined that agR,DLR = 0.16g/ 475 95 = 0.07g

0.08g, whereas the peak ground acceleration for the damage limitation requirement
is agR,DLR = 0.08g. The design peak ground acceleration for both the no-collapse
and damage limitation requirements may be calculated by ag = I agR . By this
17
2.1
Loads
ag,N CR = agR,N CR and ag,DLR = agR,DLR , since I = 1.0. The peak ground accelerations described above are those applied for the analysis of the considered building.
No vertical components of the seismic actions are thus considered.
Figure 2.2: Map of know seismic events with Ms 4.0 near the United Arab Emirates.
Values are for surface-wave magnitude Ms . AD is Abu Dhabi, D is Dubai and RAK
is Ras Al Khaymah (from Aldama-Bustos et al., 2009).
As it can be seen in Figure 2.2 the surface-wave magnitude of the earthquakes
in the region of Dubai (noted with D on the figure) cover all ranges. The largest
earthquake recorded in this region was in 1945 with a surface-wave magnitude of Ms >
8.0 (Aldama-Bustos et al., 2009). This corresponds to an earthquake of ML > 7.7
measured on the local magnitude scale (better know as the Richter magnitude scale).
The relation between surface-wave and local magnitudes is Ms = 3.2 + 1.45ML .
Earthquakes with a surface-wave magnitude larger than 5.5 are therefore quite likely
to occur at the fault closest to Dubai. According to EN 1998-1 clause 3.2.2.2(2)P Type
1 of the modal design response spectrum Sd (T ), is applicable, where T is the period
for the buildings modes. The lower bound factor is taken as its recommended value
of 0.2.
As no site-specific soil profile is available the soil type recommended for the Dubai
area by the Dubai municipality is applied. The recommended soil profile type is SC
from UBC 1997 (see Baker et al., 2009). This is described as soil having a generic
description as very dense soil and soft rock, and an average shear wave velocity of
vs,30 = 360 to 760m/s (UBC 1997, table 16-J). According to the average shear wave
velocity for the recommended soil profile type, the ground is type B according to clause
3.1.2(2) and table 3.1 in EN 1998-1. Ground type B is specified by an average shear
wave velocity in the range of 360 to 800m/s, and is thereby quite coincident with the
provisions of UBC 1997.
The correction factor for the fundamental modes participating mass , is equal to
0.85 if T1 2TC , where T1 is the period of the fundamental mode and TC = 0.5s (see
table 3.2 and in EN 1998-1). Otherwise = 1.0.
18
Structural analysis
The building is not considered to have structural regularity in its elevation, as

the frame system tilts and the core is vertical. As the columns placement in relation
to the core changes on all levels, the building is not considered to have structural
regularity in its plane either. The effects of earthquake is therefore to be analysed
using a modal response spectrum, and a decreased value of the behaviour factor q,
equal to the basis value multiplied by 0.8 (Table 4.1, clause 4.2.3.1(7) and 4.3.3.3 in
EN 1998-1). The basis value, also termed the reference value, is denoted by q0 . The
basis value of the behaviour factor is to be determined for the primary lateral force
resisting structural system of the building. For the building considered the concrete
core and shear walls will offer a larger lateral resistance than the concrete moment
resistant frame. As the steel-concrete composite wall elements are a part of the core
structure, the behaviour factor will be determined with regard to these (in accordance
with clause 7 in EN 1998-1).
The basis value of the behaviour factor q0 , must not assume a value larger than
3u /l or 4, where u /l = (1.1 + 1.0)/2 = 1.05, because of the buildings plane
irregularity (clause 7.3.2 and table 7.1 in EN 1998-1). Here u /l is the ratio of the
seismic action that causes development of a full plastic mechanism to the seismic action
at the first occurrence of plastification in the system. This ratio considers the relative
overstrength due to redundancy of the structural members, as a result of systematic
difference between the expected strength of concrete and steel, which is considered to
be +8M P a and +15%, respectively. The relation also considers that more and larger
reinforcement bars always will be placed in the finished structure due to round-up in the
calculations. It must also be ensured that a strong column-weak beam configuration
in all wall or column to beam joints is present, by an overstrength factor of Rd = 1.3 for
the bending moment capacities. This in conjunction with the probability for frequency
of occurrence for the peak ground acceleration ensures that the no-collapse requirement
of EN 1998-1 is satisfied (Fardis et al., 2005).
Depending on the fully encased structural steel members flange dimensions the
behaviour factor must fulfil 1.5 2 < q < 4 for 14 cf /tf < 20 or q 1.5 2 for
20 cf /ff (table 7.3 for DCM q
and clause 7.6.4(8) in EN 1998-1), where cf and tf are
shown in Figure A.12 and = fyk /235. In general the behavioural factor is not to
be set lower than 1.5, as this is ensured due to material overstrength alone. Setting a
conservative value for the basic behaviour factor within these requirements allows for
the behaviour factor to be calculated by
q = 0.8q0 kw
where
kw
(2.5)
is the factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode for a dual system, taken
as its recommended value of kw = 1.00 (clause 5.2.2.2(11)P in EN 1998-1).
The basis value of the behaviour factor may be taken as q0 = 2.5, as this is larger
than 1.5 and less than 3 1.05 = 3.15. The influence of the structural steel members
flange dimensions on the value of the behaviour factor is thus not directly considered
at this early stage of the analysis and design, as its dimensions are yet unknown. The
value of q0 = 2.5 however satisfies the relevant requirements for the structural steel
members flange dimensions. The behaviour factor to apply for the structural system
may thus be determined by Equation 2.5 as q = 0.8 2.5 1.00 = 2.0.
Concerning the buildings viscous damping from the displacement of the surrounding air as a result of its movement, a damping percentage of v = 5% is assumed,
19
2.1
Loads
as recommended in EN 1998-1, clause 3.2.2.2. The damping correction factor to be

applied to the response spectrum is thus = 1.0. If a viscous damping different from
5% is documented, the damping correction factor may be calculated by
=
where
v
10
0.55
5 + v
(2.6)
is the viscous damping of the building in %.
The structural damping of a building between 50m and 250m is to be taken between
1% to 2% (CTBUH, 2008, appendix A). EN 1991-1-4 (table F.2) defines the logarithmic
decrement of a concrete structures damping, regardless of height, as
s = 0.10. The
maximum allowable value for the structures damping is thus = 0.10/ 0.102 + 4 2 =
2%. The structures damping is therefore taken as s = 2%.
The activated mass is an important factor when calculating seismic effects on a
building. Including too little mass may result in an inadequate design that does not
perform as expected, and including too much mass may lead to severe over dimensioning
and thus unnecessary extra costs. The buildings mass source is evaluated based on the
best engineering judgement to the combination shown in Equation 2.7. This includes
all of the buildings dead loads, the full live load from mechanical installations and 25%
of the live load related to occupational use (see Table 2.1 on Page 12).
1.0D + 1.0LM + 0.25L
2.1.4
(2.7)
Thermal effects
The temperature changes that a building structure is potentially exposed to are climate,
operational and accidental temperature changes. Of these only climatic temperature
changes are considered as no operational temperature changes of a significant magnitude
are likely to occur in an apartment building as the one considered. By this no influence
on the structure due to fire is considered in the analysis or design. The temperature
induced loads T , in structural elements shall be considered for all elements located
outside of the building enclosure. The concrete cores exterior walls and the roof slab are
thus affected by climate temperature changes. No attention to temperature variations
due to wind, surroundings and landscape formations or humidity is given.
The uniform temperature component Tu is determined from Equation 2.8. This
describes the total difference in temperature between outside and inside conditions for
the considered element, hence Tu = Tout Tin . Two seasonal conditions, summer
and winter, are considered and the one with the largest value of Tu is applied in the
analysis of the buildings structural system. The indoor temperature conditions are
Tin,s = 20 C and Tin,w = 25 C for summer and winter, respectively (as recommended
in EN 1991-1-5, table 5.1).
Tu = T T0
(2.8)
where
T
T0
is the target temperature and

is the initial temperature.
The outside temperature conditions for the exterior surface of a structural element,
depends on this surfaces cardinal direction. Its orientation, horizontal or vertical, and
20
Structural analysis
eventual shadows cast from its surroundings will also affect its temperature conditions.
The core structure is orientated in a north-west/south-east direction with vertical wall
elements also facing north-east and south-west. The walls facing north-east and northwest are, due to the suns path across the sky, less affected by temperature changes.
Data obtained in Hyderabad, India gives the average solar radiation intensity in the
four main cardinal directions as UN = 100W/m2 , US = 600W/m2 , UE = 600W/m2
and UW = 400W/m2 (TERI, 2010). Hyderabad, India is located approximately at
latitudinal degree 18 N whilst Dubai, UAE is located approximately at 25 N . In
the lack of better related data or conversion methods, the values obtained for Hyderabad are directly applied for Dubai. The solar radiation values hereby convert to
UN W = 113W/m2 , USE = 424W/m2 , UN E = 121W/m2 and USW = 339W/m2 , by
linear interpolation. The maximum average outside daytime temperatures for summer and winter are Tout,s,d = 41 C and Tout,w,d = 24 C, respectively. The night time
temperatures are Tout,s,n = 23 C and Tout,w,n = 14 C. The largest difference in temperature hereby occur during the daytime in the summer where Tu = 41 20 = 21 C.
The temperature and solar radiation are assumed to be linearly dependent upon the
considered interval whereas the largest change in temperature is related to the largest
solar radiation value. The temperature change on the walls hereby vary, depending on
the individual wall elements orientation as shown in Table 2.4. For the roof slabs the
maximum temperature difference is applied due to their horizontal orientation.
Table 2.4: Solar radiation to temperature change conversion. The maximum solar
radiation is equal to the maximum outside temperature change and lower values of
solar radiation can thus be scaled accordingly to determine the corresponding outside
temperature change.
Direction
NW
SE
NE
SW
2.1.5
U [W/m2 ]
Tu [ C]
113
424
121
339
27
100
29
80
5.6
21.0
6.0
16.8
Load combinations
The ultimate limit state load combinations are calculated as the larger of Equations
2.9a and 2.9b, which are identical with equations 6.10a and 6.10b of EN 1990. Seismic
and wind loads must be considered as reversible loads within the Eurocode definitions.
This is in compliance with the STR load case, hereby considering internal failure or
excessive deformation as the failure criterion (EN 1990, clause 6.4.1).
X
G,j Gk,j + P P + Q,1 0,1 Qk,1 +
j1
j1
Q,i 0,i Qk,i
(2.9a)
i>1
jG,j Gk,j + P P + Q,1 Qk,1 +
Q,i 0,i Qk,i
(2.9b)
i>1
21
2.1
Loads
where
G
P
Q
+
P
is a permanent action,
is a pre-stressing action, if such exists, and
is a variable action.
implies "to be combine with" and
implies "the combined effect of".
All load combinations including seismic loads are calculated based on equation 6.12b
of EN 1990.
X
X
Gk,j + P + EEd +
2,i Qk,i
(2.10)
j1
where
EEd
i1
is the design value of the seismic action (denoted AEd in EN 1990).
Table 2.5: Applied load combinations for ultimate limit state according to EN 1990.
For equation 6.10a
For equation 6.10b
Gj,sup D
Gj,supD
Gj,sup D + Q,1 0,1 L
Gj,supD + Q,1 L
Gj,sup D + Q,1 0,1 T
Gj,supD + Q,1 T
Gj,inf D + Q,1 0,1 W
Gj,inf D Q,1 W
Gj,supD + Q,1 0,1 W
Gj,supD Q,1 W
Gj,supD + Q,1 0,1 L Q,i 0,i W
Gj,supD + Q,1 L Q,i 0,i W
Gj,supD Q,1 0,1 W + Q,i 0,i L
Gj,supD Q,1 W + Q,i 0,i L
Gj,supD + Q,1 0,1 L + Q,i 0,i T
Gj,supD + Q,1 L + Q,i 0,i T
Gj,supD + Q,1 0,1 T + Q,i 0,i L
Gj,supD + Q,1 T + Q,i 0,i L
Gj,sup D + Q,1 0,1 T Q,i 0,i W
Gj,supD + Q,1 T Q,i 0,i W
Gj,sup D Q,1 0,1 W + Q,i 0,i T
Gj,supD Q,1 W + Q,i 0,i T
Gj,sup D + Q,1 0,1 L + Q,i 0,i T Q,i 0,i W Gj,supD + Q,1 L + Q,i 0,i T Q,i 0,i W
Gj,sup D + Q,1 0,1 T + Q,i 0,i L Q,i 0,i W Gj,supD + Q,1 T + Q,i 0,i L Q,i 0,i W
Gj,sup D Q,1 0,1 W + Q,i 0,i L Q,i 0,i T Gj,supD Q,1 W + Q,i 0,i L + Q,i 0,i T
For equation 6.12b
D 1.0E
D 1.0E + 2,i L
In the following permanent actions from the building dead loads are denoted D.
Variable actions are denoted L for live loads, W for wind loads, T for temperature induced loads and E for seismic actions. Live loads related to mechanical installations are
denoted LM . These denotations are used when defining load combinations throughout
this report. The load cases in Table 2.5 represent the ultimate limit state actions that
the building shall be designed for and is based on equations 6.10a, 6.10b and 6.12b of
EN 1990.
The partial factors to be combined with the load combinations above are shown in
Table 2.6. By this the roof area encompassed by category H is not considered, as a
conservative simplification of the global actions on the building.
Load combinations comprised by the serviceability limit state shall be determined
by Equation 2.11 which is identical with equation 6.14b of EN 1990. When designing
22
Structural analysis
Table 2.6: Partial factors to be applied to the load combinations in Table 2.5.
Symbol
Value
Gj,sup
Gj,inf
Q,1
Q,1
0,i
0,i
0,i
2,i
2,i
1.35
1.00
1.5
0
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.6
0.85
[1] :
[2] :
Table 2.7:
EN 1990.
Application
For
For
For
For
For
For
For
For
For
For
the
the
the
the
the
the
the
the
the
the
unfavourable permanent action[1]

favourable permanent action[1]
unfavourable variable action[1]
favourable variable action[1]
accompanying live load[2]
accompanying wind load[2]
accompanying temperature load[2]
seismic category A live load[2]
seismic category C live load[2]
unfavourable permanent action[1]
EN 1990 table A1.2(B)

EN 1990 table A1.1
Applied load combinations for serviceability limit state according to
For equation 6.14b

D
D+L
D+T
DW
D + L 0,i W
D W + 0,i L
D + L + 0,i T
D + T + 0,i L
D W + 0,i T
D + T 0,i W
D + L + 0,i T 0,i W
D + T + 0,i L 0,i W
D W + 0,i L + 0,i T
structural elements for their ultimate limit state, load combinations from Table 2.5 are
applied. When considering the damage limitation requirement in Section 6.3, for the
serviceability limit state of walls and columns, the load combinations from Equation
2.10 in Table 2.5 are applied. Here the seismic force E is calculated based on the peak
ground acceleration related to the no collapse requirement, described in Section 2.1.3.
The serviceability limit state for slabs and beams shall be proven for the combination of
loads shown in Table 2.7. As the beam considered for design in Appendix A.3 is located
inside the building, no reversible loads are considered present and a characteristic load
combination shall be applied.
X
j1
Gk,j + P + Qk,1 +
0,i Qk,i
(2.11)
i>1
23
2.2
Model description
The load combinations shown in Table 2.7 are based on Equation 2.11. Here wind is
considered as a reversible load, which as mentioned above is irrelevant when considering
indoor slabs and beams. The partial load factor 0,i is as shown in Table 2.6.
Additional load combinations relevant for the analysis of the model are considered
in Section 2.3.2, regarding the P effects, and in Section 6.1, where loads relevant
for the consideration of a buildings performance for cases of progressive collapse are
described.
2.2
Model description
The structural system of the building described in Section 1.4 is modelled for analysis
in ETABS. The basis of the developed model is the architectural impressions and floor
plans, as shown in Figures 1.4 and 1.5. The developed model may be seen in Appendix
B. As the buildings moment resisting frame system is tilting towards the vertical core
structure, no floor diaphragms are identical. All stories are thus modelled individually
as little repetition is possible.
Figure 2.3: Beam layout and support conditions for steel-concrete composite deck.
The structural steel beams are drawn up by yellow lines, supporting walls and circular
columns in red, and beam ends with moment releases are blue dots. Main and secondary
supporting lines are denoted m and s, respectively.
Modelling structural elements in ETABS is simply based upon the definition of
line and area objects. Area objects thus represent slabs, decks and walls, and line
objects represent beams, columns and braces. Each object is assigned a section which
represents the structural elements geometrical properties and defines the material the
element is composed of.
The developed model is a three-dimensional representation of the considered buildings structural system, see Figure 2.4. The building is not considered to be regular
in its plan or elevation, as previously described, whereas it is required that the model
submitted for seismic analysis gives a spatial representation of the buildings structural
system (Table 4.1 in EN 1998-1).
All walls and columns are defined as continuous elements, as they all consist of
in-situ cast concrete. Concrete slabs and decks are likewise in-situ cast continuous
concrete elements, though the steel beams, that support the concrete deck and form
steel-concrete composite elements, are pinned at some supports. Figure 2.3 shows
the layout of the structural steel beams for the steel-concrete composite deck in the
building. By this the beam shown spanning across the circular columns, and the walls
24
(a) 3D representation.
(b) 3D representation.
Structural analysis
(c) Section view in the

y z plane.
Figure 2.4: The full 3D model developed in ETABS for the structural analysis of the
building. 2.4c shows a section view where the vertical core and tilting frame structures
can be seen.
constitute the main supporting lines (shown as m). The four beams spanning between
these are thus secondary supporting lines (shown as s) between which the deck spans.
At the buildings base all walls and columns have fixed support conditions.
As shown in Figure 2.4c the shear walls and moment resisting frame system supporting the slabs at each level, tilt towards the vertical core structure. Three different types
of storey configurations are modelled, to resemble the available architectural drawings
the best possible. This is shown in Figure 2.5, where 2.5a is the general configuration
of the podium and mezzanine levels, Figure 2.5c is for level 21b and 22b, and Figure
2.5b is relevant for all other occupational levels.
25
2.2
Model description
(a) Mezzanine level.
(b) 12th floor.
(c) level 22b.
Figure 2.5: Three general floor plans for the considered building. 2.5c shows the general
plan of the floors at the podium and mezzanine levels, 2.5b is relevant for level 3 to 22
and 2.5c is the floor plan for level 21b and 22b.
26
2.2.1
Structural analysis
Material definitions
For the building considered two types of structural materials are used (1) reinforced
concrete and (2) structural steel. By this the mass of materials defined as concrete
includes the mass of reinforcement. The material properties shown in Table 2.8, are
presented by the values prescribed by Eurocode. The range of materials is limited by
EN 1994-1-1 (clause 3.1(2)), which limits the concrete grade to be within the range
of C20/25 to C50/60, and EN 1998-1 (clause 7.2.1(1)), which limits it to the range
of C20/25 to C40/50. Figure B.1 shows the material definition for concrete of grade
C35/45 in ETABS.
Table 2.8: Materials applicable to be used in the project and their properties.
Material
Name
Density
h
Concrete[1]
Structural
steel[2]
Reinf. steel[3]
C20
C25
C30
C35
C40
C45
C50
S275
S355
S420
S460
RS
kg
m3
Strength
h
N
mm2
fck
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
2540
Modulus of
elasticity
h
i
N
mm2
Poissons
ratio
[]
Thermal
exp.
i
h coeff.
Ecm
30000
31000
33000
34000
35000
36000
37000
0.2
9.9
106
C
fyk
fuk
Ea
7850
275
355
420
460
370
470
520
540
210000
0.3
12
fsk
ftk
Es
7850
460
500
210000
0.3
12
[1] :
Concrete classes according to EN 1992-1-1, table 3.1

Steel classes according to EN 1993-1-1, table 3.1 for EN 10025 steel (t 16mm)
[3] : Reinforcement steel in class B EN 1992-1-1, table C.1
[2] :
To represent a structural member of reinforced concrete immediately prior to failure,

its bending stiffness must be reduced to consider creep, shrinkage and the development
of cracks. As EN 1992-1-1 does not describe this modification of stiffness sufficiently
for all structural concrete members, the stiffness modification factors from ACI318-08
clause 10.10.4.1 are adopted, see Table 2.9. This covers all relevant reinforced concrete
structural elements, whilst EN 1992-1-1 only considers the nominal stiffness of slender
compression members (clause 5.8.7.2). The stiffness modification factor K , for an
uncracked wall is assigned if the wall experience tension for any ultimate limit state
load combination. Through an initial analysis it is found that all shear walls on all levels
in the building experience a tension force of some degree. The uncracked property is
therefore applied to all the buildings reinforced concrete shear walls, see Figure B.2b.
27
2.2
Model description
This is in accordance with that recommended by Atkins (2007). If no other estimate of

a concrete elements loss of stiffness due to cracking is performed, this may be assumed
to be 50% EN 1998-1, clause 4.3.1(7).
Table 2.9: Reduction factor K applied to the bending stiffness of reinforced concrete
elements to consider the influence of axial loading.
Structural element
Columns
Walls - Uncracked
- Cracked
Beams
Plates and slabs
0.70
0.70
0.35
0.35
0.25
Similar consideration is paid to the steel-concrete composite walls and columns,

where the bending stiffness, hence modulus of elasticity, is reduced in accordance with
Equation 3.1c. Effects from creep and shrinkage in the composite beams are to be
considered in the design process and not in the analysis, see Sections 5.2 and 5.3.
By the Eurocode standardisation system the partial factor method shall be applied
to ensure reliable and safe results. This is done by the load partial factors shown in
Table 2.6 and the material partial factors shown in Table 2.10. All partial factors
applied are in accordance with the CEN standard recommendations. Materials are
considered with a normal control class, whereas 3 = 1.00, and the values in Table 2.10
are directly applicable.
Table 2.10: Recommended partial factors according to Eurocode.
Symbol
C
S
M 0
M 1
M 2
V
Value
1.50
1.15
1.00
1.00
1.25
1.25
Application
For
For
For
For
For
For
concrete[1]
reinforcing steel[1]
structural steel irregardless of class[2]
instability of structural steel member[2]
structural steel in tension to fracture[2]
shear resistance of a headed stud[3]
[1] :
EN 1992-1-1, table 2.1N

EN 1993-1-1, clause 6.1(1)
[3] : EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.6.3.1(1)
[2] :
The assignment of material properties to the buildings different structural elements

is described in the following section.
2.2.2
Section definitions
To model the building in ETABS, sections for walls, slabs, decks, columns, beams and
spandrels are defined. The former three are associated with the models area objects
and the latter three with line objects.
Figure B.2a shows the definition of a reinforced concrete column in the moment
resisting frame and Figure B.2c shows the reinforcement defined for this. The section
28
Structural analysis
modifiers used to consider loss of flexural stiffness over time, as shown in Table 2.9,
are seen defined for the same column in Figure B.2b. The concrete decks to be used
for the steel-concrete composite beams are defined in ETABS as shown in Figure B.3a.
It is noted that it is not possible to define reinforcement for this deck in ETABS.
This is owed to that ETABS does not have an integrated design function for decks
or slabs. As contributions from reinforcement is not considered in the stiffness of
the deck, ETABS analyses is unaffected by this. Should it be desired to design a
slab modelled in ETABS this is possible in the software SAFE, which has excellent
data exchange possibilities with ETABS. The remaining reinforced concrete elements,
beams and spandrels, are defined similarly. The structural steel members that are to
have a composite effect with the before mentioned concrete deck, are defined as HE..A
profiles. The section data for these is imported to ETABS and is consistent with that
of table 6.7 in Teknisk Stbi (20th ed).
To comply with a consistent design all reinforced concrete columns, beams, slabs and
decks are assigned concrete in strength class C35/45. Here the reinforced concrete deck
is a part of the steel-concrete composite beam considered for design in Appendix A.3.
The reinforced concrete walls, steel-concrete composite walls and connecting spandrels
are assigned concrete in strength class C45/55. By this the structural elements assumed
to be cast at the same time are of the same concrete grade. These material definitions
are unchanged throughout the height of the building. It is however not uncommon to
increase the concretes strength class for the lateral force resisting elements towards
a buildings base, when designing tall buildings. All structural steel members used in
vertical composite elements are assigned steel strength class S420. The structural steel
members used in the steel-concrete composite beams are of steel grade S275. This is not
considered a problem during construction, as the structural steel members to be placed
in the columns and walls are expected to differ significantly in dimensions from those
used in the beams. Material properties for the steel-concrete composite elements are
defined in accordance with Equation 3.1, by assigning lowered values for the modulus
of elasticity. Reinforced concrete elements are assigned section modifiers as previously
described and shown in Table 2.9.
The steel-concrete composite wall section in the buildings core structure is modelled
using the integrated section designer in ETABS, see Figure B.4. The section designer
utility allows one to model arbitrary sections composed of multiple composite materials.
ETABS treats these different materials, which may have different characteristics and
shapes, by transforming the properties of the modelled cross-sections into an effective
cross-section with reference to one materials parameters. Before defining the section
in the section designer utility this reference material is chosen, though it is only for
reference and does not describe the actual characteristics of the section. Within the
section designer each geometric shape is associated with a material that may differ
from the reference material. The cross-section is transformed to the reference materials
characteristics by applying a factor to all the sections properties, describing the ratio
between the modulus of elasticity of the reference material and the modelled material.
This is in correspondence with how composite beams are treated for elastic analysis
in Section 5.2. The steel-concrete composite column is modelled in a similar manner,
with a circular structural steel pipe in-filled with concrete.
29
2.3
ETABS settings
2.3
ETABS settings
Within this section the settings in ETABS relevant for the analysis of the model is
presented. This includes a description of how the loads described in Section 2.1 are
applied to the model and which methods ETABS uses in its analysis of the building.
2.3.1
Load definitions
The live loads described in Section 2.1.1.1 are added as area loads to the slab and deck
elements on all stories. The concentrated loads Qk , are not included in the analysis
performed in ETABS. The influence of these loads is considered in Section 5. Reduction
factors are applied as shown in Table 2.2, by defining smaller surface live loads where
it is allowed.
The uniformly distributed superimposed dead loads shown in Table 2.3 are, as
the live loads, assigned to the appropriate slab and deck elements. The loading from
staircases is however transformed to an equivalent line load which is then assigned to
the walls on which the stairs will rest when installed. Faade loads are added as line
loads along the diaphragm extremities. ETABS calculates and applies the relevant
loading from self weight of all modelled structural elements. As ETABS is a well
established structural analysis software this function has been proven several times
over through various independent projects and is officially verified by example 4 in the
ETABS Software Verification.
Wind loads calculated in accordance with EN 1991-1-4 are added as shown in Figure
B.5. ETABS then calculate all equivalent wind loading in accordance with the given
parameters, see Section 2.1.2.1, and apply the forces to the diaphragms extent on all
levels. Only wind acting in the x- and y-direction are added in accordance with code,
defined by an angle of 0 and 90 , respectively. These are termed Wx and Wy in
accordance with their direction. The wind loads obtained in the wind tunnel tests
described in Section 2.1.2.2, are added as user defined wind loads, see Figure B.6. Here
the loading on the 19th level shown on Page 16 may be recognized. A total of 16 wind
loads from the wind tunnel tests are added and termed T1 to T16 .
Seismic loads as described in Section 2.1.3 are applied as static equivalent loads by
the lateral force method of analysis, in accordance with clause 4.3.3.2 in EN 1998-1.
The settings for the application of the static seismic load acting in the x-direction is
seen in Figure B.7. 6 combinations corresponding to x- and y-directions with 5%
eccentricity are added for both the no collapse and damage limitation requirements. A
total of 12 static seismic loads are added and termed Ex,stat and Ey,stat corresponding
to their direction. Subscript e5% is used if the load has an eccentricity. The buildings
dynamic behaviour when exited by seismic actions must be considered, as the building
is irregular in its structural composition (EN 1998-1, clause 4.3.3.2.1(2)). This is done
by the response spectrum method with a design spectrum for an elastic analysis, see
clause 3.2.2.5 in EN 1998-1 and Figure B.8. These dynamic seismic loads are termed
Ex,dyn and Ey,dyn , similar to that defined for static seismic loads. A soil factor of
S = 1.2 is applied, corresponding to ground type B. To ensure coherent results between
the static and dynamic seismic analyses the dynamic earthquake is scaled by a factor
of Fb,stat /Fb,dyn , where Fb is the base shear force. The application of this factor is in
compliance with clause 1631.5.4 of UBC 1997. From the analysis these factors are found
to be 6.61 and 5.64 for dynamic seismic actions in the x- and y-direction, respectively.
By this only responses related to horizontal excitations are considered, whereas no
30
Structural analysis
seismic components are added for the z-direction. The dynamic seismic loads are, as
for the static loads, defined with an eccentricity of 5%. This hereby encompass 12
dynamic seismic loads, whereas a total of 24 seismic excitations are considered in the
design of the building. As seismic excitations are unlikely to cause action effects directly
in-line with the orientation of a buildings major axis, x- and y-directional components
must be combined as in Equation 2.12 (EN 1998-1, clause 4.3.3.5.1(3)). This is seen
in Figure B.9 for the combination of Exe+5% ,dyn , in accordance with Equation 2.12a
and an eccentricity of 5%. The buildings mass source is defined in compliance with
Equation 2.7, see Figure B.10.
where
EEdx
EEdy
EEdx + 0.30EEdy
(2.12a)
0.30EEdx + EEdy
(2.12b)
is the seismic action effects in the x-direction and

is the seismic action effects in the y-direction.
Thermal effects as described in Section 2.1.4 are considered by assigning temperature loads to the structural elements affected by this loading, see Figure B.11. This is
thus only relevant for the elements located outside of the building envelope, as previously described. As ETABS capabilities are limited to only handle uniform temperature loads, defined by the uniform temperature change over the element Tu , and the
related materials thermal expansion coefficient , see Table 2.8, no linearly varying or
non-linear temperature components are considered. This is not within the guidelines
of EN 1991-1-5 but is the best possible solution with ETABS.
Load combinations in accordance with Equation 2.9a, 2.9b and 2.11 are added by
the automated feature in ETABS. This however entails the assumption that all live
loads reside to usage category A or B. By this ETABS defines a standard value for the
load partial factor 2,i , see Table 2.6, of 0.3. The building however have areas resided
to usage categories C and H as well. To consider the areas related to usage category C
in the analysis, 48 load combinations based on Equation 2.11 with 2,i = 0.6 are added
manually. By this the analysis in ETABS does not distinguish between the live loads
related to different usage categories, as all live loads are applied the same partial load
factors. The manually added cases are thus conservative in relation to the majority of
the buildings stories being encompassed by usage category A. Category H is the roof
where a factor of 2,i = 0 should be applied. For simplicity the application of this
factor is neglected.
The definition of load cases and combinations as described above thereby results
in a total of 35 static loads for self weight, superimposed dead, live, mechanical live,
wind, seismic and temperature loads, and 12 dynamic seismic loads. This is composed
in a total of 532 load combinations for the buildings ultimate limit state, that will be
considered for the design of the structural elements in Appendix A. It is chosen to
consider the effects of all seismic loads defined, though it would be reasonable only to
consider the dynamic seismic loads in the design.
2.3.2
Analysis methods
Three general analysis methods are used for the three dimensional model, (1) a static
linear analysis, (2) a static non-linear analysis and (3) a construction sequence analysis.
To improve the results and methods of load application P and modal analyses
31
2.3
ETABS settings
are also performed. The analysis of P , second order, effects is the first analysis
performed in (1) and (2). The last step of (1) is the modal analysis, whereas the
solution of the buildings fundamental modes include the consideration of P effects.
If it should be desired to exclude P effects from the analysis, the interstorey
drift sensitivity factor from Equation 6.23, must obtain a value of < 0.10, see Page
106. For the considered building this condition is not checked, as P effects are
considered anyway. The P analysis in ETABS considers the change of an elements
lateral stiffness when experiencing large compressive or tensile axial loads. This stiffness
modification method considers how compression reduces an elements lateral stiffness
and tension increases it. By different codes this loss of stiffness, hence influence of
second order effects, is considered by an increase of the affecting moment by the moment
magnification method, see Section 3.1. The combination of loads to consider for the
P analysis is not described in the Eurocode standardisation system. A combination
equal to that of Equation 2.13 is therefore adopted from Atkins (2007). The settings
for the P analysis in ETABS is seen in Figure B.12. A P analysis is an iterative
procedure and as the figure shows the maximum number of iterations is set to 2 with
a displacement tolerance of 0.001. This relative low number of iterations is defined
to limit computational time yet still give ETABS a reasonable basis of considering the
effects. The recommended number of iterations is between 2 to 5 and the recommended
tolerance is as applied. If a building is prone to global buckling, hence very slender,
or buckling of individual slender elements, e.g. columns, P effects shall always be
considered. Neglecting them in the analysis of high-rise buildings is therefore often not
an option.
1.2D + 1.2LM + 0.5L
(2.13)
where
LM
is the live load originating from mechanical installations.
The fundamental modes and associated frequencies found by ETABS and to be

used in the earthquake response spectrum analysis, see Table 2.11,
are calculated by

the solution of the generalized eigenvalue problem K 2 M = 0, where K is
the structures stiffness matrix, M is the diagonal mass matrix, 2 is the diagonal
matrix of eigenvalues (frequencies) and is the matrix of eigenvectors (mode shapes)
associated with the eigenvalues. The settings in ETABS for this analysis is seen in
Figure B.13. ETABS also allows for the analysis of mode shapes and frequencies by
the solution of Ritz-vectors. As Ritz-vectors consider the spatial distribution of the
dynamic loading, these yield a more accurate result for the modal participation factor,
hence activation of modal mass, than a similar analysis by eigenvectors. The solution of
the eigenvalue problem as described above however yields a more accurate calculation
of the buildings mode shapes. It is strongly recommended that Ritz-vectors are used
when a building is analysed for dynamic loads in a time history analysis. In a response
spectrum analysis Ritz-vectors also yield more accurate results, than the solution of the
eigenvalue problem will. As no time history analysis is performed for the considered
building and as the mode shapes are more accurately represented by eigenvectors, the
modal analysis is performed by the solution of the eigenvalue problem. This is reasoned
as the mode shapes are to be used in the further analyses of the buildings performance,
see Section 6.2. The number of fundamental modes sought by ETABS is defined before
the modal analysis is performed. Before proceeding after the initial analysis it must
be controlled that the included modes activate a satisfying percentage of the buildings
32
Structural analysis
total mass, see Section 2.4.2.

The static linear analysis of (1) thereby includes a P and modal analyses of the
building, as described above. The static loads described in Section 2.3.1 are included in
this analysis and the materials and building is considered to behave in a linear manner.
The seismic loads determined by the response spectrum is applied with the response
corresponding to the fundamental frequencies obtained in the modal analysis, whereas
dynamic actions are considered. The non-linear analysis of (2) considers the buildings non-linear geometric behaviour and material non-linearity in beams and columns.
The P analysis is performed considering this non-linear behaviour, and the results
overrule that of the linear static analysis. As mentioned above ETABS is also capable of performing an incremental construction analysis of (3). By this the considered
building is separated into thirteen construction stages, comprising approximately two
stories each. Each part is then added to the analysis, starting at the buildings base,
to analyse the effects that staged construction has on the buildings behaviour. This
analysis is particularly important if interim supports are installed during construction
and later removed. If present, transfer structures will be stressed sequentially as construction progresses. An analysis considering the sequential construction process may
result in larger section forces and even entail an alternate distribution of section forces
altogether. It may therefore be vital for a building structures functioning to consider
the sequence of construction in the analysis of the structure. By performing a sequential construction analysis in ETABS all loads from the structures self weight may be
redistributed. The nominal distribution of self weight on the structure is therefore replaced by the distribution obtained by the sequential construction analysis. The effects
of the sequential construction analysis on the stress distribution in the walls of the core
structure are considered in Section 2.5.
ETABS offers two methods of element meshing. There is distinguished between
the object-based model, which is the model as defined by the user in ETABS, and
the analytical model, which is the meshed model generated by ETABS and submitted
for the analysis. Elements in the object-based model may hereby be meshed into
several smaller elements in the analytical model, for analytical purposes. The method
of manual meshing is very straight forward, as when a structural element is defined in
the object-based model, its modelled extent there corresponds to the meshed element
in the analytical model. If an area element is modelled in its full extent, it may
be manually separated into smaller elements in the object-based model by standard
functions in ETABS. ETABS however also has an auto mesh function, where the user
may specify at which intersections the element in the object-based model shall be
meshed and a maximum size of the meshed element, see Figure B.14. The appearance
of the element is thereby unchanged in the object-based model but upon generation
of the analytical model, ETABS will automatically mesh all elements as defined. This
may save the user a lot of time in the modelling phase, as only the full extent of a
diaphragm is to be modelled and then defined with an auto mesh.
In Figure 2.6 the analytical model of the considered buildings floor diaphragm at
the mezzanine level is shown. Here the slab between grid line 3 10 is modelled as one
diaphragm and assigned an auto mesh option corresponding to the settings shown in
Figure B.14. The slabs between grid lines 13 and 1012 are meshed manually. When
comparing the analytical model shown here to the object-based model shown in Figure
2.5a, it is seen that these manually meshed slabs has been cut off at their perimeter,
to be outlined by the beams supporting the floor. This is done as ETABS auto mesh
33
2.4
Model verification
Figure 2.6: Meshing of floor diaphragms at the mezzanine storey in the analytical
model. The dense meshing of the large mid-section of the diaphragm is obtained by
defining an auto mesh, while the two smaller sections at each side of the diaphragm are
meshed manually.
function is somewhat undependable, when meshing floor areas supported by beams with
skew intersections and irregular orientation. The floor area between grid line 3 10
is supported by walls and beams arranged in a rectangular fashion, whereby the auto
mesh function produces a satisfying mesh for this region. When meshing manually it is
strived to have rectangles and triangles with approximately equal side lengths. It may
be noticed that the meshing of the joined slabs at grid lines 3 and 10 mismatch. By
this they, though it is not shown, also mismatch with the meshing of the supporting
walls. This is however not of concern as ETABS has an integrated function called autoline constraint to deal with such problems. This ensures a coherent behaviour across
unmatched elements. The mentioned walls are modelled in the object-based model as
individual elements. The walls are then assigned an auto mesh, whereas the analytical
model does not have wall elements larger than 1m2 .
2.4
Model verification
The model described in the preceding sections is to represent the structural system of
the considered building and its expected behaviour. To verify that the model behaves
as the building is expected to both some pre- and post-analysis checks are performed.
The pre-analysis check is to ensure that the model is valid for analysis submission,
see Figure B.15. ETABS has an automated feature that checks to ensure that no
elements overlap, or intersect with a tolerance of 1mm. It is additionally checked
that the applied loading is transferred successfully to the structure. If for instance
a surface load is defined with no structure to transfer it to underneath, the loading
will be lost and reported in the model check. The meshing of the elements is also
checked by this feature. Hereby ETABS checks if the integration points of the defined
analytical elements are placed with a reasonable distribution. If for example a very
slender triangular area is defined, integration points of the element will be placed too
far away from each other to give trustworthy results. The model may be submitted for
34
Structural analysis
analysis and results outputted, despite of warnings found in the model check. Warnings
of any kind should however always be avoided or reasoned to be just. When performing
the model check for the developed model of the considered building no warnings are
presented. The model is therefore suitable for analysis.
During the analysis ETABS keep track of the solutions precision, due to loss of
displacement accuracy in any degree of freedom. The loss of accuracy is caused by
unexpected element behaviour that ETABS can not solve in a satisfying manner. Any
warnings of this nature should be avoided if possible, and a solution should always be
sought when they occur. The warning is often caused by elements not being connected
properly or acting as unrestrained elements. This matter is further discussed in Section
2.4.2. If an element is ensured to be connected and behave as intended, the loss of
precision may be acceptable as long as the analysis does not loose too many digits of
accuracy. If the analysis looses more than 11 digits of accuracy, the model must be
revised and a solution found. If however the analysis does not lose more than 11 digits
of accuracy, the warning may be accepted if the provisions of Section 2.4.1 are also
satisfied. When the mode of the considered building is submitted for analysis several
of these warnings occur. These are all investigated according to Section 2.4.2 and does
not lose more than 7.1 digits of accuracy. By this and the provisions of Section 2.4.1
all warnings of this kind are acceptable and the model is valid for analysis.
The post-analysis checks of the model entail validation of force transfer, the intended structural behaviour and the overall characteristics of the building. In the
following this is checked in accordance with the guidelines for post-analysis verification
by Atkins (2007).
2.4.1
Global force balance
To ensure that the model is sensitive to both large and small loads in spite of their
location, point, line and surface loads of varying size and orientation are added at
multiple locations throughout the building. The sum of these applied loads are then
compared to the sum of the reactions obtained in the analysis. By this it is found
that the model offers a global force balance with a deviation of 108 %. The model is
thereby capable of transferring all applied loads in a satisfactory manner, and these are
counteracted at the base creating a system in equilibrium.
2.4.2
Deformed shape and modal characteristics
To ensure that the model represents the buildings behaviour as intended, with regard to
deformation, rotation and overall translation of the structural elements, ETABS offers
a convenient function where it is possible to animate all load situations. By this the
buildings deformation is gradually applied and any misbehaviour of an element during
this animation is easy to identify. Reviewing each story under different combinations
of gravitational and lateral loads shows no unexpected behaviour of any structural
elements in the model. It is thereby assured that the model represents the building as
it is intended.
The buildings mode shapes may easily be visualised and animated in ETABS after
the analysis. A buildings fundamental modes of vibration indicate how a building
will behave when undergoing dynamic loading, e.g. earthquakes or wind. Considering
a buildings modes in the design phase may thereby result in a better design of the
building and its performance. The characteristics of the fundamental mode shapes
35
2.4
Model verification
(a) 1st mode. Translation in the x-direction. Period T1 = 4.12s.
(b) 2nd mode. Translation in the y-direction. Period T2 = 1.78s.
(c) 3rd mode. Rotation about z. Period T3 = 1.75s.
Figure 2.7: Displacement characteristics for the first three fundamental modes (here
considered for the 20th floor).
36
Structural analysis
sought by ETABS are applied when treating the response spectrum analysis, thus when
applying dynamic seismic loads. In the design of a building it should be sought that
the first fundamental mode of vibration is of a translational and not torsional nature.
If a buildings first mode is dominated by a torsional behaviour, it should be considered
to redesign the building to avoid this. A buildings fundamental modes may be coupled
between several modes, most often translation in one direction and torsion.
It should be checked that the nature of the most influencing fundamental modes is
relatively uncoupled and can be easily recognised by the modal displacement characteristics. A torsional behaviour is most often seen in buildings with frame or wall-frame
structures. With regard to the latter the walls may be in a core configuration near the
buildings centre and the frame at the buildings perimeter. Here the frame offers very
little torsional stiffness and the walls have a small individual distance, reducing their
torsional resistance. An ideal design should therefore have clearly uncoupled modal behaviour and modes dominated by torsion should occur at shorter periods than modes
dominated by translation. It may additionally be strived to have 80% of the mass, or
more, participating in the first three fundamental modes.
In Figure 2.7 the displacement characteristics for the first three fundamental modes
of the considered building are seen. The first and second modes are dominated by
translation in the x- and y-direction, respectively. Based upon the description above,
the building has a sound dynamic behaviour and the modal characteristics are acceptable. The properties of the first three fundamental modes are further considered in
Section 2.5.
To satisfy the application of the modal response spectrum analysis it is required
by code that at least 90% of the buildings mass source, as defined in Figure B.10, is
activated by the modes included in the analysis (EN 1998-1, clause 4.3.3.3.1(3)). In
the analyses performed for the considered building 98% and 91% of the mass source is
activated by the modes included in the analysis for excitation in the x- and y-direction,
respectively. 90% mass activation is however first accomplished by the inclusion of the
146th mode in the y-direction. To comparison modes up to and including the 6th mode
activate 91% of the buildings mass source. By the inclusion of all these modes the
requirement is thus satisfied and the modal analysis is valid.
2.5
Analysis results
As the output of section forces obtained from the analysis in ETABS for all elements
in all load combinations is extensive, only the section forces for the structural elements
considered for design in Appendix A are shown herein. All results may be viewed
by printing the analyses output report from ETABS, as described on Page XLV in
Appendix B. In the following compression forces are considered as positive values and
tension forces as negative values.
The modal analysis described in previous sections had the results shown in Table
2.11, for the buildings first three fundamental modes. The mode shape for the first mode
is seen in vector form on Page XXXIX. The first three modes activate a substantial
percentage of the buildings total mass source. The first fundamental modes frequency
f1 = 0.24Hz, and period T1 = 4.12s is together with the before mentioned mode shape
1 (z), used in the acceleration analysis in Appendix A.4.2.
The analysis, as mentioned, considers the effects that the construction sequence has
on the distribution of self weight on the structure. Figures 2.8a and 2.8b shows the
axial stresses in the core wall in grids 6 and 7, for the loading of self weight only. It
37
2.5
Analysis results
Table 2.11: Frequency, period and effective modal mass for the first three fundamental
modes.
f [Hz]
T [s]
Mef f [%]
Mode
2
0.24
4.17
72.8
0.56
1.78
65.7
0.57
1.75
65.3
is noticed that in this state the frame system tilts towards to core structure enough
to cause permanent tension at the base of the wall. It is at this tension area that the
wall considered for design in Appendix A.1 is located. As the wall when unaffected by
external loading is in a constant tension state, the reasoning for constructing it as a
steel-concrete composite element as described in Section 1.4 is confirmed.
Figure 2.8c shows that axial stress distribution when the wall section described
above experience its maximum tension force of NEd = 15.9M N . This force occurs
for the load combination with an eccentric static seismic force acting in the direction
perpendicular to the elevation on the figure (in the x-axis). Table 2.12 shows the maximum and minimum section forces related to the walls ultimate limit states. The load
combination associated with each maximum or minimum section force is also shown.
Here e 5% relates to the eccentricity of the seismic force as previously described.
Table 2.12: Maximum and minimum axial, shear and moment, with related section
forces for the wall. The load combination for which the maximum force occur is shown
at the bottom.
Force
[1]
+NEd
[2]
NEd
[2]
+Vz,Ed
[1]
Vz,Ed
[1]
+Vy,Ed
[3]
Vy,Ed
[4]
+Mz,Ed
[1]
Mz,Ed
[5]
+My,Ed
[1]
My,Ed
[1] :
[2] :
[3] :
[4] :
[5] :
38
NEd [kN ]
Vz.Ed kN ]
Vy.Ed[kN ]
My.Ed [kN m]
Mz.EdkN m]
11530
15932
15932
1392
2328
2328
88
78
78
577
2995
2995
164
156
156
11530
11530
7888
7122
11530
14462
11530
1392
1392
98
587
1392
2096
1392
88
577
164
577
164
97
1537
172
88
577
164
577
164
88
138
9
88
42
4850
70
Associated load combinations
1.35D + 1.05L WT 6
1.0D + 0.6L + 1.0Exe+5% ,stat
1.35D + 1.05L 0.9WT 5
1.0D + 0.6L 1.0Ex,stat
1.0D + 0.6L + 1.0Eye5% ,stat
(a) Global one step analysis.
(b) Construction sequence analysis.
Structural analysis
(c) Maximum tension.
Figure 2.8: Axial stress distribution (22 component) of core walls in grids 6 and 7 (y-z
plane). To the left for the global one step analysis. In the middle for the construction
sequence analysis (13 steps). To the right for the load case causing the largest axial
stress in the wall section considered for design in Appendix A.1.
39
2.5
Analysis results
(a) y-axis.
(b) z-axis.
Figure 2.9: Combination of moment and axial force obtained for the considered wall
section from the ultimate limit state analysis in ETABS.
Table 2.12 only shows each individual section forces maximum and minimum component, whilst the combination of section forces may often be more critical. Figure 2.9
shows the moment and axial force interaction for the walls two major axes. The axial
loading from self weight alone is calculated based on the load combination applied when
considering P effects as shown in Equation 2.13. This results in a compression
force of NG,Ed = 3000kN . The buildings total mass at this load combination is found
to be MP = 56.0 103 tons.
The maximum and minimum section forces for the column considered for design in
Appendix A.2 are similarly shown in Table 2.13 and in Figure 2.10. For the column
the axial force related to the buildings self weight is found to be NG,Ed = 12692kN .
Figure 2.10: Combination of moment and axial force obtained for the considered column
section from the ultimate limit state analysis in ETABS.
The beam considered for design in Appendix A.3 is to be considered at diffrent
stages during its construction. These are further described on Page 70. The beams
section forces are determined at the mid-span and end supports for two construction
40
Structural analysis
Table 2.13: Maximum and minimum axial, shear and moment, with related section
forces for the column. The load combination for which the maximum force occur is
shown at the bottom.
Force
[1]
+NEd
[2]
NEd
[3]
+Vz,Ed
[4]
Vz,Ed
[5]
+Vy,Ed
[6]
Vy,Ed
[3]
+My,Ed
[4]
My,Ed
[7]
+Mz,Ed
[8]
Mz,Ed
[1] :
[2] :
[3] :
[4] :
[5] :
[6] :
[7] :
[8] :
NEd [kN ]
Vz.Ed kN ]
Vy.Ed[kN ]
My.Ed [kN m]
Mz.EdkN m]
15351
161
24
141
99
100
8
13
133
1641
1656
769
19
109
502
221
139
2980
1467
192
467
2245
5112
221
139
2980
1467
149
460
1761
5846
12006
680
11302
24
12006
2115
9867
69
99
26
462
133
454
733
1469
250
Associated Load combinations
5102
1457
5835
1.35D + 1.05L 0.9Wy

1.0D + 1.0Eye+5% ,stat
1.0D + 5.64Eye+5% ,dyn
1.0D + 0.6L + 5.64Eye+5% ,dyn
1.0D + 6.61Exe+5% ,dyn
1.0D + 0.6L + 6.61Exe+5% ,dyn
1.0D + 0.6L + 1.0Exe5% ,stat
1.0D 1.0Exe5% ,stat
stages. The results are shown in Tables A.8 and A.13 in Appendix A.3, where the
stages considered are further described.
41
Design of steel-concrete composite walls
The design procedure described in this section considers the design of a steel-concrete
composite wall. The procedure is directly applicable for a primary seismic wall in
medium ductility class. For a wall in low or high ductility class, the necessary provisions must be followed in accordance with EN 1998-1. For a secondary seismic wall
all provisions from EN 1998-1 stated in the following, are inapplicable and is to be
disregarded.
EN 1994-1-1 describes the design procedure for a steel-concrete composite compression member by two methods, (1) the general method of design and (2) the simplified
method of design. (1) is as the name imply a general approach which can be applied
to all composite sections regardless of composition and shape. The general method is
mainly a set of principles for how to numerically analyse and design sections that does
not fall within the scope of (2). The simplified method describes in detail the design
procedures for composite compression members with double symmetric and uniform
cross-sections. Elements with openings, e.g. door openings in walls, is thereby not
covered. The design rules of EN 1994-1-1 only consider fully concrete encased or partially encased structural steel members. Steel plated shear walls are thus not within
the scope. The simplified method is developed with reference to test results, which
implies some limitations for concrete strength classes and the compression elements
slenderness. The latter limits the simplified method of design to be mostly applicable
for column-like members, see Equation 3.7 and 3.39.
It is required that structural steel sections in the compression member must be
connected (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.3.1(1)). This requirement is introduced to prevent
loss of stiffness, if slip between the concrete and structural steel member should occur.
Should slip between the structural steel member and the concrete occur, then all plane
surfaces will not remain plane, when undergoing loading. Definitions of wall stiffness
within the simplified method, see Equations 3.5 and 3.38, will thus be rendered invalid. This requirement, and the general validation of shear wall design in accordance
with the simplified method, has been studied and compared with numerical as well as
laboratory tests by Fabian and Dan (2009) and Dan et al. (2009, 2010, 2011). These
studies considered walls with one to three unconnected fully encased structural steel
members. The wall configurations used in the studies greatly resembles those shown
in Figure 3.1. The studies concluded that the simplified method for design of steelconcrete compression members from EN 1994-1-1, gives conservative results for the
design of walls with two unconnected steel encased profiles and a length to height ratio
above one, l/hw > 1. This is provided that a shear connection between the structural
steel members and the concrete is established and proper interaction between the two
components. With this knowledge the requirement of clause 6.7.3.1(1), EN 1994-1-1
regarding unconnected structural steel elements is overruled and the simplified method
of design is applicable.
For a steel-concrete composite wall design to be satisfactory and adequate in accordance with EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.1(5) the four requirements for the ultimate limit
state (ULS) below must be satisfied.
(1) External loads must be applied correctly.
(2) The wall must have sufficient resistance to external loading.
43
Figure 3.1: Example of wall configurations applicable for design in accordance with the
procedure described within this section (shear connectors not shown).
(3) The structural steel member(s) must not suffer from local instability issues, such
as plate buckling.
(4) The shear connection between structural steel member(s) and the concrete must
be sufficient.
Requirement (1) is satisfied when the internal forces of the steel-concrete structural
member are determined by a global analysis as described in EN 1990 and EN 1994-1-1.
The consequences of first- and second-order effects are to be considered as described in
Section 3.1. If loading is not applied evenly distributed to the reinforced concrete and
steel components of the wall, local design of the shear connection may be nessecary. Localised introduction of load must thus be considered, if it affects the interface between
44
the steel and concrete components. For compression elements with fully encased structural steel elements not directly connected to beams or similar it is generally acceptable
to consider the introduction of loading as evenly distributed over the steel and concrete
components. If the steel or reinforced concrete is the primary recipient of loading on
the wall, the necessary provisions must be taken in accordance with EN 1994-1-1 clause
6.7.4.2. Requirement (2) is considered satisfied when the wall has sufficient axial and
bending capacities and the combined force interaction does not lead to failure, see Section 3.6. Requirement (3) is satisfied when the wall is suitable for design in accordance
with EN 1992-1-1 or EN 1994-1-1. The structural steel must thus contribute to the
walls compression capacity so that 0.9 in Equation 3.23. Sufficient cover and spacing of the structural steel must also be ensured. If it is not, buckling can be avoided
by confining the surrounding concrete with hoop reinforcement. Similarly confinement
of the concrete within the compression zone around the steel member must also be
adequate. Requirement (4) is satisfied when a suitable shear connection is established
in the steel-concrete interfaces. By designing a wall in full compliance with the design
procedures described within this section, all the requirements above are satisfied, for a
design in accordance with Eurocode.
Figure 3.1 show some wall configuration examples suitable for design by the methods
described within this section. Also see Figure A.1. The general requirements for the
configuration of the walls are double symmetry about both main axis, uniform crosssection and materials, and full encasement of all structural steel members. This section
does therefore not cover steel-concrete composite walls with partially encased members
or steel plates, though many of the procedures are similar for the former.
The relevant serviceability limit state (SLS) requirements for walls as treated in
this section is (see EN 1990; EN 1994-1-1, clause 3.4 and 7, respectively)
(1) The member must have acceptable maximum deformations considering its appearance.
(2) Vibrations or deformations from e.g. earthquake or wind, must not cause severe
discomfort for the occupants.
(3) The member must not suffer from damage which affects its appearance, durability
and functioning.
Requirement (1) for the serviceability limit state is considered satisfied for walls and
column-like compression members if requirement (2) is satisfied (EN 1994-1-1, clause
7.3.1). Requirement (2) is satisfied if drift and occupant comfort requirements are
satisfied, see Section 6. Requirement (3) is assumed satisfied when concrete cracking
is prevented by assuring a sufficient amount of minimum reinforcement in accordance
with Equation 3.18.
When calculating section forces the modulus of elasticity for all materials in the
steel-concrete composite element must be reduced in accordance with EN 1994-1-1
clause 6.7.3.4(2). The modulus of elasticity for the structural steel, reinforcement steel
and concrete in Table 2.8 are thus reduced to an effective value as shown below. This
reduction takes into account the effects of concrete creep and cracking in steel-concrete
composite compression members (see clause 5.4.2.2(9) and 5.4.2.3(4) in EN 1994-1-1).
45
3.1
First- and second-order effects
Ea,ef f,II = Ko Ea
(3.1a)
Es,ef f,II = Ko Es
(3.1b)
Ecm,ef f,II = Ko Ke,II Ecm

where
Ko
Ke,II
(3.1c)
is a calibration factor recommended as 0.9 and

is a correction factor recommended as 0.5.
The design value of the concrete compressive strength for a composite wall as considered is reduced with 15%. In the following the concretes design compressive strength
is termed fcc = 0.85fcd .
Eurocodes limit its extent of application to procedures that have been calibrated
by comparison with test results and/or field studies. These restrictions are surely
reasonable but also evoke undesirable material restrictions .Especially when designing
elements for high-rise buildings where a high stiffness and compression magnitude is
often desired. EN 1994-1-1 is limited to concrete classes within the range of C20/25
to C50/60, and EN 1998-1 is limited to the range of C20/25 to C40/50. The often
desirable concept in high-rise design of increasing the concrete strength class towards
the base of the building, is thus very limited when designing a dissipative member in
accordance with EN 1998-1. Structural steel strength classes are limited to the range
of S235 to S460.
3.1
First- and second-order effects
When the wall is axially loaded the increase in the moment due to first- and secondorder effects must be considered. If not included in the global analysis first-order effects
are considered by the added first-order moment M0,Ed defined as
(3.2)
M0,Ed = e0 NEd
where
e0
is the first order imperfection given by e0,z = l/200 and e0,y = l/150 for
bending about the z- and y-axis, respectively (see Table 4.1 on Page 67).
Second-order, P , effects are considered by the moment magnification method

by multiplying the first-order moment with a factor k1 (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.3.4(5)),
thus
M1,Ed = k1 M0,Ed
(3.3)
and
k1 =
where
Ncr,ef f
NEd
Ncr,ef f
(3.4)
is the critical normal force considering the effective flexural stiffness, as

explained below, and
is an equivalent moment factor determined by 0.66 + 0.44r 0.44 where
the end moments are defined by MEd and rMEd, and 1 r 1.
46
The critical normal force, or axial elastic instability force Ncr,ef f , is determined by
substituting (EI)ef f with (EI)ef f,II in Equation 3.37, where (EI)ef f,II is defined as
(EI)ef f,II = Ea,ef f,II Ia + Es,ef f,II Is + Ecm,ef f,II Ic
(3.5)
Second-order effects for an individual element are only to be considered if the ratio
between the axial elastic instability force and the design axial force cr , does not exceed
a value of ten (clause 6.7.3.4(3) in EN 1994-1-1) and if P effects are not included
in the global analysis.
Ncr,ef f
10
(3.6)
cr =
NEd
3.2
Design considerations
The external wall dimensions are limited by clause 6.7.3.1(4) in EN 1994-1-1 as the
height to width ratio of it must satisfy
hw
0.2
5.0
(3.7)
bw
where
hw
is the walls cross-sectional height and
bw
is the corresponding width or thickness of the wall, see Figure 3.1.
The minimum allowable dimension of the wall is 250mm. This is valid for both the
height, width and length (clause 7.6.1(8) in EN 1998-1). Considering the height and
width of the corss-section the requirement is thereby
bw 250mm
hw 250mm
(3.8a)
(3.8b)
To classify a compression member as being either a wall or a column, Table 3.1 may
be applied. The classification is based both the elements cross-sectional aspect ratios
and its slenderness. This considers the relations between the smallest cross-sectional
dimension bw , and the elements length l and the largest cross-sectional dimension hw .
If a compression element satisfy both criteria for a column design, the provisions of
Section 4 must be considered.
Table 3.1: Distinction criteria for the classification of a vertical compression element
as a wall or column. Here l is the elements length, hw and bw are the cross-sections
height and width, respectively, where bw < hw .
Criteria
Wall
Column
l
hw
30bw
> 4bw
60bw
4bw
The requirements as to the ductility of the wall that EN 1998-1 state (clause
7.5.2(2)P) are satisfied when the reinforcement is placed as dictated in EN 1992-1-1.
This and the additional rules in EN 1998-1 for primary seismic steel-concrete composite structures (see Section 3.2.4), results in a structural element with a global plastic
mechanism and energy dissipation in the steel-concrete composite walls vertical reinforcement and structural steel.
47
3.2
Figure 3.2: Elevation and section of the principles for placement of reinforcement and
structural steel in a composite wall (see Section 3.2.1 and 3.2.2). Here longitudinal
reinforcement is grey, transverse reinforcement green, hoop reinforcement blue and
structural steel red.
3.2.1
Concrete cover
The nominal concrete cover of the reinforcement bars is determined in accordance with
EN 1992-1-1 clause 4.4.1.2 (as prescribed in EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.5.1(3)) as the sum
of the minimum required concrete cover and a deviation contribution.
cnom = cmin + cdev
(3.9)
It is recommended that all reinforcement bars are aligned to the greatest extent
possible, thus having the same concrete cover for all surface bars. This will ease and
resemble the actual placing of the reinforcement in the finished wall. The minimum
concrete cover cmin , is determined as the largest value that satisfy both bonding and
environmental conditions, cmin,b and cmin,dur , respectively. The minimum cover must
48
however not be smaller than 10mm.

cmin = max
cmin,b
min,dur
10mm
+ cdur, cdur,st cdur,add
(3.10)
If no bars in the wall are bundled, the requirement for the cover of the reinforcement is equal to the diameter of the largest reinforcement bar cmin,b = max . This
additionally requires, that the maximum nominal aggregate size of the concrete does
not exceed dg = 32mm. The minimum cover due to environmental conditions depends
upon the exposure class of the wall. Walls in high-rise buildings are often located
within the buildings envelope and thus have inside conditions. The exposure class
such a wall section is therefore XC1. As a wall has a plate geometry and the concrete
strength classes considered in this design all are above C30, the wall section is related
to structural class S2 (see EN 1992-1-1, clause 4.4.1.2). By this cmin,dur = 10mm
(EN 1992-1-1, table 4.4N). Additional precautions due to added safety, the use of
stainless steel or additional protection may be applied, but is generally defined as
cdur, = cdur,st = cdur,add = 0mm. The value for the deviation contribution is as
recommended cdev = 10mm.
The nominal concrete cover of the structural steel section is determined in accordance with EN 1994-1-1 clause 6.7.5.1. A fully encased steel sections cover of reinforced
concrete must not be less than cnom,a .
cnom,a = max
where
bf
3.2.2
40mm
1
6 f
c
nom
(3.11)
is the width of the flange in mm, see Figure 3.1.
Spacing of reinforcement bars and structural steel
The minimum spacing between the vertical reinforcement bars is of EN 1992-1-1 clause
8.2(2) determined as
k1
smin = max dg + k2
(3.12)
20mm
where
k1 & k2
dg
are taken as their recommended values of 1 and 5mm, respectively.

is the diameter of the considered reinforcement bar and
is the maximum nominal aggregate size (maximum 32mm).
The maximum nominal aggregate size is generally to be taken as a value between

9mm to 37mm, and in accordance with what the concrete supplier can deliver. The
maximum spacing between two adjacent vertical reinforcement bars must not exceed
smax (EN 1992-1-1, clause 9.6.2(3)).
smax = min
3bw
400mm
(3.13)
49
3.2
In the walls critical regions the longitudinal reinforcement bars restrained by the
confining hoop reinforcement may not have a distance of more than 250mm between
them (clause 7.6.4(5) in EN 1998-1). The minimum and maximum distances listed
in Equation 3.12 and 3.13 above are according to clause 6.7.5.2(3) in EN 1994-1-1
also applicable for the placement of structural steel members adjacent to other steel
members and longitudinal reinforcement bars.
The transverse reinforcement should not be placed with a distance greater than
scl,tmax along the walls height, see Equation 3.14 (clauses 6.7.4.2(8) and 9.5.3(3) in
EN 1994-1-1 and EN 1992-1-1, respectively). At the top and bottom of the wall, where
it is joined to a beam and/or slab, the spacing of the transverse reinforcement is reduced
with a factor of 0.6. This is done in a range along the wall length equal to the largest
external dimension of the wall hw . By this only walls which length fulfil l > 2hw
shall have transverse reinforcement placed by the distance scl,tmax . It is noted that all
longitudinal reinforcement with > 14mm only is allowed to be lapped in zones along
the wall height, where the spacing of the transverse reinforcement is equal to or less
than 0.6scl,tmax .
20min
scl,tmax = min bw
(3.14)
400mm
where
min
is the minimum dimension of the longitudinal reinforcement bars.
To ensure confinement, no longitudinal reinforcement bar in a compression zone,

neither at the perimeter of a group nor secluded, may be placed further than 150mm
away from a confining hoop reinforcement bar (clause 9.5.3(6) in EN 1992-1-1). The
hoops lay parallel to the transverse reinforcement, but are not to be included as transverse reinforcement as they are only to offer confinement for the compression zones.
The compression zones in a wall are usually located where the hoop reinforcement is
placed in Figure 3.1. The structural steel members are a part of this compression zone
and the maximum distance to a confining hoop requirement is therefore also applicable
for them.
hw
lcl
(3.15)
lcr = max
6
0.45m
where
hw
lcl
is the largest cross-sectional dimension in m (here hw > bw ) and

is the clear wall length in m.
The length of the critical regions in a dissipating wall during an earthquake lcr , is
defined as the largest of one sixth of the clear wall length, the largest cross-sectional
dimension or 0.45m, see Equation 3.15. The critical regions are located at the walls
two ends, where adjoining a slab and/or beam. Within this region the confining hoops
may not be placed with a greater distance than (clause 7.6.4(3) in EN 1998-1)
scl,max = min
where
50
bo
2
260mm
9d
bL
(3.16)
bo
dbL
is the minimum dimension of the confined concrete core measured from the
centreline of the confining hoops and
is the minimum diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bars within the
confined hoop.
Outside of the distance lcr confining hoops should be placed at a maximum distance
of scl,tmax . In the lower two stories of a multi storey building the critical length of the
walls should conservatively be considered as their entire length, hence lcr = l (clause
7.6.4(6) in EN 1998-1).
3.2.3
Structural steel and reinforcement requirements
The area of the longitudinal reinforcement bars must not be larger than 6%, or smaller
than 0.3% of the concrete area (clauses 6.7.3.1(3) and 6.7.5.2(1) in EN 1994-1-1, respectively).
0.003Ac As 0.06Ac
(3.17)
where
Ac
is the net concrete area as Ac = bw hw Aa As
This hereby allow composite walls to have a larger area of longitudinal reinforcement
than non-composite walls, as clause 9.6.2(1) in EN 1992-1-1 dictate that 0.002Ac
As 0.04Ac for regular reinforced concrete walls. To control concrete cracking and
prevent damage to the wall, a minimum area of the longitudinal reinforcement is required (clause 7.4.2(1) EN 1994-1-1). This is determined in accordance with clause
7.3.2(2) in EN 1992-1-1.
kc kfct,ef f Act
(3.18)
As,min =
s
where
kc
is a coefficient which takes account of the stress distribution, see Equation
3.19,
k
is equal to 1.0 if h 300mm and 0.65 is h 800mm, where h is the height
of the cross-section in the bending direction. For 800 > h > 300 linear
interpolation is applied.
fct,ef f
is the mean value of the concretes tensile strength, taken as its recommended minimum value of 3M P a (EN 1994-1-1, clause 7.4.2(1)),
Act
is the area of the concrete in tension prior to cracking, evaluated by an
elastic stress distribution, and
s
is the maximum tension in the reinforcement after cracking, which may be
taken as the characteristic yield strength fsk .
The coefficient which considers the stress distribution within the section prior to
cracking is kc = 1.0 for sections in full tension, and otherwise calculated by
c
kc = 0.4 1
h
k1 h fct,ef f
where
c
h
k1
1.0
(3.19)
is the mean stress of the concrete c = NEd /(bw hw ),

is h = h 1.0m, where h is the height of the cross-section in the direction
of bending and
is a coefficient considering the effects of the axial force. k1 = 1.5 if NEd is
a compressive force and k1 = 2h /(3h) if NEd is a tensile force.
51
3.2
The diameter of the transverse reinforcement bars must be larger than sw,min
(clauses 9.6.4(1) and 9.5.3(1) in EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1998-1, clause 7.6.4(4)).
sw,min = max
where
max
6mm
1/4max
(3.20)
is the diameter of the largest longitudinal reinforcement bar in the wall.
The total area of the transverse reinforcement at one side of the wall must be at
least equal to (EN 1992-1-1, clause 9.6.4)
As,hmin = max
0.25As
0.001Ac
(3.21)
If the structural steel member does not have sufficient concrete cover, hence if
Equation 3.11 is not satisfied, confining hoops may be added to restrict flange buckling.
By this all hoops placed in the confining zone around the structural steel member must
have a diameter calculated by Equation 3.22 according to EN 1998-1, clause 7.6.4(4)
and (10). If the necessary concrete cover is provided in the design, the only requirement
from EN 1998-1 is bw,min 6mm and Equation 3.20 also apply for the minimum
dimension of the hoop reinforcement.
bw,min = max
where
bf
tf
6mm
q
bf tf
8
fyd
fsd
(3.22)
is the total width of the structural steel flange and

is the flanges thickness.
The structural steel must not have a contribution ratio larger than 0.9 or lower than
0.2 (clause 6.7.1(4) in EN 1994-1-1). If the steel contribution ratio , is lower than 0.2,
the wall is to be designed as a reinforced concrete wall according to EN 1992-1-1. If the
ratio is larger than 0.9, the wall is to be designed by the structural steels characteristics
according to EN 1993-1-1.
0.2 0.9
(3.23)
where
is the steel contribution ratio defined as = Aa fyd /Npl,Rd . Npl,Rd is the

plastic resistance to compression defined in Equation 3.34.
Equation 3.23 thus defines the interval of which EN 1994-1-1 is applicable, by considering the structural steels contribution to the walls compressive resistance.
For perforated structural steel members in tension clause 7.6.1(3) of EN 1998-1
require that the design plastic resistance of a steel members gross cross-section is less
than the design ultimate resistance of the net cross-section. The requirement yields
Npl,a,Rd < Nu,a,Rd
where
Npl,a,Rd
Nu,a,Rd
52
(3.24)
is the structural steel members design plastic resistance determined by

Aa fyk /M 0 and
is the structural steel members design ultimate resistance determined by
0.9Aa,net fuk /M 2 .
3.2.4
Cyclic plastic response
To satisfy the plastic rotation demands for a wall in DCM Equation 3.25 must be satisfied (EN 1998-1, clause 7.6.4(2)). In relation to this the spacing of the hoops that
surround the confinement zones may be altered, though still to satisfy the requirements
in Equation 3.14 and 3.16. It is further required that at least one intermediate longitudinal reinforcement bar is placed inside of the confining hoop between all corner
bars (EN 1998-1, clauses 5.4.3.2.2(2)P and 5.4.3.3(3)P). It is noted that the distance
between all longitudinal reinforcement bars placed within a confining hoop should not
be placed further apart than 250mm in DCM, see Page 49
wd 30 d sy,d
where
bw
0.035
bo
(3.25)
is the confinement effectiveness factor given by the product of n and s .

P
Here n = 1 b2i /6bo ho and s = (1 s/2bo )(1 s/2ho ), where s is the
n
wd
d
sy,d
bw
distance between the placement of the confinement hoops along the walls
height in the critical regions, n is the total number of longitudinal reinforcement bars within the confinement zone and bi is the distance between
consecutive engaged longitudinal reinforcement bars within the confining
hoop.
is the mechanical volumetric ratio of confining hoops within the critical
regions, given by wd = Vch /Vcc fsd /fcd , where Vch is the volume of the
confining hoops and Vcc is the volume of the concrete core outlined by the
confining hoops.
is the curvature ductility factor of the critical regions according to clause
5.2.3.4(3) EN 1998-1, where it is stated that = 2q0 1 if T1 TC and
= 1 + 2(q0 1)TC /T1 if T1 > TC . The value of is to be multiplied
with 1.5 if steel of class B is used (EN 1998-1, clause 5.2.3.4(4)).
is the normalised design axial force defined as d = NEd /Npl,Rd ,
is the design value of the tension steel strain at yield. This is taken as the
structural steels capability according to Hookes Law sy,d = fsd/Esd and
is the walls width.
Complying with the demand above ensures a wall with a plastic rotation capacity
capable of undergoing deformation and yet still maintain its expected plastic moment
capacity (Fardis, 2009, chapter 3). This design thus dictate that the steel-concrete
composite wall will dissipate energy by cyclic bending deformations in the vertical
structural steel sections and reinforcement within the confinement zone(s). If a wall
has more than one confinement zone delimited by hoop reinforcement, each of these
must satisfy Equation 3.25. Except at the lower stories of buildings, vertical supporting
elements such as walls or columns are generally not designed to be dissipative. The
requirement above is therefore only applicable where it is deemed appropriate (clause
7.6.1(14) EN 1998-1).
3.3
Bending moment resistance
The moment resistance is found by the theory of plasticity by considering rectangular

stress blocks for the concrete in compression, structural steel and reinforcement bars
in accordance with clause 6.7.3.2(2) to 6.7.3.2(6) in EN 1994-1-1. This is done by
53
3.3
Bending moment resistance
determining the product of the strength for the considered material and its plastic
section modulus, MRd = fd Wpl . The plastic section modulus is calculated by
Wpl =
n
X
i=1
where
n
Ai
ei
|Ai ei |
(3.26)
is the number of considered area objects,

is the area of the considered area object and
is the distance from the relevant neutral axis to the center of the considered
area object.
The maximum bending moment capacity is determined with reference to the geometric neutral axis (GNA) by summation of the structural steel, reinforcement and
concrete contributions.
Mmax,Rd = Wpl,GN A,afyd + Wpl,GN A,s fsd + Wpl,GN A,cfcc
(3.27)
where
Wpl,GN A is the plastic section modulus with reference to the geometrical neutral axis
for the structural steel, reinforcement and concrete, Wpl,GN A,a, Wpl,GN A,s
and Wpl,GN A,c, respecively, and
f
is the design material strength of the structural steel, reinforcement and
concrete, fyd , fsd and fcc , respectively.
The plastic bending moment capacity is determined with reference to the plastic
neutral axis (PNA, see Section 3.3.1) by
Mpl,Rd = Wpl,P N A,afyd + Wpl,P N A,sfsd + Wpl,P N A,cfcc
(3.28)
where
Wpl,P N A is the plastic section modulus with reference to the plastic neutral axis for
the structural steel, reinforcement and concrete, Wpl,P N A,a, Wpl,P N A,s and
Wpl,P N A,c, respecively.
Similarly the characteristic plastic bending moment capacity is defined as
Mpl,Rk = Wpl,P N A,afyk + Wpl,P N A,sfsk + Wpl,P N A,c0.85fck
(3.29)
The moment resistance of the structural steel alone can thus be calculated by
Mpl,a,Rd = Wpl,P N A,afyd . If the shear stress in the shear affected area of the structural steel exceed half of its plastic shear capacity, the area of the structural steel
that is influenced by shear must have its strength with regard to the bending moment
resistance, reduced by (1 ). This is described further in Section 3.5.
To verify that the bending capacity of the wall, when affected by moment only
(without second-order effects and imperfections), Equation 3.30a and 3.30b must be
satisfied.
Mz,Ed
1.0
Mz,pl,Rd
My,Ed
1.0
My,pl,Rd
54
(3.30a)
(3.30b)
3.3.1
Plastic neutral axis
Figure 3.3 show a principle sketch of a composite cross-section with concrete, white area,
and steel, grey area. The steel in this principle matter is both that of the structural
steel members and the reinforcement bars. In accordance with the design requirements
the concrete and steel is placed symmetrically around the sections two major axis.
When the section is subjected to bending only the neutral axis is the PNA at the top,
whereas the concrete in region I is in compression. With both bending and axial force
the location of the PNA reverse from the top axis to the bottom axis. At this state
the bending moment resistance is obviously the same, as the section is symmetric, and
the axial force resistance is equal to the stress change in region II (as described by
Johnson and Anderson, 2004, appendix C).
Npm,Rd = (Ac fcc)II + 2(Aa fyd + As fsd)II
where
Npm,Rd
II
(3.31)
is the design compressive resistance of the concrete in the whole section

and
(subscript) indicate that within region II in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Principle sketch of double symmetric cross-section with concrete (white)
and steel (gray), used to place the plastic neutral axis (PNA).
Npm,Rd is the design compressive resistance of the whole concrete area in the wall
section, hence
Npm,Rd = Ac fcc = (Ac fcc )I + 2(Ac fcc )II
(3.32)
From the required equilibrium of Equation 3.31 and 3.32 the PNA can be placed
by satisfying
(Ac fcc )I = (Aa fyd + As fsd )II
(3.33)
3.4
Axial force resistance
The axial compression resistance is represented in two variations, (1) the compressive
resistance by the concrete alone, and (2) the plastic resistance to compression. The
latter is expressed in Equation 3.34 whilst (1) is previously determined in Equation
3.32.
Npl,Rd = Aa fyd + Ac fcc + As fsd
(3.34)
To verify that the compressive capacity of the wall, when affected by axial force
55
3.4
Axial force resistance
only is sufficient, Equation 3.35a and 3.35b must be satisfied.

NEd
1.0
z Npl,Rd
NEd
1.0
y Npl,Rd
(3.35a)
(3.35b)
Tension capacities are considered in Equations 3.45 and 3.46. These shall satisfy
NEd /Npl,t 1.0 and NEd /Nt,Rd 1.0 where NEd is a tension force.
3.4.1
Concretes effective modulus of elasticity
The concretes effective modulus of elasticity takes into account the loss of stiffness
due to the time dependent creep of the concrete wall. The creep coefficient t of
EN 1994-1-1 clause 5.4.2.2(2) is equivalent to that of clause 3.1.4(2) in EN 1992-1-1,
hence t = (t, t0 ). The time t is to be taken as infinity to find the long-term creep
coefficient and the time that the wall is loaded t0 may e.g. be taken as 10 days, whereas
the creep coefficient is determined as (, 10). By this the concrete wall is not to be
loaded with a stress larger than 0.45fck (t0 ) until after the time t0 (clause 3.1.4(2)
EN 1992-1-1). With information on the cement type used and the walls conditions,
inside or outside, the creep coefficient can be read from the graphs in Figure 3.1a and
b in EN 1992-1-1. The notional size h0 representing the part of the wall exposed to
drying, is determined by h0 = 2Ac /u, where u is the exposed perimeter of the walls
cross-section. After having determined the creep coefficient as described above, the
effective modulus of elasticity can be calculated by (formula 6.41 in EN 1994-1-1)
Ec,ef f =
where
Ecm
NEd
NG,Ed
Ecm
1+
NG,Ed
NEd t
(3.36)
is the concretes secant modulus of elasticity,

is the total design normal force and
is the part of NEd caused by permanent loads.
Construction of the above structures, e.g. adjacent beams and slabs, must thus
follow at least 10 days behind the casting of the wall if any load induction exceeds
0.45fck (t).
3.4.2
Reduction for buckling
To consider the walls tendency to buckle the plastic resistance to compression Npl,Rd
must be reduced with a factor corresponding to the relevant buckling mode . Note
that fulfilment of the following does not ensure that the steel member wont suffer from
instability issues, should it not be provided with sufficient cover and confinement.
The buckling mode is represented by a coherent buckling curve. The buckling curve
for a steel-concrete composite wall depends on the orientation of the strong and weak
axis of the wall. Rotation of the steel members does therefore not entail a change
in axis orientation and buckling curves. For buckling about the walls y y axis the
appropriate buckling curve is curve b (see table 6.5 in EN 1994-1-1). The imperfection
factor is thus y = 0.34 as of table 6.1 in EN 1993-1-1. The buckling curve for buckling
56
about the z z axis corresponds to buckling curve c, whereas the imperfection factor
is z = 0.49 (see Table 4.1 on Page 67).
The elastic critical normal force, Euler force, is calculated by
Ncr =
where
(EI)ef f
K
l
2 (EI)ef f
(Kl)2
(3.37)
is the effective flexural stiffness of a steel-concrete composite wall used to

see Equation 3.38,
determine ,
is the effective length factor and
is the walls free length.
The product of K and l in Equation 3.37 is the walls effective length L, where K
depends on the walls end support conditions. The connection of a concrete wall or
column to its foundation may argumentatively be considered as either hinged or fixed.
Normal engineering practice is to consider the connection of concrete elements as fixed,
whereas the base forces are transferred more efficiently. Steel frame structures should
however most often be considered hinged, regardless of how the columns are connected
to the foundation. Concrete columns and walls between stories may be considered fixed
at both ends, if they are constructed in a continuous manner and connected properly
to the intersecting floor diaphragm. By this K = 0.5 for most common cases, as both
ends of all concrete columns and walls may be considered with fixed support conditions.
Some procedures dictate that concrete columns and walls shall be designed as hinged
at both ends, K = 1.0, and their connections to slabs, foundations and beams as
fixed (Taranath, 2011). This approach will however yield an over dimensioned and
uneconomical design.
The effective flexural stiffness of the wall is determined in accordance with clause
6.7.3.3(3) in EN 1994-1-1.
(EI)ef f = Ea Ia + Es Is + Ke Ec,ef f Ic
where
I
Ke
(3.38)
is the moment of inertia for the structural steel, reinforcement and uncracked concrete and
is a reduction factor to allow cracking of the concrete, taken as its recommended value of 0.6.
The relative slenderness for the considered plane of bending is (EN 1994-1-1, clause
6.7.3.3(2) and 6.7.3.1(1)))
s
Npl,Rk
2.0
(3.39)
=
Ncr
The reduction factor for buckling is calculated according to clause 6.3.1.2(1) in
EN 1993-1-1.
1
p
=
1.0
(3.40)
2
+ 2
where

0.2 +
2 ,
is a factor used to determine , equal to = 0.5 1 +

where is the imperfection factor for the considered direction, as described
on Page 57.
57
3.5
Shear resistance
3.5
Shear resistance
The design plastic shear resistance is determined on the basis of the structural steels
resistance alone (clause 7.6.4(7) in EN 1998-1), hence VRd = Va,Rd . This is done in
accordance with clause 6.2.6 in EN 1993-1-1 (see EN 1998-1, clause 6.2.2.2(2)) by von
Mises yield criterion for shear resistance.
fyd
Vpl,a,Rd = Aa,v
3
where
Aa,v
(3.41)
is the shear affected area of the structural steel member(s) (area of flanges
or web(s) depending on the direction of the shear force).
To take into account the influence that shear has on the bending moment resistance
the area of the structural steel that is influenced by shear must have its strength
reduced by (1 ), if the shear stress exceed half of its plastic shear capacity. This
reduction does hereby not influence the axial or shear force capacity (EN 1994-1-1,
clause 6.2.2.4(2) and the restriction below is only applicable to the strength of structural
steel members when calculating the bending moment capacity.
Va,Ed > 0.5Vpl,a,Rd Aa,v fyd = (1 )Aa,v fyd
where
(3.42)
is the parameter related to the reduced design bending resistance accounting for vertical shear equal to =
2VEd
VRd
2
1 .
As mentioned in the preceding the reinforced concretes resistance to shear is not

considered in the procedure described above, because of restrictions due to the seismic design. If however a wall should be designed with no dissipative effects, as a
secondary seismic member, the shear force could be separated into a structural steel
contribution and a concrete contribution by Va,Ed = VEd Mpl,a,Rd /Mpl,Rd and Vc,Ed =
VEd Va,Ed , respectively. The reinforced concrete is then to be designed in accordance
with EN 1992-1-1 regarding its resistance to shear, and the structural steel should be
designed according to that described above. The walls shear resistance will thus be
the sum of the contributions from the concrete and structural steel.
To verify that the shear capacity of the wall is sufficient Equation 3.43a and 3.43b
must be satisfied.
Vz,Ed
1.0
Vz,pl,Rd
Vy,Ed
1.0
Vy,pl,Rd
3.6
(3.43a)
(3.43b)
Force interaction
The capacity verification for bending moment, axial and shear force, individually, has
been shown in the previous sections. The combined interaction of these forces however
has other verification requirements as they often pose a greater risk of failure, see
Section 3.6.1.
An efficient way of checking and verifying a wall design for uni-axial bending and
axial force interaction, is by visualising the restrictions that these simultaneously occurring forces has on the wall. This is conveniently done with a moment-normal force
58
interaction curve (M-N curve). The shear interaction is considered by reducing the
bending moment capacity, as described in Section 3.5. Though the bending is biaxial,
the wall sections capacity may be evaluated by considering the moment-normal force
interaction for each major axis of bending.
The M-N curve is defined in selected points, which by linear connection define
the bending and compression interaction limits (see EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.3.2 and
6.7.3.7). The following six general points, A to F , are defined to outline the M-N interaction curve.
A
B
C
D
E
F
is the full compressive resistance of the wall Npl,Rd , from Equation 3.34.
is the pure plastic bending resistance Mpl,Rd , see Equation 3.28.
is the bending resistance Mpl,Rd , and the allowable compressive force at
this state Npm,Rd , defined in Equation 3.32.
is the maximum allowable bending moment for the wall Mmax,Rd , see
Equation 3.27, combined with half the compressive resistance of the
concrete alone 0.5Npm,Rd .
is the plastic tension moment Mpl,t, combined with the plastic tension
force Npl,t , see Equation 3.44 and 3.45, respectively.
is the point where the wall is utilised in full tension Nt,Rd , see Equation
3.46.
The principles described above are shown in Figure 3.4. The curve outlined by the
described points is valid in the interval where NRd is both positive and negative, and
MRd is positive. For negative MRd the related points B to E are defined by mirroring
the curve in the N -axis. This is valid due to the double symmetry, and hence similar
positive and negative moment capacity, of the wall. The points A to D are determined
as described in the preceding in accordance with EN 1994-1-1, clause 3.7.3.2(5). As
this only considers a compression member, the points E and F have been added to
allow the design of tension members as well.
The plastic tension moment used in the definition of point E is based on the moment
capacity of the structural steel and reinforcement for bending about the PNA. The
concrete does not contribute to the moment capacity as the entire section at this state
is in tension. The plastic tension moment is thus determined by
Mpl,t = Wpl,P N A,afyd + Wpl,P N A,sfsd
(3.44)
The sections remaining tension capacity after bending about the PNA, is that of
the structural steel and reinforcement in region I shown in Figure 3.3. From the bending
alone this area will be in compression, whereas the tension capacity may be utilised
resulting in a full tension state. The plastic tension force is
Npl,t = (Aa fyd )I + (As fsd )I
(3.45)
The sections full tension capacity when not affected by bending corresponds to the
full tension capacity of all structural steel and reinforcement.
Nt,Rd = Aa fyd + As fsd
(3.46)
The graphical representation of point A to F and B to E for a random crosssection, is seen in Figure 3.5. The curve hereby outlines the interaction of the bending
moment and axial force capacity of the considered cross-section. As point D is almost
vertically aligned with point C and B in Figure 3.5b the PNA is almost coincident with
the GNA.
59
3.6
Force interaction
Figure 3.4: Bending and compression interaction. Greyed area is the resulting compression (positive +) area, white is tension (negative -).
3.6.1
Combined compression and biaxial bending capacity verification
Walls and other similar compression members will always be affected by some degree
of bending moment, if not originating from external forces then by structural imperfections, as discussed in Section 3.1. Some degree of biaxial bending is thus always
present and must be considered.
The three equations below must be satisfied to ensure the walls capacity to combined compression and biaxial bending.3.5
My,Ed
M
dy Mpl,y,Rd
Mz,Ed
M
dz Mpl,z,Rd
My,Ed
Mz,Ed
+
1.0
dy Mpl,y,Rd dz Mpl,z,Rd
where
d
M
60
(3.47a)
(3.47b)
(3.48)
may be determined by Equation 3.49

is a factor considering the risk of premature concrete crushing. M = 0.9
for steel in class S235 to S355 and M = 0.8 for S420 and S460.
(a) y-axis.
(b) z-axis.
Figure 3.5: M-N interaction curves for a random cross-section. For application in
Equation 3.49, NEd should be taken as NEd,max .
The factor d is calculated by Equation 3.49 below, and is generally not to be taken
as a value larger than 1.0. If however the utilization of the bending moment capacity
in one direction is considerably low compared to the other direction, d may be taken
as its actual value.
MRd (NEd,max )
(3.49)
d =
Mpl,Rd
where
NEd,max is the maximum compression force affecting the wall and
MRd (NEd,max ) is the moment of resistance corresponding to the intersection of
NEd,max and the interaction curve in Figure 3.4
3.7
Structural steel and concrete shear connection
In the previous sections it has been assumed that the encased structural steel member(s)
and the surrounding concrete act with a constant planar cross-section upon loading.
This assumption is however only valid, if the steel and concrete has sufficient ability to
transfer the shear forces that occur at the interface between them. The contributions
to this shear capacity is the resistance due to friction between the two materials and
additional mechanical shear resistance that may be added by welding headed shear
connectors onto the structural steel member(s). In the literature these shear connectors
are referred to as shear studs, Nelson dowels and headed studs, to name a few. In the
following the term headed stud is used according to Eurocode.
The shear strength from friction depends on the encasement of the structural steel
member and its surface treatment. By this it is required that the steel surface is
untreated and clean upon casting of the concrete. From Table 4.2 the design shear
strength for a completely concrete encased steel section is read to Rd = 0.30M P a
(EN 1994-1-1, table 6.6). This value is applicable for the minimum concrete cover of
40mm (see Equation 3.11 on Page 49). For a greater concrete cover the read value for
61
3.7
Rd may be increased by the factor (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.4.3(4))

c = 1 + 0.02c 1
where
c
cmin
cmin
c
2.5
(3.50)
is the applied concrete cover in mm (also see Equation 3.51a and 3.51b)
and
is the minimum concrete cover of 40mm.
For a primary seismic member EN 1998-1, clause 7.6.1(11) prescribes that Rd is to

be reduced by 50% for design. c may however still be applied.
The nominal concrete cover, delimiting the concrete shear zone, included in these
and the following calculations must however not assume greater values than (EN 1994-1-1,
clause 6.7.3.1(1))
(3.51a)
cz 0.3ha
(3.51b)
cy 0.4ba
where
z&y
ha & ba
(subscript) refers to the local z and y-axis of the structural steel section
and
is the largest cross-sectional height and width, respectively, of the structural
steel section.
The resistance shear force related to friction is in accordance with Johnson and Anderson
(2004) determined by Equation 3.52, here shown for the calculation of the shear force
in the x direction, when affected by shear in the z direction.
Vz,f,Rd =
where
Rd
Iy
bex
Aex
z
Rd Iy bex
Aex z
(3.52)
is the friction design shear strength,

is the moment of inertia about the y-axis for the composite wall (for Vy,f,Rd
Iz is applied),
is the length of the steel-concrete shear interface,
is the area of the concrete shear zone and
is the distance from the walls center of gravity to the shear zones center of
gravity.
If the shear resistance from friction alone is not sufficient, hence if Vz,f,Rd < Vs,Ed
(see Equation 3.56 below), headed studs must be added to increase the shear resistance
between the structural steel section and the concrete. The headed studs must be in
accordance with EN 14555 and their welds with EN 13918. The design shear resistance
of a single headed stud is (according to clause 6.6.3.1(1) EN 1994-1-1)
PRd = min
where
62
0.8fuk d2sc /4
V
0.29d2sc fck Ecm
V
(3.53)
fuk
dsc
V
is the characteristic ultimate tensile strength of the headed stud,

is the diameter of the headed studs shank (16mm d 25mm),
is the partial factor taken as itsrecommended
value of 1.25 and

hsc
hsc
sc
is equal to 1 for dsc > 4 and 0.2 dsc + 1 for 3 hdsc
4, where hsc is the
headed studs length.
If the headed studs are placed in between two flanges of a structural steel section, an
increase of PRd is allowed, due the the extra confinement preventing lateral expansion
of the concrete in this area. The value PRd may be added by the value from Equation
3.54 only if the free distance between the flanges is less than 300mm, 400mm, and
600mm for the placement of 1, 2 or 3, headed studs, respectively (clause 6.7.4.2(4) and
figure 6.21 in EN 1994-1-1). These distances also limit the allowable number of headed
studs that may be placed in between two flanges.
PRd
1+
2
where
(3.54)
is the relevant coefficient of concrete friction, taken as its recommended

value of 0.5.
By this the total shear resistance between the structural steel and the concrete is
Vs,Rd = Vf,Rd + nPRd
where
n
(3.55)
is the number of headed studs resisting shear.
Though no direct guidelines are given in EN 1994-1-1, the inbound distance between
headed studs in a column or other compression members, and the distance to adjacent
steel elements within the wall should be considered. With regard to clause 6.6.1.1(1)
in EN 1994-1-1 it is considered appropriate to apply clause 6.6.1.3(5) herein, which
considers spacing of shear connectors in beams for buildings, see Section 5.5. The necessary number of headed studs must thus be distributed along the wall length between
a point of maximum positive moment and an adjacent support or point of maximum
negative moment. The minimum individual distance is according to Equation 5.64.
The force that a shear connection is to be designed to resist may be determined by
two methods. (1) by calculating the shear force at the steel-concrete interface that occur
upon loading of the composite element. (2) As the smallest of the force resultants from
a plastic stress distribution corresponding to the elements plastic bending capacity,
separated at the steel-concrete shear interface. The latter is shown in Figure 3.6, where
the resultants P1 and P2 are those of the stress blocks for the plastic stress distribution
for bending about the elements plastic neutral axis. By (2) a full shear connection is
established as it has a capacity that will ensure its functioning up to the point of total
failure of the element. By (1) a partial shear connection is established as it does not have
the capacity for the beam to reach its maximum loading. The shear connection will
thus fail before the moment capacity is exceeded. When the element is loaded beyond
what is considered in the design, a ductile behaviour of the headed studs will take
effect and permanent plastic deformations together with local concrete crushing may
occur. Eurocodes consider these two methods of design only for composite elements
in buildings. For bridges no comments on partial or full shear connections are made,
63
3.7
as the only method considered is that of a full shear connection. In terms of this full
shear connections require less design effort, pose a more secure design and add very
little extra cost to the construction of the element. The design of shear connections
considered within this section is therefore that for a full shear connection.
Vs,Ed = min
P1
P2
(3.56)
The shear force that must be resisted by friction and the headed studs Vs,Ed, is
thus determined on the basis of the plastic moment resistance Mpl,Rd . The bending
moment resistance is divided into to resulting forces P1 and P2 , separated by the shear
interface, delimiting the shear zone (zone 1 in Figure 3.6). The smallest of these forces
equal the shear force that must be resisted, see Equation 3.56 (Quimby, 2008, chapter
10).
Figure 3.6: Principle of determining Vs,Ed for a composite section (reinforcement not
shown) with a full shear connection.
If the expression below is satisfied the shear resistance for slip between the structural
steel and the concrete is sufficient. By this the steel-concrete composite cross-section
can be considered planar when undergoing loading, as assumed in the preceding calculations (see EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.2(4)). If Equation 3.57 is not satisfied the non-linear
behaviour at the shear interface upon loading must be considered, and the methods of
design described within Section 3 are rendered invalid. For all steel-concrete configurations multiple shear interface may need to be considered. Both major axis of bending
shall always be considered and shear interfaces be identified and ensured sufficient shear
capacity
Vs,Ed
1.0
(3.57)
Vs,Rd
64
Design of steel-concrete composite columns
As mentioned in Section 3 the design procedures for columns resemble that for walls
extensively. The requirements from EN 1994-1-1 stated in Section 3 is therefore applicable for the design of steel-concrete composite columns, when the provisions described
within this Section are considered. This section is therefore to be considered as a
commentary to Section 3, describing the relevant changes to this, when designing a
steel-concrete composite column instead of a wall. The reader is therefore encouraged
to familiarise him- or herself with the provisions of Section 3 before reading any further.
(a) Columns with fully encased structural steel

member.
(b) Columns with partially encased structural steel

member.
(c) Concrete in-filled columns.
Figure 4.1: Example of steel-concrete composite column configurations applicable for

design in accordance with the procedure described within this Section (shear connectors,
hoop and transverse reinforcement not shown).
When considering a steel-concrete composite column three general types may be
defined. (1) Columns with a fully encased structural steel member, (2) columns with
one or more partially encased structural steel members and (3) concrete in-filled hollow structural steel members. The following design procedures are applicable to all
three types, as long as they resemble those shown in Figure 4.1. The criteria for a
satisfactory design are those shown on Page 43, with regard to the columns ultimate
limit states, and on Page 45, for servicability limit states. In the following only the
former is considered as compliance with the latter is encompassed by the requirements
in Section 6. It is noted that the application of the procedures from Section 3 are
based on the simplified method of design from EN 1994-1-1, whereas the requirements
for cross-section uniformity and double symmetry also apply herein. The requirement
from clause 6.7.3.1(1) in EN 1994-1-1 stating that all structural steel elements within
the composite wall or column must be connected, see Page 43, is easier obtained in
65
columns than it is in walls. The design of columns must thus strive to comply with this
requirement, in spite of the comments on this subject in the previous section.
When calculating section forces of a steel-concrete composite column, the materials
stiffness properties must be reduced in accordance with Equations 3.1a to 3.1c. The
design compressive strength of the concrete is fcc = 0.85fcd , for columns of type (1) and
(2), as described above. When the column is a circular hollow concrete in-filled steel
section hence, type (3), fcc = 1.0fcd may be applied, due to the increase of concrete
confinement (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.3.2(1)). When calculating the plastic resistance
to compression for a type (3) column, Equation 3.34 may be replaced with Equation
4.1, also as a result of the extra confinement that the steel section provides for the
concrete (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.7.3.2(6)). This is however limited only to apply to
0.5, see Equation 3.39.
columns which relative slenderness of
Npl,Rd = a Aa fyd + Ac fcd
where
a & c
ta fyk
1 + c
do fck
+ As Fsd
(4.1)
are calculated by Equation 4.2 below.
The factor a considers the loss of strength in the hollow steel section due to the
circumferential tension that occur, when it confines the concretes expansion upon axial
loading. c describes the increase of the concrete strength due to the confinement.
Though EN 1994-1-1 only allow for Equation 4.1 to be applied to concrete in-filled
columns with a circular cross-section. Its appliance for rectangular cross-sections is
however also confirmed by Johnson and Anderson (2004).
for e = 0

1.0
a = ao = 0.25 2 + 2
2 0
c = co = 4.9 18.5 + 17
(4.2a)
(4.2b)
e
0.1
for 0 <
do
a = ao + (1 ao ) 10

c = co 1 10
for
e
> 0.1
do
a = 1.0
e
do
e
do
c = 0
where
e
(4.2c)
(4.2d)
(4.2e)
(4.2f)
is the eccentricity of the force calculated by e = MEd /NEd .
First- and second order effects must be considered for all columns, where this is not
included in the global analysis. The procedure for this is described in Section 3.1 on
Page 46. The imperfections to apply e0,z and e0,y , can be read from Table 4.1 for the
relevant section composition.
The columns cross-sectional dimensions must satisfy the criteria for a column design
in Table 3.1. The largest external dimensions must also satisfy Equations 3.7 and 3.8
66
Table 4.1: Buckling coefficients and member imperfections for steel-concrete compressive members. The reinforcement steel ratio is s = As /Ac . If the column has no steel
reinforcement, As = 0mm2 , the values for s 3% shall be applied.
Type
buckling
Axis of
(1)
y-y
z-z
Requirement(s)
y
e0,z
z
e0,y
Iy
s
0.34
l/200
0.49
l/150
> Iz
(2)
0.34
l/200
0.49
l/150
> Iz
0.34
l/200
0.34
l/200
= Iz
(3)
0.21
0.34
l/300 l/200
0.21
0.34
l/300 l/200
= Iz
3% > 3%
6%
0.34
l/200
0.34
l/200
> Iz
for this design procedure to be applicable. For columns of circular cross-section this
requirement is rendered irrelevant as hw /bw = 1. All requirements for cover and spacing
of reinforcement in Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 also apply for columns. If however the
required cover from Equation 3.11 is not provided for a structural steel member, local
plate buckling must be considered. For partially encased members or hollow concrete
in-filled members, which have exposed steel parts, the dimensions of the structural
steel member must be in compliance with Equations 4.3a to 4.3c. This will assure
that local plate buckling is not a possible failure mode for the columns exposed steel
parts. Equation 4.3a is valid for circular in-filled columns, 4.3b for rectangular in-filled
columns and 4.3c for partially encased structural steel members. For the latter the
requirement must be fulfilled for all flanges without sufficient concrete cover.
do
902
ta
ha
52
tf
bf
44
tf
where
do
ta
ha
for circular in-filled columns
(4.3a)
for rectangular in-filled columns
(4.3b)
for partially encased columns
(4.3c)
is the outer diameter of the circular hollow section (CHS),

is the wall thickness of the CHS,
is the largest external dimensions of the rectangular hollow section (RHS)
and
is as in Table 5.1.
The requirements concerning the cross-sectional area of dimensions of the structural

steel and reinforcement in Section 3.2.3 apply equally for columns. The design of transverse reinforcement may however often be overruled by the requirements for confining
hoops, as the entire area delimited by the exterior longitudinal reinforcement bars may
be considered as a compression zone. A columns capability of dissipating energy by
cyclic plastic deformations is for composite columns with concrete in-filled structural
steel sections, type (3), considered sufficient, as concrete confinement is provided by
the structural steel member. This is however only correct if local plate buckling of the
structural steel member is of no risk, hence if Equation 4.3a or 4.3b is satisfied. The
67
evaluation of the cyclic plastic response, as considered in Equation 3.25, is therefore

irrelevant for composite columns with this configuration. The requirement must however be satisfied for composite columns with partially or fully encased structural steel
members, type (1) and (2). Herein n = 1 and s = (1 s/2D0 )n for confinement
zones with circular hoops. D0 is the confinement zones diameter measured at the centreline of the hoop and n = 2 if spiral hoops are used and else n = 1 (clause 5.4.3.2.2,
EN 1998-1). Additionally wd 0.08 should be satisfied within the critical regions of
primary seismic columns.
A steel-concrete composite columns moment and compression resistances are calculated as described above and in Sections 3.3 and 3.4. A columns shear resistance
is calculated in accordance with the provisions of Section 3.5. The shear affected area
of a column is, as for a wall, considered only as the structural steel sections shear affected area. This may for circular hollow steel sections be calculated by Aa,v = 2Aa /
EN 1993-1-1, clause 6.2.6(3). Force interactions are evaluated in accordance with Section 3.6 and the structural steel and concrete shear connectors are to be designed as
described in Section 3.7.
When designing the shear connection of a hollow concrete in-filled steel section,
the shear force to be resisted may be calculated by Equation 4.4. This is similar to
Equation 3.56 but with the forces P1 and P2 defined by the columns compression
capacities separated at the shear interface.
Vs,Ed = min
Ac fcc + As fsd
Aa fyd
(4.4)
The shear resistance from friction in the steel-concrete interface, Rd , may be applied
by the values listed in Table 4.2. The shear resistance related to friction may be
calculated by Equation 3.52.
Table 4.2: Design shear strength for steel-concrete interfaces.
(2)
(3)
RHS[3]
Type
(1)
Flange[1]
Web[1]
CHS[2]
Rd [M P a]
0.30
0.20
0.00
0.55
0.40
[1] :
Concrete encased part

Circular Hollow Section
[3] : Rectangular Hollow Section
[2] :
The shear connection considered is thus established by welding headed studs to the
structural steel member at its shear interface(s) with the concrete. For circular or
rectangular hollow steel sections this may not be the most feasible method, as work
inside of the tube is difficult if not impossible. In columns of this type a shear connection
is often established by nailed shear connectors instead. The nails are punched through
the wall of the steel section before the concrete is poured, and thus form a connection
between the structural steel member and the in-filled concrete. This method is limited
for sections with thick walls, and the reduction of the steel cross-sections net area must
be be considered when calculating its capacities.
68
Design of steel-concrete composite beams
A steel concrete composite slab may be designed by considering it as equivalent beam

strips composed of the supporting structural steel beam and an effective width of the
above concrete slab. A full steel-concrete composite flooring system may thus be divided
into several composite beam strips, which can then be designed independently of each
other. By this a beam strip should be considered along all the supporting structural
steel members of a composite floor system. By this potential two-way systems are
separated into an individual series of one-way systems. This is a sufficient consideration
for the design of a one-way composite beam system but may be inadequate with regard
to a non-rectangular concrete slabs two-way span. In the following only the design of
steel-concrete composite beams are considered. For a full design any two-way effects in
the concrete slab should be considered.
Steel-concrete composite beams for the purpose of floor systems may generally be
designed with three different configurations. The underlying structural steel beam is
either (1) fully encased, (2) partially encased or (3) out-stand to the concrete slab, see
Figure 5.1. The fully and partially encased steel beams may be obtain their composite
behaviour with the concrete by friction between the two materials alone. The outstand steel beam shall however always be connected by mechanical means to ensure a
coherent composite behaviour.
Beams as (1) and (2) are mainly only relevant when beam strip is affected by a
hogging moment. The encasing concrete thus increases the beams negative moment
capacity by the larger concrete area. Continuous beams may, to have a stress efficient
design, have composite beam sections as (1) or (2) over the supports and a section as
(3) at mid-span. This configuration is sometimes seen in bridge construction, where
composite beams are often applied as roadways.
With regard to the application of composite beams in buildings concrete encasement
of the structural steel sections is however often not a reasonable solution. Therefore
the following will consider the design of steel-concrete composite beams configured as
(3). The composite beam sections applicable for design herein are thus those shown in
Figure 5.1d to 5.1f. Also se Figure A.12.
In building design the internal routing of service installations is often a governing
factor to the choice of flooring system. Choosing the correct flooring system and allowing for the most efficient distribution of service installations may reduce the storey
height, which results in great economical advantages. For this reason many composite flooring systems in buildings are not designed with solid structural steel sections
as shown in Figure 5.1a, But rather with perforated, castellated or truss-webbed steel
sections. Holes in the web of the structural steel section of a composite beam is not considered herein, as the Eurocode standardisation system does not address this matter. A
beams bending moment and shear capacities may however be calculated as described
in the following. Instability and local stress accumulation issues should however be
considered for the design of steel beams with perforated webs.
To design a steel-concrete composite beam in accordance with Eurocode, the four ultimate limit state (ULS) criteria below must be satisfied (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.1.1(3)P).
(1) The critical cross-section(s) of the beam must have sufficient resistance to loading.
(2) Instability issues as lateral-torsional buckling must be prevented.
69
(a) Full encasement.
(d) Outstand w/ solid slab.
(b) Partial encasement.
(c) Partial encasement.
(e) Outstand w/ perpenducu- (f) Outstand w/ parallel deck

lar deck slab.
slab.
Figure 5.1: Composite beam configurations (headed studs and transverse reinforcement
not shown).
(3) The beam must have sufficient resistance to shear buckling and general local
instability issues.
(4) The steel-concrete shear connection must be sufficient to ensure a coherent composite behaviour.
Within a beams length all critical cross-sections must be verified. Assuming a
uniform beam the critical cross-sections are at supports and at locations of maximum
section forces. Composite beams where the effective width of the concrete slab changes,
should also be verified if not located at an already identified critical section. Requirement (1) is satisfied when the critical cross-sections are verified for their capacity to
resist relevant section forces, according to Section 5.3 or 5.2. To satisfy requirement
(2) the moment capacity must be considered with regard to the risk of lateral torsional
buckling, as described in Section 5.4.3. Local instability issues as plate and flange
induced buckling must be considered as in Section 5.4 to satisfy requirement (3). Requirement (4) is satisfied when the shear connection between the concrete slab and
structural steel beam has a sufficient capacity according to Section 5.5.
The construction process of a steel-concrete composite beam must be considered to
ensure that it satisfy the design requirements at all construction stages. The beam must
thus be considered at several stages of construction, as both loading and capacity will
change.Generally three construction stages are identified. Construction stage I is the
erection of the steel beam itself, stage II is the pouring of the concrete slab, supported
by the structural steel beam only and stage III is the finished loading of the composite
beam. For partially encased composite beams an additional stage before or after stage
I may be to cast the encasing concrete. Stage I is characterised by the steel beam being
able to carry its own self weight. If it is constructed with a smaller upper than lower
flange, which is often seen for welded cross-sections, failure due to instability issues may
occur already at this stage of construction. Composite beams that does not yet have
the compressive strength of the concrete upper flange, are therefore often supported by
interim structures by propped or shored construction. At stage II the structural steel
beam must be able to carry its own self weight, any eventual attached form work and
70
the concrete slabs self weight. As profiled steel sheeting is often used as formwork for
steel-concrete composite beams the casting of the concrete is most often the critical
point of this construction stage. At stage II the concrete has not yet obtained its load
carrying capabilities and only adds a large dead load to the structural steel beam. The
steel sheeting used for formwork will be incorporated as a part of the finished structure,
though its load carrying capabilities are often neglected in the design. Stage III is
the final loading of the finished steel-concrete composite beam, where the concrete
has obtained its full load carrying ability. By this it is evident that stage I and II
are encompassed by short-term loading periods and stage III by a long-term loading
period.
The serviceability limit state (SLS) requirements relevant for steel-concrete composite beams are (see EN 1990; EN 1994-1-1, clause 3.4 and 7, respectively)
(1) The beam must have an acceptable long-term deflection, to comply with a safe
appearance.
(2) The beam must not suffer from severe vibrations causing discomfort to the occupants.
(3) The beam must not suffer from damage, which affects its appearance, durability
or functioning.
Requirement (1) and (2) are considered satisfied when excessive deletion and vibration are accounted for as described in Section 5.6. The limits for deflection and
vibration may vary for specific projects or changed according to the clients wish. Requirement (3) for the serviceability limit state is satisfied when concrete cracking is
limited and the requirements of (1) are satisfied. If the concrete slab is in a tension
state at any point during its lifetime, a sufficient amount of minimum reinforcement
must be assured in accordance with Equation 5.3, to prevent concrete cracking.
As the structural steel section within a composite beam as considered is not encased
in concrete, its cross-sectional characteristics defines the design method to be applied.
Depending on the structural steel members cross-sectional class, the composite beam
shall be designed considering either a plastic, elastic or reduced elastic stress distribution. Assuming that an I- or H-beam is subjected to pure bending
q the cross-sections
class may be determined from Table 5.1, with the coefficient = 235/fyk . Here cf is
the length of the uniform outstand compression flange, without welds or rolled curvature. cw is the length of the uniform internal web subject to bending, without welds or
rolled curvature. tf and tw are the thickness of the flanges and web-plate, respectively.
Further reference is given to table 5.2 in EN 1993-1-1.
If a structural steel member has a compression flange or web-plate within crosssection class 1 or 2, the composite sections resistance must be determined by a plastic
analysis, see Section 5.3. A steel member with a compression flange or web-plate
within class 3 must be designed according to an elastic analysis, see Section 5.2. A
steel member encompassed by class 4 must be designed by an elastic analysis with
a reduced effective cross-sectional area, see Sections 5.2 and 5.2.3. If convenient, the
theory of elasticity may be applied for cross-sections of class 1 and 2, though this results
in a very conservative design. The methods applied in the following for the elastic and
plastic design are in accordance with chapter 3 in Thomsen (1990).
It is reasonable, due to the use of rolled members and the fabrication process of
welded members on site, to assume that all plates in a structural steel section has the
71
5.1
Concrete slab
Table 5.1: Determination of cross-section

class and design method for a structural steel
q
member with an I- or H-shape ( = 235/fyk )
Cross-section class
2
3
1
Flange
(Compression)
Web
(bending)
Design method
cf
tf
cw
tw
cf
tf
10
cf
tf
72
cw
tw
83
cw
tw
Plastic
14
124
Elastic
4
cf
tf
cw
tw
> 14
> 124
Reduced
elastic
same strength class. Hybrid steel members are thus not considered directly but may
still be considered in accordance with the following.
Some consideration when designing the cross-section of the steel-concrete composite
beam, should go to limiting the need to consider failure due to instability issues. Therefore it is often desired, that the neutral axis of the composite cross-section falls within
the concrete slab, thus avoiding compression in the structural steel member. The most
predominant failure mode of beams designed as such is concrete crushing as a result
of bending. At the ultimate limit state it must be ensured that ductile behaviour can
be guaranteed in the beam. This corresponds to the limit of concrete crushing at the
strain cu2 and yielding of the structural steel at the strain a = qy , whereas taking
into account the development of the total steel strain a (chapter 7.10, Fardis et al.,
2005). The geometric requirement of the neutral axis placement within the composite
section must therefore fulfil (EN 1998-1, clause 7.6.2(7))
cu2
x
<
d
cu2 + a
where
cu2
a
x
d
5.1
(5.1)
is the ultimate compressive strain of the concrete which may be taken as

cu2 = 3.5h for concrete classes between and including C12/15 to C50/60
(see EN 1992-1-1, table 3.1 for other grades).
is the yield strain of the structural steel member multiplied by the structures behaviour factor q,
is the distance from the extreme concrete compression fibre to the composite
sections plastic neutral axis and
is the depth of the composite section.
Concrete slab
Reinforcement is not included in the capacity calculations when in compression. As

is the concretes tension capacity not included, when the concrete is in tension. At a
full tension state of the concrete, e.g. when affected by a negative, hogging moment,
including the reinforcements capacity is therefore intelligible. The concrete reinforcement may be placed in one or two layers, though the bottom layer is less effective, as
it is close to the structural steel members top flange. The top layer of reinforcement
normally has the largest distance to the composite sections neutral axis and hence the
72
largest resistance to bending moment. A full concrete slab design should consider the
reinforcement required in the concrete slabs span transverse to the steel beam span.
The nominal minimum concrete cover for the reinforcement bars in the concrete
slab may be determined by cnom in Equation 3.9. The minimum inbound distance
of the reinforcement bars is smin , from Equation 3.12, and the maximum distance
is smax,slabs . The value of the maximum distance is calculated by Equation 5.2b for
principle reinforcement bars in areas with concentrated loads or maximum moment, and
by Equation 5.2a for other areas (EN 1992-1-1, clause 9.3.1.1(3)). Conservatively the
value from Equation 5.2b may be applied for the whole concrete slab, as it is unlikely
that the actual fabrication of the slab will consider a change in concrete cover of the
reinforcement bars at different locations along the beam length.
where
tc
smax,slabs = min
3tc
400mm
(5.2a)
smax,slabs = min
2tc
250mm
(5.2b)
is the thickness of the concrete slab.
If any reinforcement in the concrete slab should be in tension, e.g. at intermediate

supports of a continuous beam, the reinforcement area should be at least (EN 1992-1-1,
clause 9.2.1.1(1))
fctm
bt d
(5.3)
As,min = 0.26
fyk
where
fctm
bt
d
is the mean tensile strength of the concrete, see Table 5.2,

is the mean width of the tensile concrete zone and
is the height of the tensile concrete zone.
The maximum area of reinforcement for both tensile and compressive states should
also comply with As,max = 0.04Ac (clause 9.2.1.1(3), EN 1992-1-1).
Table 5.2: Mean tension and characteristic compressive strength of concrete.
fck
fctm
C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
C50/60
20
2.2
25
2.6
30
2.9
35
3.2
40
3.5
45
3.8
50
4.1
From table 3.1 in EN 1992-1-1

Cracking of the concrete slab must be considered in composite beams affected by
negative bending moment. If the composite beam is affected by negative bending
moment at any time, the concrete slabs tensile strength is only represented by the
reinforcement bars tensile capacity. If a concrete slab is affected by tension and returned to a compressive state, the effect of compression softening must be considered.
The post tension compressive strength of concrete depends on the tension strain that
the concrete has been affected by. The values for the softening parameter c shown
73
5.1
Concrete slab
in Equation 5.4 below are valid for reinforced concrete elements affected by bending
(Vecchio and Collins, 1993). The value of c is applied to the concretes design compressive strength fcd, to assess its post tension compression capacity. Further reference
is given to the literature, should the concrete slab be affected by loads in other ways
than causing pure bending.
c = 1.00
for c,c < 1.2h
(5.4a)
c = 1.15 125c,c
for 1.2h < c,c < 4.4h
(5.4b)
for c,c > 4.4h
(5.4c)
c = 0.60
where
c,c
is the principle strain the concrete has experienced when undergoing tension.
The effective width of the concrete slab in a steel-concrete composite beam is introduced to consider the effects of shear lag in the concrete slab. As a simplification
for composite beams in buildings, the effective width of the concrete slab may be assumed constant along the beam span, if the moment is constantly positive or negative
(EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.1.2). For a beam with a constantly positive moment distribution the effective width of the concrete slab may be calculated by Equation 5.5. If
the beam is affected by a negative moment the value of bei is multiplied by a factor of
i = 0.55 + 0.025Lei /bei 1.0 (clause 5.4.1.2, EN 1994-1-1).
be = b0 +
where
b0
bei
bei
(5.5)
is the distance between the headed studs center axis, if two headed studs
are used. If only one headed stud is used b0 = 0mm.
is the distance from the outstand headed stud to the midpoint of the concrete slabs span transverse to the beams longitudinal direction. Should
a side be adjacent to a free edge of the concrete slab then this distance is
used (EN 1998-1, clause 7.6.3). The distance of bei should however never be
more than Lei /8, where Lei is the distance along the beams length affected
by constant positive or negative moment for the considered section i.
Note that bei may vary along the beams length, if the adjacent beam(s) are not
placed with a parallel orientation to the considered beam. For beams with a both positive and negative moment distribution, e.g. continuous beams, the procedure described
above may be applied for the sections with positive or negative moment, and an overlapping zone of 1/4 of the span length, see Figure 5.2. If the beam is supported in a
moment resisting frame special conditions regarding the effective width bei , and transverse reinforcement in the concrete slab must be satisfied. This is due to the inherent
fact that both positive and negative moment is very likely to occur in the beam-column
joints of a moment resisting frame, when undergoing cyclic loading, e.g. earthquakes.
The requirements for the effective width of beams in moment resisting frames is
shown in Table 5.3, in accordance with clause 7.6.3 in EN 1998-1. In Table 5.3 the
effective width is considered for sections with positive or negative bending moment.
The width bei is then determined based on the location of the supporting column
and type of transverse reinforcement, nearest to the section considered. Transverse
reinforcement may be seismic reinforcement (see EN 1998-1), a composite steel beam,
a non-composite steel beam or a concrete slab. Column locations are defined by interior
74
Table 5.3: Effective width of concrete slab composite with structural steel beam in a
moment resisting frame (M + indicate positive bending moment conditions and M
negative). The transverse elements should be defied by the notes, where one of the
conditions must be satisfied for the requirement to apply. If no value is given for the
requirement, no restriction is applicable.
Column
location
Transverse
element
M+
bei
M
Elastic design
Interior
Exterior
Exterior
Yes/No
Yes
No
0.0375l
0.05l
0.025l
0.0
Plastic design
Interior
Exterior
[1] :
Yes[1]
Yes[2]
No[3]
Yes[4]
Yes/No[5]
Yes[7]
0.075l
0.075l
bb /2 + 0.7hc /2[6]
bb /2 0.05l[6]
0.1l
0.1l
0.0
Seismic reinforcement
Reinforcement anchored to faade beam or
cantilever edge strip
[3] : Opposite of [1]
[4] : (1) Steel beam with connectors, (2) concrete
slab and exterior column orientated with strong
axis in beams span direction and (3) see [1]
[5] : (1) Opposite of [4] (1), (2) same as [4] (2) and (3)
same as [4] (3)
[6] : b is the width of the column perpendicular to
b
the beams span direction and hc is the height
of the column
[7] : (1) All other layouts and (2) see [1]
[2] :
75
5.2
Elastic design
Figure 5.2: Principle sketch of distribution of effective width along a beam with an
intermediate support.
or exterior columns. Here exterior columns are those placed in the periphery of the
column configuration or at a slab edge, and internal columns are those not encompassed
by the definition as exterior columns.
The concrete slab may be configured as a solid slab cast directly on top of the
structural steel member, or as a corrugated slab cast on top of a layer of profiled
steel sheeting. For the calculations in the following, the profiled steel sheeting is not
considered to add any strength to the beams resistance. As is all concrete placed
within the ribs neglected, to simplify the calculations. When designing the concrete
slabs span transverse to the beams, contributions to the capacity from the profiled
steel sheeting and the concrete within the ribs may be important to consider. The
sheeting may then act as a bottom layer of reinforcement for the concrete slab, if a
sufficient shear connection established.
5.2
Elastic design
This section is applicable to all cross-sections regardless of class (EN 1994-1-1, clause
6.2.1.1(2)). It is however recommended that cross-sections of class 1 or 2 are designed
according to a plastic stress distribution, see Section 5.3, to achieve the largest capacities possible. If the cross-section considered is class 4, special attention must be paid
to Section 5.2.3 before calculating any capacities.
An asymmetric, e.g. welded or hybrid, structural steel members center of gravity,
and hence elastic neutral axis (ENA), is determined as the distance y from the reference line parallel to the z-axis. Double asymmetrical structural steel members should
76
generally be avoided. If the steel section is hybrid, i.e. has varying strength of individual plate components, or composite with an above concrete slab, each component
in Equation 5.6 must be weighted by the materials design strength.
Pn
Ai yi
y = Pi=1
n
i=1 Ai
where
Ai
yi
(5.6)
is the area of the considered area object and

is the distance from the reference line to the considered area objects center
of gravity.
As opposed to the preceding calculations for steel-concrete composite walls and

columns, the concretes reinforcement is not considered as an individual quantity when
undergoing compression, but is included in the concretes area. By this Ac defines both
the concrete and steel reinforcement bars area. The calculation of elastic stresses within
this section is in compliance with clause 6.2.1.5 of (EN 1994-1-1) and in accordance with
chapter 3.4 in Thomsen (1990).
5.2.1
Bending capacity verification
Following the stress distribution of the theory of elasticity, Naviers formula apply when
calculating normal stresses from moment bending.
el,m =
where
y
MEd
y
Iy
(5.7)
is the distance from the structural steel members center of gravity to the
extreme fibre considered.
The requirement for the structural steel members bending moment resistance is
el,m
1.0
fyd
(5.8)
If a rolled member is used the elastic section modulus can easily be looked up in
tables and the elastic moment resistance may be calculated by
Mel,Rd = Wel fyd
where
Mel,Rd
Wel
(5.9)
is the elastic moment of resistance and

is the elastic section modulus.
If the elastic section modulus is unknown or if Equation 5.9 is to be applied for a

welded structural steel section, it may be calculated by
Wel =
where
cy
Iy
cy
(5.10)
is the distance in the y-direction from the sections neutral axis to the outer
surface where maximum stress occur.
77
5.2
Elastic design
The requirement for the structural steel members bending moment resistance can
thus also be expressed as
MEd
1.0
(5.11)
Mel,Rd
For the loading in construction stages I and II, see Page 70, where the structural
steel member is the only load carrying part of the beam structure, Equation 5.8 or 5.11
must be satisfied. For stage I the only loading will be qk = s Aa but for stage II the
concrete and formwork, e.g. profiled steel sheeting, must be added. As mentioned in
the preceding additional interim supports may be added to reduce positive moments,
though this will also introduce negative moments to a beam otherwise simply supported
at its ends.
At construction stage III the concrete has hardened and obtained its load carrying
capability. The live and/or super imposed dead load relevant for the surrounding area
is added and the props are removed.
As stage III represents a potential long-term load situation the effects of concrete
creep and shrinkage must be introduced. The wall and column design described in
Sections 3 and 4 consider this by calculating section forces with an effective modulus of
elasticity. In a steel-concrete composite beam where none of the flanges are composite
and the steel member is not encased, creep and shrinkage is considered by altering the
ratio for the transformed steel cross-section n0 (EN 1994-1-1, clause 5.4.2.2(2)).
nL = n0 (1 + L t )
where
n0
L
t
(5.12)
is the ratio to transform the composite cross-section into an ideal steel

cross-section,
is the creep multiplier taken as its recommended value of L = 1.1 and
is the creep coefficient, see Section 3.4.1.
The ratio used to transform the composite cross-section into an ideal steel section is
defined by n0 = Ea /Ecm = 7 (EN 1998-1, clause 7.4.2). To apply this all cross-sectional
properties of the concrete are multiplied by a factor of 1/n0 . This is applicable for shortterm load situations while 1/nL must be used for long-term loading. Attention should
be paid to the time of loading when considering the long-term situation, as slabs are
often loaded within a short period after they have been cast.
For the transformed cross-section the following properties are valid for a long-term
loading situation.
1
Ac
(5.13)
Ai = Aa +
nL
where
Ai
nL
is the area of the transformed cross-section and

is the ratio of the transformed steel cross-section considering creep and
shrinkage.
Aa
a
Ai
Ac
a
aa =
nL Ai
ac =
78
(5.14a)
(5.14b)
5
ac & aa
a
is the distance from the concretes and structural steels centroids to the
transformed cross-sections centroid, respectively. See Figure 5.3.
is the distance between the structural steel and concretes center of gravity.
Ii = Ia +
where
Ii
Ia & Ic
1
Ic
nL
(5.15)
is the moment of inertia for the transformed cross-section and

is the moment of inertia for the structural steel and concrete, respectively,
including translational contributions to the transformed cross-sections centroid.
The calculation of stresses in the structural steel and concrete is in accordance with
Equation 5.7, but altered to the transformed cross-section.
where
el,m,c
el,m,a
yi
MEd
yi
nL Ii
MEd
yi
=
Ii
el,m,c =
(5.16a)
el,m,a
(5.16b)
is the elastic concrete stress resulted from bending,

is the elastic steel stress resulted from bending and
is the distance from the transformed cross-sections center of gravity to the
point of the concrete or steels cross-section considered.
In the equations above MEd should be taken as the moment in stage III, MEd,III .
The requirement for the steel-concrete composite sections bending moment resistance
is
el,m,c
1.0
fcd
el,m,a
1.0
fyd
5.2.2
(5.17a)
(5.17b)
Shear capacity verification
Regardless of the construction stage Grashofs formula for shear stress, Equation 5.18,
may be applied to calculate the elastic shear stresses in the steel-concrete composite
beam (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.2.2.2(2)).
el =
where
Sx
te
VEd Sx
Ite
(5.18)
is first moment of area about the transformed cross-sections center of gravity of the components between the point of interest and the cross-sections
boundary.
is the thickness of the element at the examined point.
For a transformed steel-concrete composite cross-section with an I- or H-beam, the

relevant shear stresses of the transformed section can be determined by the equations
79
5.2
Elastic design
below.
1 VEd Ac ac
nL Ii tc
VEd(Af 1 af 1 + Ac ac )
=
Ii tf 1
VEd(Aw aw + Af 1 af 1 + Ac ac )
=
Ii tw
VEdAf 2 af 2
=
Ii tf 2
el,c =
el,f 1
el,w
el,f 2
where
tc
Af
tf
(5.19a)
(5.19b)
(5.19c)
(5.19d)
is a factor representing the area of the web located above the transformed
cross-sections neutral axis.
is the thickness of the concrete slab,
is the area of the top (subscript 1) or bottom (subscript 2) structural steel
flange.
is the thickness of the top (subscript 1) or bottom (subscript 2) structural
steel flange.
Here el,c is the largest shear stress in the concrete layer, el,f 1 and el,f 2 are the
largest shear stresses of the top and bottom flange, respectively, and el,w is the largest
shear stress of the structural steel members web-plate. The distances ac , aw , af 1 and
af 2 appears in Figure 5.3 below. Here the centroids of the different sections and plates
are indicated with T .
Figure 5.3: Principle of dimensions and distances relevant for the elastic stress distribution.
The requirement for the elastic shear resistance is to be evaluated by Equation 5.20,
for steel (a) and concrete (b) individually.
Ed,s 3
1.0
(5.20a)
fyd
Ed,c 3
1.0
(5.20b)
fcd
where
Ed,s
Ed,c
80
is the relevant value of el,f 1 , el,w or el,f 2 and

is el,c.
For I- or H-sections the shear stress may be calculated by a plastic stress distribution
on the web-plate, if one of the steel flanges has an area equal to or larger than 60% of
the webs area (see EN 1993-1-1, clause 6.2.6(5)), thus
Ed,s =
VEd
Aw
if
Af
0.6
Aw
(5.21)
If the shear force is larger than 50% of the web-plates resistance to shear buckling,
see equation below, the moment capacity must be ensured by complying with clause
6.2.2.4(1) and (3) in EN 1994-1-1 and EN 1993-1-1, clause 7.1(1).
(5.22)
VEd > 0.5Vbw,Rd

where
Vbw,Rd
is the web-plates resistance to shear buckling, see Equation 5.41.
It is required that Equation 5.23 is satisfied only if Equation 5.22 is also satisfied.
Mf,Rd
MEd
+ 1
Mpl,Rd
Mpl,Rd
where
Mf,Rd
5.2.3
!2
VEd
1
2
Vbw,Rd
1.0 if
MEd
Mf,Rd
Mpl,Rd
Mpl,Rd
(5.23)
is the flanges plastic moment resistance, which may be taken as Mf,Rd =

af Af,min fyk /M 0 , where af is the distance between the flanges centroids
and Af,min is the area of the smallest flange.
Effective structural steel section for class 4 cross-sections
For structural steel members with class 4 cross-sections failure will occur caused by plate
buckling before the steel reaches its yield capacity. To comply with this the area(s)
of the sections compressive part(s) must be reduced (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.2.1.5(1)).
This is done in accordance with clause 4.3 and 4.4 in EN 1993-1-5.
The compression elements in a structural steel member are considered either as
internal or outstand elements. For an I- or H-beam the flanges are outstand elements,
as the web only offers one support in the middle of the flange. The web is an internal
element, as the flanges offer support at both ends of the web-plate. Further reference
is given to ESDEP Lecture 7.2 for other section configurations.
As the flanges are considered to be affected only by constant in-plane stress their
effective area is easily determined. Only compression flanges are to be considered so
unless the beam is continuous with intermediate supports, or for any other reason
experiences a negative moment, only the top flange is to be reduced.
Considering a flange of an I- og H-beam in a fully compressed state, it is to be
treated as an outstand compressive element with a uniform stress distribution, hence
1 = 2 . The stress ratio is defined by
=
where
1
2
2
1
(5.24)
is the largest stress across the considered element and

is the smallest stress across the considered element.
81
5.2
Elastic design
For a flange as described the stress ratio is = 1 and the buckling factor is thus
k = 0.43, see case II or III in Table 5.4 (EN 1991-1-5, table 4.2). For a web-plate
1 = fyd and 2 = 1 . The value of is thus unknown and must be determined by
an iterative procedure, as mentioned in the preceding. The stress ratio will vary with
the placement of the neutral axis as these are proportional.
=
where
eg
eg bw
eg
(5.25)
is the placement of the neutral axis which must be determined by an iterative procedure. eg is measured from the point of maximum stress to the
location of the neutral axis within the cross-section.
In Equation 5.25 above the iterative parameter is eg . The value of eg is valid when
eg = eef f , where
Sef f
eef f =
(5.26)
Aef f
where
Sef f
Aef f
is the first moment of area of the effective cross-section and

is the area of the effective cross-section.
The plate elements slenderness is

b
p = 1.052
k t

b
1
t
=
Es
28.4 k
(5.27)
where
b
t
k
is the appropriate width of the element, see below,

is the elements thickness and
is the buckling factor from Table 5.4.
For I- or H-beams the appropriate element width b is equal to cf for a flange and
cw for a web-plate, see Page 71. The factor of which b shall be reduced is . For an
internal compression element
= 1.0
p 0.055(3 + )
1.0
=
2
p 0.673
for
(5.28a)
p > 0.673, where (3 + ) 0

for
(5.28b)
and for an outstand compression element

= 1.0
p 0.188
1.0
=
2
p 0.748
for
(5.29a)
p > 0.748
for
(5.29b)
The effective width of a uniformly compressed (hence 1 = 2 ) internal or outstand

element is bef f = b, whereas the effective area of the element is Aef f = bef f t. For
an internal element the area is reduced symmetrically around its neutral axis. For an
outstand element the free unsupported end is reduced.
The effective width of an internal element with both tension and compression areas
is bef f = b/(1 ), where b is the width of the internal element. In the compressive
82
Table 5.4: Buckling factor for internal and outstand compression elements.
Stress ratio
Case I
Case II
Case III
Internal element
Outstand element
Buckling factor k
Outstand element
4.0
8.2/(1.05 + )
7.81
7.81 6.29 + 9.78 2
23.9
5.98(1 )2
0.43
0.57 0.21 + 0.07 2
0.57
0.57 0.21 + 0.07 2
0.85
0.57 0.21 + 0.07 2
0.43
0.578/( + 0.34)
1.70
1.7 5 + 17.1 2
23.8
2
1
= +1
1>>0
=0
0 > > 1
= 1
1 > > 3
part of the web 40% of bef f is placed in the length from maximum compression, 1 .
The remaining 60% are placed above the neutral axis. The corresponding effective
lengths be1 = 0.4bef f and be2 = 0.6bef f are defined. For an outstand element with both
tension and compression areas the effective length is as for a similar internal element.
The length of the outstand elements compressive area closest to the unsupported end
is reduced by b bef f (see table 4.1 and 4.2 in EN 1991-1-5).
The moment resistance of the class 4 structural steel member is to be calculated with
the reduced cross-sections properties. This is done in accordance with Section 5.2.1
where the steel members reduced area is considered when calculating Iy in Equation
5.7, Wel in Equation 5.9, Aa in Equations 5.13 and 5.14 and Ia in Equation 5.15.
The shear resistance may be checked without any reductions of the shear affected
area, in accordance to Section 5.2.2.
5.3
Plastic design
For a steel-concrete composite beam where the structural steel members compression
flange or web-plate is either class 1 or 2, the theory of plasticity may be applied for the
design. If the section is class 3 or 4 Section 5.2 apply.
A structural steel members plastic neutral axis (PNA) may be placed as the axis
that separates the cross-section in two equally large areas. If the steel member is hybrid
or consist of mixed materials, as in a composite beam, the areas are to be weighted
by the materials design strength. For composite sections creep and shrinkage may be
neglected, if the structural steel member is applicable for a plastic design, hence if it
is cross-sectional class 1 or 2, and if the moment resistance is not governed by effects
of lateral torsional buckling, see Section 5.4.3, hence if LT = 1.0 (clause 5.4.2.2(7),
EN 1994-1-1). It is noted that the structural steel member of a composite beam is
always restrained from lateral torsional buckling, if it is composite with a concrete slab
that offers sufficient restraint.
83
5.4
Instability failure
5.3.1
Bending capacity verification
When the beam is at construction stage I or II, see Page 70, the moment capacity is
calculated for the structural steel section alone, see Section 3.3. In construction stage
III the hardened concrete slab is included in the placement of the plastic neutral axis
and the calculation of the plastic section modulus.
The moment resistance may be calculated by
Mpl,Rd = Wpl,afyd + Wpl,cfcc
where
Wpl
(5.30)
is the plastic section modulus, see Equation 3.26.
The requirement for the sections bending moment resistance is

MEd
1.0
Mpl,Rd
(5.31)
For I- or H- beams configured with a full shear connection to an above concrete

deck cast on profiled steel sheeting, the location of the plastic neutral axis, and positive
and negative moment capacities may be determined from Table A.14 on Page XXX.
5.3.2
Shear capacity verification
The shear forces influence on the sections moment capacity is considered only if VEd >
0.5Vpl,Rd or VEd > 0.5Vb,Rd , see Equation 5.43, in accordance with clause 6.2.2.4(1) and
(2) in EN 1994-1-1. If one of these conditions are satisfied, the plastic bending moment
capacity of the shear affected area is reduced by a factor of , see Equation 5.32 below.
The shear affected area in a steel or steel-concrete composite beam is the structural
steel members web area, Aw . By this Vpl,Rd = Vpl,a,Rd , see Equation 3.41.
=
where
VRd
2
2VEd
1
VRd
(5.32)
is equal to Vpl,Rd if VEd > 0.5Vpl,Rd and Vb,Rd if VEd > 0.5Vb,Rd or the lowest
value.
The requirement for a structural steel and a composite members resistance to shear
is thus
VEd
1.0
(5.33)
Vpl,Rd
5.4
Instability failure
Besides the moment and shear capacities described in Sections 5.2 and 5.3 instability
of the structural steel member leading to failure must also be considered.
The structural steel member is most vulnerable to instability failure at construction
stage II, where it is the only load carrying element of the composite beam, affected
by the composite beams full dead load. It is therefore most often only relevant to
consider instability issues for construction stages II and III. Its resistance to bending
or shear induced plate buckling may be increased by reducing the affected plates length,
84
parallel to the beam length. This may be done by introducing transverse stiffeners with
sufficient capacity at selected locations along the beam length.
The combined interaction of bending and shear induced buckling must be checked
(Gimsing, 2000, chapter 4.1). The equation below states the interaction requirement
for combined local and shear buckling of a plate element, see Equations 5.36 and 5.44.

5.4.1
VEd
VbRd
2
md
bd
2
1.0
(5.34)
Local buckling
Plate buckling caused by bending, here termed local buckling in accordance with Eurocode, is very unlikely to occur in structural steel elements with class 1 or 2 crosssections. It is however the predominant failure mode for a class 4 section, whereas
the beams moment capacity is reduced as described in Section 5.2.3. Local buckling
for class steel members with class 1 to 3 shall thereby always be considered by the
provisions within this section.
Local buckling must be considered in all compression plates. For construction stage
I and II, see Page 70, this might concern all the steel members plates, if propped
construction is used. By this shear force and negative moment will interact at these
mid-span supports. The plate parts are therefore often restrained from buckling at these
locations, by introducing transverse stiffeners directly above the props. The stiffeners
may thereby only serve a purpose during construction and have no immediate effect
on the finished steel-concrete composite beams capacity. When the structural steel
beam is fully composite with the concrete slab above, the top flange may be considered
as restrained from local buckling (clause 5.5.2(1) in EN 1994-1-1). A fully composite
beam is obtained when a full shear connection between the concrete slab and structural
steel beam is established, see Section 5.5. As the concrete flange of the composite beam
should be designed to take the majority of compressive stresses in the cross-section, the
web-plate of the structural steel member is often only affected by a minimum amount
of compression near its top. Local buckling is therefore rarely a failure mode of a
steel-concrete composite beam.
The local buckling stress from force acting normal to the plate bd , is determined
in accordance with chapter 4.1 of Gimsing (2000). The considered plates slenderness
p , is calculated by Equation 5.27 and the plates buckling stress may be calculated by
for p
2
2
for
p 2
2
p 2
for
bd = fyd
p
1.5 fyd
2
1
fyd
=
bd =
bd
(5.35a)
(5.35b)
(5.35c)
When the considered unrestrained steel plate, flange or web, is loaded to a level
where a stress equal to bd occurs, the plate will suffer from local buckling. The
requirement for the plates local buckling resistance is thus
md
1.0
bd
(5.36)
85
5.4
Instability failure
where
md
5.4.2
is the maximum normal stress endued by bending in the plate field considered.
Shear buckling
Shear buckling is along with local buckling an instability phenomenon of an individual

plate field. Shear buckling is evidently induced by the influence of shear force acting
on the plate field. For a plastic design the structural steel member is, regardless of
an established composite effect with a concrete slab, considered as the only element
resisting vertical shear (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.2.2.2). The web-plate is thereby most
vulnerable to shear buckling in construction stage III, see Page 70. All cross-sectional
classes must be considered, but as for local buckling caused by bending, structural
steel members with class 1 and 2 cross-sections are less likely to suffer from failure
due to shear buckling. The combination of local and shear buckling may however be
important. The cross-section of class 4 members is considered fully effective when
resisting shear buckling. Only web-plates where Equation 5.37 is satisfied are subject
for shear buckling analysis (clause 5.1(2), EN 1991-1-5 and 6.2.2.3(1), EN 1994-1-1).
72
hw
>
tw
hw
31 k
>
tw
where
for an unstiffened web
(5.37a)
for a stiffened web
(5.37b)
is = 1.20 for steel up to class S460, and = 1.00 for steel above this class.
For both elastic and plastic design the structural steel members web-plate will
primarily resist shear. Contributions to the shear buckling resistance from the steel
members flanges may however also be included. The shear buckling coefficient for the
web-plate k , is calculated by (EN 1993-1-5, Annex A.3(1))
hw 2
a

hw 2
k = 4.00 + 5.34
a
k = 5.34 + 4.00
where
a
hw
a
1.0
hw
a
< 1.0
when
hw
when
(5.38a)
(5.38b)
is the distance between the transverse stiffeners for the plate field considered
and
is to be taken as cw .
The Euler stress is determined by Equation 5.39 below, which in its written form
is only applicable to structural steel with the material properties as shown in Table 2.8.
2 Es t2w
= 19 104
E =
12(1 s2 )b2w
tw
bw
2
(5.39)
The webs slenderness may then be calculated by

s
w = 0.76
86
fyk
k E
(5.40)
The web-plates contribution to the resistance of shear buckling is calculated by

Vbw,Rd =
where
w
w fyd Aw
(5.41)
is the factor for the webs contribution to the shear buckling resistance, see
Table 5.5,
As Vb,Rd = Vb,a,Rd and the structural steel members web is more efficient than the
flanges at resisting vertical shear, it is often defined that Vb,Rd = Vbw,Rd , see Equation
5.43. If desired the flanges contribution may be considered as described in the following.
Table 5.5: Factor for the web-plates contribution to the shear buckling resistance.
w < 0.83/
w < 1.08
0.83/
w 1.08
No end post
Rigid end post
Non-rigid end post
1.0
w
0.83/
w )
1.37/(0.7 +
w
0.83/
0.83/w
The flanges contribution to the shear buckling resistance depends on the extent to
which they are utilized in resisting the bending moment MEd . The flanges contribution
is
!2
bf t2f fyd
M
Ed
1
(5.42)
Vbf,Rd =
c
Mf,Rd
where
bf & t f
Mf,Rd
is the width and thickness of the smallest flange, and bf 30tf (for I- and
H-beams).
is the moment of resistance
for the

flanges alone, Mf,Rd = Mf,Rk /M 0 .
is defined as c = a 0.25 +
1.6bf t2f
tw h2w
The shear buckling resistance may thus be determined by summation of the flanges
and webs contributions.
Vb,Rd = Vbw,Rd + Vbf,Rd
fyd Aw
(5.43)
The requirement for the structural steel members shear buckling resistance is
VEd
1.0
Vb,Rd
5.4.3
(5.44)
Lateral torsional buckling
Lateral torsional buckling for steel-concrete composite beams is primarily a matter

of concern during erection. After a composite effect has been obtained between the
structural steel member and the above concrete slab failure due to lateral torsional
buckling is unlikely. When the full composite effect is obtained at construction stage
III, the structural steel member is considered restrained from lateral torsional buckling
as it is assumed laterally stable (clause 6.4.1(1), EN 1994-1-1). This however only
applies if the concrete slab above is also laterally stable. Prior to stage III the steel
87
5.4
Instability failure
beam may be intermediately supported to reduce positive moments, but is at these

points normally not restricted from lateral translation. If the steel flange with no
composite effect is in compression at stage III, e.g. for a continuous beam, its lateral
stability should be considered. In the following chapter 4.3 from Gimsing (2000) is
applied.
The effects of lateral torsional buckling occurs when the compression flange translates laterally, causing an opposite translation of the tension flange and a rotation of
the entire cross-section. The member therefore resists by three deflection components
which are bending of top flange, bending of bottom flange and torsion of the entire
cross-section. These three contributions are represented by the Euler forces below.
2 Es Iz,f 1
l2
2
Es Iz,f 2
=
l2
4Gs Iv
=
h2
PE,f 1 =
(5.45a)
PE,f 2
(5.45b)
PEv
(5.45c)
where
Iz,f 1 &Iz,f 2 is the top and bottom flanges moment of inertia about the structural
steel members weak axis.
G
is the materials shear modulus Gs = Es / (2(1 + s )) = 80.8GP a,
P
Iv
is the St. Venant torsional constant Iv = bt3 /3,
l
is the length along the beam between points of lateral restraints and
h
is the distance between the two flanges centroids.
The elastic moment resistance for lateral torsional buckling is

ME = PE,f 1 PE,f 2 +
(PE,f 1 + PE,f 2 ) (PE,f 1 + PE,f 2 + PEv )
h
2
(5.46)
If the flanges has the same dimensions and PE,f 1 therefore equal PE,f 2 , the expression above may be simplified by defining PE,f = PE,f 1 = PE,f 2 .
ME =
q
h
2 +P
2 2PE,f
E,f PEv
2
(5.47)
The degree of torsional restraint may be calculated by

=
PEv
PEv
+
PE,f 1 PE,f 2
(5.48)
The stiffness coefficient kk is

s

k
2
kk = k1
4+
2
4 + k3
k2
+
+ k4
4+
4+
(5.49)
In the equation above k1 = 1.13, k2 = 0.90, k3 = 1.00 and k4 = 1, if the beam

is uniformly loaded at the top flange and considered as simply supported for both
bending in the direction of loading and perpendicular to this, see Equation 5.50a. For
a similar beam fixed for bending in the direction of loading k1 = 1.30 and k2 = 3.10,
88
see Equation 5.50b. Further reference is given to figure 317 in Gimsing (2000) for
alternative configurations.
s
1.02
0.81
+1
4+
4+
(5.50a)
4.03
9.61
+1
4+
4+
(5.50b)
kk = 1.13
kk = 1.30
The elastic critical moment for lateral torsional buckling is

(5.51)
Mcr = kk ME
EN 1993-1-1, clause 6.3.2.2 describes the calculation of a steel beams moment resistance when considering lateral torsional buckling. The relative slenderness is
LT =
where
Mel,Rk
Mel,Rk
Mcr
(5.52)
is the characteristic elastic moment resistance, see Equation 5.9.
The factor of which the moment resistance of the steel cross-section must be reduced
is as of Equation 5.53. The moment to reduce is for cross-sections in class 1 and
2 determined by Equation 5.30 and for class 3 by Equation 5.9. For class 4 it is
determined similar to class 3 but with the provisions of Section 5.2.3 considered.
LT,mod =
where
LT
f
LT
1.0
f
(5.53)
is the general value of the lateral torsional buckling reduction factor, see
Equation 5.54, and
is the factor considering the moment distribution of the beam, see Equation
5.55.
Table 5.6: Imperfection factor LT for I- or H-sections, dependant on the height to

width ratio.
Crosssection
Rolled I/H
Welded I/H
0.34
0.49
h
b
>2
0.49
0.76
The general value of the lateral torsional buckling reduction factor is

LT =
1
LT +
2
2LT
LT
1.0
1
2
LT
(5.54)
89
5.4
Instability failure
where
LT
LT
LT,0
2
LT
LT,0 +
is LT = 0.5 1 + LT
LT and
is the lateral torsional imperfection factor which may be read from Table
5.6.
is taken as its recommended value of = 0.75 and
LT = 0.4, as recommended.
is
The value applied to consider the moment distribution of the beam is

f =1
where
kc
2

1
LT 0.8
1.0
(1 kc ) 1 2.0
2

(5.55)
is the moment distribution correction factor, see Table 5.7.
With the reduction factor applied to the relevant moment of resistance, Mel,Ed
or Mpl,Rd , Equation 5.11 or 5.31 must be satisfied. The calculations within this section is applicable for a structural steel member alone and in a composite arrangement
with an above concrete slab, before the composite effect has been obtained, hence at
construction stage I and II, see Page 70.
Table 5.7: Moment distribution correction factor kc .
Moment distribution
=1
11
kc
1.0
1
1.330.33
0.94
0.90
0.91
0.86
0.77
0.82
At construction stage III there is no risk of lateral torsional buckling when the
composite beam is affected by positive moment. As mentioned in the preceding a
90
composite beam is only subject to lateral torsional buckling when the non-composite
steel flange is in compression. In this case EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.4.2 is applicable for
class 1 to 3 cross-sections. Class 4 cross-sections are not considered.
To determine the resistance of a steel-concrete composite beam affected by negative
moment the procedure above is followed, with the following alterations. The concrete
slabs composite effect with the top flange may be considered by adding Iz,f 1 with the
transformed concrete sections contribution Iz,c /nL , in Equation 5.45a. n0 may be applied instead of nL for short term considerations. The St. Venant torsional constant in
Equation 5.45c may consider the concrete slab with the contribution bef f t3c /(3nL ). The
elastic critical moment may be calculated by Equation 5.51. The relative slenderness
in Equation 5.52 may be determined accordingly, though with Mel,Rk replaced with the
composite sections characteristic plastic moment of resistance for cross-sectional class
1 or 2, and the characteristic elastic moment of resistance for class 3. The reduction
factor with which to reduce the design moment capacity of the composite section may
be calculated by Equation 5.54, with no alterations.
5.4.4
Flange induced buckling
The flange induced buckling of a web-plate is considered in accordance with clause

6.5.2(1) in EN 1994-1-1. This failure mode is most likely for structural steel members
with a very slender web-plate. Therefore it is often only to be a matter of concern for
welded steel sections. This also relates failure due to flange induced buckling to be a
matter of concern primarily only for class 4 cross-sections. To avoid this type of failure
the web-plates width-to-thickness ratio must satisfy (EN 1993-1-1, clause 8(1))
Es
hw
k
tw
fyk
where
k
Af c
Aw
Af c
(5.56)
is k = 0.3 when plastic rotation is utilized, k = 0.4 when plastic moment

resistance is utilized and k = 0.55 when the elastic moment resistance is
utilized. This corresponds to cross-section class 1, 2 and 3 or 4, respectively.
is defined in Equation 5.57 below.
Af c = min
where
Af 1
Af 2
Af 1 + n0 Ac
Af 2
(5.57)
is the area of the top steel flange composite with the concrete slab and
is the area of the bottom flange.
For non-composite structural steel members Af c is equal to the effective area of the
compression flange.
5.5
Steel-concrete shear connection
If the structural steel member has a cross-section in class 1 or 2 a partial shear connection is allowed. The shear force that the headed studs must resist may then be
calculated by Equation 5.58 (Thomsen, 1990, chapter 3.4.3). A partial shear connections degree = n/nf (see EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.6.1.2(1)) should not be less than
0.8 and within areas of negative moment, a full shear connection should be established
91
5.5
Steel-concrete shear connection
(EN 1998-1, clause 7.6.2(3)). In the following however only the design of a full shear
connection is considered.
ac Ac VEd
Vs,Ed =
(5.58)
nL Ii
For a full shear connection in class 1 or 2 cross-sections the shear force Vs,Ed may
be calculated by Equation 3.56 and the principles described in Section 3.7. For class
3 or 4 cross-sections the method is similar, but the forces considered are determined
by the composite sections elastic stress distribution from Equation 5.7. As the shear
interface is located between the concrete and steel, the shear force to be restrained
by the headed studs is the smallest of either the concretes or steels moment capacity
resultants, shown below for a plastic stress distribution (chapter 3.4.3.5, Thomsen,
1990).
(
)
P1 = Ac fcc
Vs,Ed = min
(5.59)
P2 = Aa fyd
where
P1
P2
is the concrete slabs capacity resultant,

is the structural steel members capacity resultant,
The resistance of a single headed stud may be calculated by Equation 3.53. The
necessary number of headed studs needed for the full shear connection between the concrete slab and structural steel member in the composite beam is then to be determined
by n = Vs,Ed /PRd . It should be noticed that no additional resistance from friction
effects are considered, even if the concrete is cast directly in contact with the steel
member. If the headed stud is located within a beams dissipative zone, the value of
PRd is to be multiplied with 0.75 (clause 7.6.2(4) EN 1998-1). The dissipative zones of
a beam is within the distance lcr from the beams supports. Here the critical length lcr
is equal to the composite sections total height. If the concrete slab is cast on profiled
steel sheeting and the headed stud thereby has a limited concrete volume around it,
its resistance PRd must be reduced by a factor of kt . If the profiled steel sheetings ribs
run parallel to the composite beams span direction Equation 5.60a apply, see Figure
5.4a. If it runs transverse to the composite beams span direction Equation 5.60b apply,
see Figure 5.4b. If however the profiled steel sheetings ribs should be skewed to the
supporting steel beams span, EN 1994-1-1 is not adequate for design (EN 1994-1-1,
clause 6.6.4.1 and 6.6.4.2).
!
hsc
1 1.0
hp
b0
kt = 0.6
hp
0.7 b0
kt =
nr hp
where
nr
kt,max
hsc
1 kt,max
hp
ribs parallel to beam
(5.60a)
ribs transverse to beam
(5.60b)
is the number of headed studs placed next to each other. A maximum of

two headed studs are allowed.
is the maximum value for kt with ribs transverse to the beam, see below.
The dimensions of the headed stud and sheeting is seen in Figure 5.4.
If the ribs run transverse to the supporting beam, kt is to be reduced by a factor

of kr . kr is the rib shape efficiency factor which assumes a value of 1.0, when the bent
ribs angle with horizontal is 90 and 0.8 when 10 < < 80 (see EN 1998-1,
clause 7.6.2(6)). The value for the limit of kt , kt,max , depends on how the headed stud
92
(a) Profiled steel sheeting with ribs parallel to supporting composite beam.
(b) Profiled steel sheeting with ribs transverse to supporting composite beam.
Figure 5.4: Profiled steel sheetings ribs orientation to supporting composite beam.
is connected through the steel sheeting and the thickness of this steel sheeting. If the
stud considered has a maximum diameter of 20mm, is welded through the profiled
steel sheeting and placed secluded (nr = 1) kt,max is equal to 0.85 or 1.00 for a plate
thickness of tp 1.0 or tp > 1.0, respectively. If nr = 2 then kt,max is 0.70 or 0.80 for
tp 1.0 or tp > 1.0, respectively. If the stud has a diameter of 19mm to 22mm and is
welded to the structural steel member through prefabricated holes in the profiled steel
sheeting kt,max is equal to 0.75 or 0.60 for nr = 1 or nr = 2, respectively (EN 1994-1-1,
table 6.2). When placing two studs side by side it should be ensured that each stud has
at least eD 20mm free distance to the edge of the structural steel members flange.
The profiled steel sheetings trough width b0 , should not be less than 50mm (clause
6.6.5.8(2), EN 1994-1-1).
If the profiled steel sheetings ribs run transverse to the supporting composite beam,
the ribs must have a maximum height of hp = 85mm and a width of b0 hp . If the
headed studs are connected to the structural steel member through prefabricated holes
in the profiled steel sheeting, the studs diameter may not be greater than dsc = 22mm.
If it is welded through the sheeting the maximum diameter allowed is dsc = 20mm.
A headed studs diameter should not be greater than dsc = 2.5tf , unless it is placed
directly above the structural steel members web-plate. Each headed stud and its
welded connection to the structural steel member, must be able to resist a tensile force
of Ns,t,Rd = 0.1PRd (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.6.1.1(8)). If any headed stud experiences a
tensile force larger than this Eurocode is not applicable for the design (clause 6.6.3.2(3),
EN 1994-1-1).
When determining the headed studs height hsc it must be ensured that the bottom
of the studs head is placed at least 30mm away from underlying reinforcement bars
and must have a concrete cover at the top of at least csc,min , see Equation 5.61 (clause
6.6.5.2(2), EN 1994-1-1). The total height of the headed stud should be hsc 3dsc ,
where dsc is the diameter of the headed studs shank. The studs head should have a
93
5.6
Deflection and vibration
diameter of at least 1.5dsc and a height of at least 0.4dsc .

csc,min = max
where
cmin,dur
cmin,dur 5mm
20mm
(5.61)
is the reinforcement cover considered for environmental conditions as considered in Section 3.2.1.
The required number of headed studs shall be distributed along the beam length
between a point of maximum positive moment and an adjacent support or point of
maximum negative moment (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.6.1.3(5)). The moments must be
calculated by elastic theory for the loading considered.
The headed studs shall be placed with a spacing ensuring a coherent behaviour of
the composite beams elements. Along the beams length the headed studs may not
be placed with an individual distance greater than ssc,max , see Equations 5.62a and
5.62b. A headed stud placed near the concrete slabs ends may not be placed further
than ssc,e away from the concrete edge (EN 1994-1-1, clause 6.6.5.5). All measures are
to the center of the stud.
ssc,max = 22tf
235
fyk
ribs parallel to beam or solid slab
(5.62a)
ssc,max = 15tf
235
fyk
ribs transverse to beam
(5.62b)
near slab edge
(5.62c)
ssc,e = 9tf
where
tf
fyk
235
fyk
is the flanges thickness and

is the characteristic yield strength of the flange.
It is further required that

ssc,max
where
tc
6tc
800mm
(5.63)
is the thickness of the concrete slab over the structural steel member.
The minimum spacing of headed studs along the composite beams length is ssc,min .
Transverse to the beam length the spacing should be at least 2.5dsc in solid concrete
slabs and 4dsc in other cases (clause 6.6.5.7, EN 1994-1-1).
ssc,min = 5dsc
5.6
(5.64)
The deflections of the steel-concrete composite beam is a matter of concern in the

serviceability limit state. Here the long term loading case is to be considered when
calculating the maximum deflection wm ax.
94
The deflections may be calculated by the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory (Bauchau et al.,
2009, chapter 5). It is thereby required that the beam is uniform and isotropic. The
latter is obviously incoherent for a composite beam. The transformed cross-sections
properties may however be applied whereas the beam can be considered isotropic, see
Equation 5.15. For a beam with an irregular cross-section along its length, e.g. different
effective widths at the critical sections, the following is not applicable. It is also assumed that the shear connection established at the steel-concrete interface is adequate,
whereas no longitudinal slip between the elements will occur. This requires a full shear
connection. The beams end support conditions are in the following considered both
as as simply supported and fixed. The loading of the beam is considered uniformly
distributed, q. The vertical deflection at any point x, along the simply supported beam
may be calculated by

qx l3 2x2 l + x3
(5.65)
w(x) =
24Es Ii
The application of an elastic beam theory is in accordance with clause 7.3.1(2) in
EN 1994-1-1. The maximum deflection for the simply supported and uniformly loaded
beam will occur at x = l/2, hence
wtot =
where
l
Es
Ii
l
2

5 qmax l4
384 Es Ii
(5.66)
is the beam length,

is steel modulus of elasticity, see Table 2.8, and
is the transformed cross-sections moment of inertia.
For a beam with fixed end supports and uniform loading the vertical deflection
along the beams span may be calculated by Equation 5.67.
w(x) =
1 qx2 (l x)2
24
Es Ii
(5.67)
The maximum deflection at x = l/2 is thus

wtot =
1 qmax l4
384 Es Ii
(5.68)
The slope at any point along the simply supported beam may be calculated by the
equation below. For any other configurations than those stated here further reference
is given to the literature.
q l3 6x2 l + 4x3
(x) =
24Es Ii
(5.69)
Whereas the maximum slope is at the elements supports at x = 0 and x = l, hence

max = (0) = (l) =
1 ql3
24 Es Ii
(5.70)
In a building project both requirements for the maximum deflection and slope
may be defined. Herein only maximum deflection is considered. The maximum allowed deflection of a beam within a building is taken as l/300 in accordance with
Gulvanessian et al. (2002), table 7.7. The criterion to satisfy is thus
wmax
l
300
(5.71)
95
5.6
Sagging of beams and slabs is often an undesirable effect in residential, office and
similar buildings, even if it is within the limit of Equation 5.71. Due to the perception
by the occupants it is often more desirable to have a hogging beam. Rolled sections may
therefore be bent to have a pre-camber equal to maximum deflection, thus resulting in
a long term deflection equal to a plane, horizontal beam. Deflection contributions shall
be named in accordance with appendix A1.4.3 in EN 1990. By this negative initial
deflection from pre-cambering is wc , initial short-term deflections are w1 , long-term
deflections are w2 and momentary deflections due to variable loading are w3 . The
beams total deflection wtot , is thus defined by the sum of w1 to w3 and the maximum
resulting deflection wmax as wtot + wc .
To evaluate a beams vibrations during daily usage, the beams response factor is
evaluated. As this concerns the occasional incident of exceeded vibration, short time
loading is applied. The following is applicable to simply supported, single span beams
only and is in accordance with Wyatt (1989). The beams natural frequency may be
calculated by
18
(5.72)
f0 =
w0
where
w0
is the maximum short-term deflection measured in mm.
The response factor R, is calculated by Equation 5.73a for beams with a low natural
frequency, f0 < 7Hz, and by Equation 5.73b for beams with a high natural frequency,
f0 > 7Hz.
68000Cf
mbef f lef f
30000
R=
mbe l
R=
where
Cf
m
bef f
lef f
l
be
for f0 < 7Hz
(5.73a)
for f0 > 7Hz
(5.73b)
is a component related to the beams natural frequency whereas Cf = 0.4

if 3Hz < f0 < 4Hz, Cf = 1.4 0.25f0 if 4Hz < f0 < 4.8Hz and Cf = 0.2
if f0 > 4.8Hz.
is the floor mass per area of the unit kg/m2 , including live and eventual
super imposed dead loads and
is the concrete slabs effective width in m.
is the beams effective length in m, considering reductions due to the abutments and
is the total beam length in m.
is the critical damping ration for the natural damping of the floor which
for composite beams should be taken as = 1.5%.
is the lesser of the minimum distance to an adjacent structural steel member
or 40tc , measured in m.
The maximum value of the response factor R from Equation 5.73 is shown for
relevant usage categories in Table 5.8. The usage categories shown here are identical
to those defined for live loads in Table 2.1. Some sub-categories as A1-A2 and B1-B3
are added and defined as such. A1 corresponds to domestic and residential areas with
no apparent night time activity, and A2 is if night time activity is common. B1, B2
96
Table 5.8: Maximum value of the response factor R, for different usage categories.
A
A1
Response factor, Rmax
Usage cagetory
B
A2 B1 B2 B3
2
12
and B3 are general, special and busy office areas, respectively. Here a general office
facilitates normal office activities, special office is for office use of a technical nature and
a busy office is one with a large number of occupants where simultaneous movement
on larger main access areas may occur.
The compliance criteria for vibrations is thus
R Rmax
(5.74)
97
Building performance
This section considers the performance objectives associated with high-rise building
structures. As an overall subject these relate both to serviceability and ultimate limit
state. In the following the ultimate limit state requirement is that for progressive
collapse in Section 6.1. Servicability limit state requirements concern the buildings
overall performance with regard to the occupants perception of building movements
and lateral movement of the buildings structural system, in Sections 6.2 and 6.3.
The requirements in this section are all based on a buildings overall performance.
With regard to comfort and drift, a buildings dynamic characteristics are the controlling parameters. When considering progressive collapse, a robust building will be less
affected by local failure, as the structure is able to sustain its overall integrity by use
of its structural redundancy. Both a buildings dynamic characteristics and robustness
may be adjusted to satisfy, though with increasing costs.
To increase the comfort of occupants and limit drifts, a buildings structural damping
may be increased by installing auxiliary damping devices. These are available in many
forms such as friction, tuned mass and tuned liquid dampers. Mass and liquid dampers
often taken up a lot of space inside the building. For instance, in Taipei 101 in Taiwan
a tuned mass damper of 730tonnes is suspended between the 88th and 92nd stories.
This reduces the sway of the 450m tall building with 30 to 40% and thus ensures a
dissipation of energy relieving the structural elements, minimizing drift and ensuring
occupant comfort. A damper of this kind takes up a lot of internal space and is thus
has a large cost and causes an inefficient area within the building. Friction dampers
may however be included in the joints between structural elements or at the buildings
foundations. Hidden away behind the finished interior and exterior surfaces, they pose
no extra cost due to inefficient use of the buildings internal space.
Ensuring that a buildings structure has sufficient redundancy will ensure its satisfactory performance when subject to a progressive collapse. A general method to ensure
redundancy is to provide an excess capacity of structural elements, that goes beyond
their initial design capacity. Application of the Eurocodes partial factor method will
undoubtedly ensure this to some degree, however this is not the reason for the application of this method. The provisions of Section 6.1 describes how progressive collapse
should be treated in accordance with EN 1991-1-7. Besides what is described therein,
a structural element should, to the most reasonable extent possible, always be designed
to resist accidental loads. A column located at the drive path near a building should
therefore be designed to resist vehicle impacts of a certain magnitude, in addition to
having the building perform as described in the following.
6.1
Progressive collapse
A buildings structural system must perform such that explosions or impacts does not
damage the building to an extent resulting in its collapse (EN 1990, clause 2.1(4)P).
Should an accident occur entailing local damage that may potentially lead to a progressive collapse of the building or sections of it, it is required that the local damage
be limited to an area not larger than 15% or 100m2 of each of the two adjacent storeys
(EN 1991-1-7, annex A.4). Alternate load paths within a buildings structural system
may be identified and designed by performing relevant structural analysis, where an
appropriate loss of structural integrity is considered.
99
6.2
Occupant comfort
EN 1991-1-7 considers progressive collapse for different buildings by categorizing

them in four consequence classes. High-rise buildings of more than 15 stories belong to
the upper risk group 2b (for further reference see EN 1991-1-7, table A.1). Buildings
must be designed by a systematic risk assessment considering all likely hazards and
their effects on the remaining structural system, upon local failure as described above.
This risk assessment starts with the definition of the expected structural performance
when the building is at risk of a progressive collapse. All relevant sources and hazards
causing damage that might lead to loss of structural integrity and compromise the
expected structural performance must be considered. A probabilistic approach may
be applied when determining the extent and cause of damage. Finally the structural
system shall be shown to function satisfactory with an acceptable degree of damage.
To satisfy the above a buildings structural system shall be analysed for full service
loads, see Equation 6.1, where a nominal part of a structural wall or an entire column
is removed, one at a time. Should the building have horizontal structural elements
supporting a vertical structural element, the effects caused by the loss of this exchange
structure should also be analysed. Types of explosions relevant to consider for domestic
buildings is primarily only gas explosions and similar. The design of a normal residential
building does thereby not cover damage entailed by acts of terrorism or warfare, unless
it is deemed necessary. Impacts to consider are vehicle impacts. Aircraft impacts
might be relevant for the design of taller buildings or buildings located near areas with
frequent low flying air traffic, e.g. near an airport. Due to the assumed probability of
simultaneous occurrence a building need not be designed for extreme wind nor seismic
loads, when being analysed for the risk of a progressive collapse. Eurocode does not
specify a load combination to apply when considering progressive collapse scenarios.
Adopting Equation 6.1 from UFC 4-023-03, appendix C is thus deemed appropriate.
1.2D + 0.5L + 0.2W
(6.1)
The risk assessment described above is in compliance with the procedure described
in annex B in EN 1991-1-7. Compliance with the requirements will lead to a redundant
and robust structural system
6.2
Occupant comfort
The occupants comfort is only needed ensured for long-lasting excitations. Earthquakes are not considered herein as they will always be of relative short duration. The
duration of an earthquake is proportional to its magnitude. Small earthquakes might
last less than a second and moderate sized earthquakes between a few seconds to a
minute. The longest lasting earthquake ever recorded was the Sumatra earthquake in
2004 centred in the Indian Ocean. This extreme earthquake was recorded in California,
USA, and measured to 9.1 on the Richter scale. It lasted for approximately 10 minutes
and is today the third largest earthquake recorded since 1990. Ensuring occupants
comfort for earthquakes with a duration of this scale is irrelevant for the satisfactory
performance of any residential building. The occupants in the building must not experience an acceleration of more than 20milli g, for excitations with a return period of
minimum 10 year (Melbourne, 1998). This acceleration will likely cause motion sickness or similar discomfort for the occupants, but is acceptable due to the applied return
period. Therefore only wind loads scaled to such a return period is to be considered in
the following.
100
The movement and thereby acceleration of a building depends on the size of the
excitation, the buildings damping, distribution of mass and the shape of its first
fundamental mode. This mode should always be sought to be of a flexural nature,
as torsional modes are generally undesirable and are not applicable in the following
analysis. This section hereby only considers the comfort of occupants inside of the
building. Comfort criteria for pedestrians near the building should also be appropriately
considered, but is not within the scope of a structural design.
Section 6.2.1 describes how data from a base moment times series obtained in a
wind tunnel test, can be applied for the calculation of a buildings acceleration. Section
6.2.2 gives a more general approach to the description of the procedures available for
calculation of building acceleration in EN 1991-1-4. As mentioned the characteristics of
a buildings fundamental mode 1 (z) and f1 , its distribution of mass m(z), and damping
characteristics s , are the building specific parameters in both analysis. The latter is
determined by the best engineering estimate, but the mass distribution, fundamental
mode shape and frequency may be obtained by analysis software, e.g. ETABS. As
increasing mass results in decreasing acceleration, the building mass considered must
be the inferior culmination of gravitational loads acting on the building. It is undesired
to evaluate the comfort of potential occupants before a building is taken into use,
whereas it may be relevant to consider a buildings live and super imposed dead loads.
Equation 6.2 shows a proposed load combination for the evaluation of the occupants
comfort. The partial load factors applied are shown in Table 2.6.
Gj,inf D + Q,1 L
where
D
Q,1
6.2.1
(6.2)
include all dead loads and

is to be taken for a favourable variable action.
Acceleration by base moment analysis
A base moment time series is obtained from wind tunnel tests, carried out at a mean
wind speed of vma . This wind speed is not representative of what the building is to be
designed for, whereas the results from the tests must be scaled to fit the mean wind
speed applied for design vm .
This may be done by Equation 6.4, by simply multiplying the factor f with the
results from the base moment times series. It should be noticed that the mean wind
speed vm by codes is often given or calculated to a 50 year return period. This may be
scaled to the appropriate 10 year return period by the principle used in Equation 2.4
or by Equation 6.3 (EN 1991-1-4, clause 4.2(2)P). The former is a rough estimate, and
it is by code recommended to adopt the latter when scaling wind speed for its return
period.

1 K ln ( ln (1 p)) n
(6.3)
vb,10 = vb,0
1 K ln ( ln (0.98))
where
vb,0
K
n
p
is the basic wind velocity for a 50 year return period as of EN 1991-1-4,

is the shape parameter taken as its recommended value of K = 0.2,
is the exponent n = 0.5, as recommended, and
is the probability of annual exceedence, p = 1/R, where R is the desired
return period, here R = 10 years.
101
6.2
Occupant comfort
(a) Base moment time series.
(b) Power spectral density function.
Figure 6.1: Base moment times series and associated power spectral density function
for wind excitations recorded during a wind tunnel test.
f=
where
f
2
vm
2
vma
(6.4)
is the scaling factor for the base moment time series.
A base moment time series represents a buildings movement characteristics, based

on the winds influence on the buildings envelope modelled for the wind tunnel tests.
This is an attribute that no standardised method, as in Section 6.2.2, can imitate.
Figure 6.1a shows the base moment times series for a building affected by a mean wind
speed of vm = 26.3m/s for a period of approximately 60 minutes. Figure 6.1b shows
the related power spectral density function (PSD), which may be obtained by simple
PSD functions in various mathematical software. The moment response S(f ) for the
fundamental mode with the frequency f1 is read from this graph. As only this one
mode is considered in the analysis it should be ensured that it has a dominant modal
participation factor and a frequency of at least 1Hz more than the second fundamental
mode, hence f1 f2 + 1Hz.
To evaluate a buildings acceleration characteristics based on the data from a base
moment time series the procedure in Zhou et al. (2003) is applied. By this the resonant
peak factor may be calculated by
gR =
where
f1
Tob
0.5772
2 ln (f1 Tob ) + p
2 ln (f1 Tob )
(6.5)
is the frequency of the fundamental mode and

is the observation period of the wind inducing the moment, in s (usually
600s).
The background peak factor

R =
102
f1 S(f1 )
41
(6.6)
where
1
S(f1 )
is the structures critical damping ratio, which may be taken as the structures damping ratio s , and
is the spectral base moment for the fundamental frequency.
The resonant base moment may then be calculated by

r,R = gR R
M
(6.7)
The base moment may then be distributed along the buildings height as force
resultants, by an equivalent static wind load at the height z.
where
m
1
r,R R m(z)1 (z)

PR (z) = M
h
0 zm(z)1 (z)dz
(6.8)
is the building mass considered and

is the mode shape of the fundamental mode.
The peak acceleration at any point along a buildings height may then be calculated
by Equation 6.9 for the fundamental flexural mode.
Rh
PR (z)1 (z)dz
Ypeak (z) = R0h
2
0 m(z)1 (z)dz
(6.9)
By this Ypeak (h), where h is the total building height, should satisfy the requirement
for human acceleration.
6.2.2
Acceleration by Eurocode provisions
EN 1991-1-4 offers methods of calculating the acceleration of a building undergoing

symmetrical oncoming wind. As the methods are standardised they take very little
consideration to the buildings shape and any asymmetry or uncommon turbulence
in the oncoming wind flow, is unrepresented. The case is however most often, that
buildings vulnerable to large accelerations, hence tall buildings, are placed in dense
urban areas. EN 1991-1-4 considers this by the applied terrain category, though this
merely has an influence on the velocity on the approaching wind and its shape profile.
The procedure considered in the following calculations is that of annex B in EN 1991-1-4
and as described by Steenbergen et al. (2009). For a free standing building with a uniform shape and unaffected by local wind effects, such as turbulence from a near standing
building, this will provide trustworthy results. If however a near standing building affects the incoming air flow with turbulence not considered for the terrain category, the
buildings fluctuating behaviour can not be described by the provisions of EN 1991-1-7.
The same goes for nearby buildings in the wake region causing an accumulation of the
air, which might result in a damping effect on the considered building. Calculations
must thus always be performed with the considered buildings environment in mind.
The turbulent properties of the incoming airflow is described by the turbulence
length scale.
0.67+0.05 ln(z0 )
zs
(6.10)
L(zs ) = Lt
zt
103
6.2
Occupant comfort
where
zs
Lt
zt
z0
is the reference height corresponding to the incoming winds stagnation

point on the tall building zs = 0.6h,
is a reference length scale of Lt = 300m,
is a reference height of zt = 200m and
is the roughness length equal to z0 = 0.3 for terrain category III.
The background factor

1
B2 =
1 + 0.9
where
b
h
b+h
L(zs )
0
(6.11)
.63
is the width of the windward face of the building and

is the building height.
The non-dimensional frequency

fL (zs ) = f1
where
f1
vm (zs )
L(zs )
vm (zs )
(6.12)
is the frequency of the fundamental mode and

is the mean wind velocity at the height zs .
The aerodynamic admittance functions

1
1
2 1 exp2b
b 2b

1
1
Rh =
2 1 exp2h
h 2h
Rb =
where
b
h
(6.13a)
(6.13b)
4.6b
fL (zs ) and
is b = L(z
s)
4.6h
is h = L(zs ) fL (zs ).
The non-dimensional power spectral density at zs

SL (zs ) =
6.8fL (zs )
5
(1 + 10.2fL (zs )) 3
(6.14)
The resulting force coefficient from the building may be read from figure 7.23 in
EN 1991-1-4. Reduction due to end-effects and building shape may be introduced, but
is not commented here. The aerodynamic damping logarithmic decrement
a =
where
cf
air (zs )
e
104
cf air (zs )vm (zs )

2f1 e
(6.15)
is the resulting force coefficient read from figure 7.23 in EN 1991-1-4,

is the air density at the height zs , which may be taken as air (zs ) =
1.2kg/m3 , and
is the mass per unit area of the buildings windward face, considered evenly
distributed. If a building has a significantly lumped mass distribution,
consideration should be taken to this when determining a .
For tall buildings the lesser dense air at the considered height may be calculated by
Equation 6.16. A general value of air = 1.2kg/m3 is however always applicable.
z
air (z) = 1.21 exp 8000

where
z
air
(6.16)
is the considered height in meters and

is the air density at height z in kg/m3 .
The damping of the structure is comprised of the different damping components such
as structural, aerodynamic and increased structural damping due to installed damping
devices. The latter is not considered herein whereas = s +a . The resonance response
factor is calculated by
2
SL (zs )Rh Rb
(6.17)
R2 =
2
The up-crossing frequency
= f1
The peak factor
kp =
where
Tob
B2
R2
+ R2
(6.18)
0.6
2 ln (Tob ) + p
2 ln (Tob )
(6.19)
is the observation time for the induced wind (normally 600s, hence 10
minute mean).
The deviation of the along-wind acceleration

a,x (z) =
where
Iv (zs )
m
1 (z)
Kx
2 (z )
cf air (z)bIv (zs )vm
s
RKx 1 (z)
m
(6.20)
is the turbulence intensity at the height zs , see Equation 6.21,

is the total mass considered for the building,
is the shape function of the fundamental mode and
is Kx =
Rh
v2 (z)1 (z)dz
0 m
2 (z ) h (z)dz
vm
s
1
0
The turbulence intensity

Iv (zs ) =
where
kl
cO (z)
kl
cO (z) ln
zs
z0
=
kr vb
vm (zs )
(6.21)
is the turbulence factor recommended to kl = 1.0 and

is the orography factor taken as cO (z) = 1.0 as no change in orography is
considered.
The maximum acceleration at any point along the building height

apeak (z) = kp a,x (z)
(6.22)
The maximum value apeak (h), where h is the total building height, may thus not
exceed the compliance criteria.
105
6.3
Drift limitations
6.3
Drift limitations
The consideration of interstorey drift is limited to the damage limitation requirement in

EN 1998-1. The objective here is to maintain the buildings functioning, whilst exposed
to minor seismic activity, see Section 2.1.3. Interstorey drift is defined as the difference
in lateral deflection between two adjacent stories. The effects of excessive interstorey
drift may be considered in three categories, (1) force-displacement (second-order) effects on structural members, (2) movement causing deformation of non-structural elements, such as windows and cladding, and (3) total building drift causing damage to
near standing buildings (Searer and Freeman, 2004). With regard to the latter, this
effect may often be neglected if no adjacent buildings are located within the considered
buildings vicinity. The similar movement of adjacent buildings shall however always be
considered in an unfavourable manner. By this the total drift of two buildings towards
each other may cause a collision. The consequences of (1) should always be considered
in the analysis of a structural system, when deemed necessary.
Second-order, P , effects in (1) must be considered in the analysis if the interstorey drift sensitivity factor, see Equation 6.23, exceeds a value of 0.10, hence if
> 0.10 (EN 1998-1, clause 4.4.2.2(2)). These may be considered by scaling the applied seismic forces with a multiplication factor of 1/(1 ), if 0.10 < 0.20. The
interstorey drift sensitivity factor is to be calculated for all stories, whereas the largest
value obtained is governing. P effects on structural elements are further described
in Section 3.1.
Ptot dr
0.3
(6.23)
=
Vtot h
where
Ptot
is the total force for the considered combination of gravity loads above the
considered story,
Vtot
is the total shear force originating from seismic actions on the considered
storey,
h
is the interstorey height and
dr
is the design interstorey drift, see Equation 6.25.
The damage limitation requirement of EN 1998-1 sets a limit of interstorey drift to
consider the effects of (2). This limitation aims to sustain the integrity of non-structural
elements, when the building is undergoing lateral movement. More specifically the drift
is limited to a maximum allowable value, which considers the flexibility of the nonstructural elements (EN 1998-1, clause 4.4.3.2(1)), see Equation 6.24. The limiting
factor r , is defined as r = 1/200 for buildings having non-structural elements of
brittle materials attached to the structure. r = 1/133 for buildings having nonstructural elements capable of ductile behaviour and r = 1/100 for buildings with no
non-structural elements, or non-structural elements attached to the building in a way
that allows for their free movement and does not affect the functioning of the structural
system.
dr r h
(6.24)
where
106
is a reduction factor considering the lower return period of seismic actions

considered in the damage limitation requirement. = 0.5 for buildings
with importance class I or II and = 0.4 for classes III and IV .
is the drift limitation factor depending on the type of non-structural elements.
The design interstorey drift dr , is calculated by Equation 6.25 if the storey displacements are obtained by a linear analysis. Displacements obtained from either static or
dynamic non-linear analysis may be applied as dr with no further modification (clause
4.3.4, EN 1998-1).
dr = q |ds,i+1 ds,i |
(6.25)
where
q
ds,i
is the structures behaviour factor, see Section 2.1.3,

is the displacement of the considered storey, i, obtained by a linear analysis.
The Eurocode standardisation system only considers the interstorey drift of buildings, and limits it as described above. It is however also reasonable to consider a buildings total drift, also termed global drift, defined as the ratio of the maximum lateral
displacement of the considered storey to the total building height up to the considered
storey, see Equation 6.26. Reasonable engineering judgement asses this ratios limitation to an interval of 1/700 to 1/300 (Smith and Coull, 1991). For residential buildings
a ratio of 1/400 is a generally accepted limit. This is based on requirements for the
general appearance of the building. The inclusion of a total drift requirement may
therefore sometimes be neglected, as long as the interstore drift limit is not exceeded.
1
de,i
h
400
where
de
itop
(6.26)
is the storey drift determined by a non-linear analysis or in correspondence

with the method in Equation 6.25 for drift obtained by a linear analysis.
indicates that of the top storey.
107
Conclusion
Conclusion
The structural model developed in ETABS showed resemblance with that expected for
the buildings configuration. The model hereof represented the dynamic characteristics
desired for a high-rise building of its type. The initial assumption, that some of the core
walls would experience permanent tension forces, when being loaded by the buildings
self weight alone, was supported by the results of the analysis.
To accommodate the design of one of these tension walls, the simplified method
of design from Eurocode was expanded to also consider axial tension, instead of compression only. The development of the interaction curve for axial tension is based on a
remaining capacity approach. A bending moment will thus leave an area of the crosssection in compression, whereas this remaining area may be utilised to tension. This
may be considered upon as a lower bound solution, for sections in a fully tensioned
state of combined bending and axial force.
It was furthermore shown, that it is not possible to replicate the capacity of the composite wall as designed, with an equivalent reinforced concrete wall. Without changing
the walls outer dimensions, the maximum area of the longitudinal reinforcement allowed in a reinforced concrete wall would be exceeded by 16%. This is considered by
keeping the mechanical degree of reinforcement equal to that of the composite wall. If
however the walls thickness was allowed to be changed it would have to be increased
by approximately 10% to comply with the maximum reinforcement criterion. This
shows, that if it is desired to keep the capacity and slenderness of an element up, a
steel-concrete composite design must be preferred to a reinforced concrete design.
The concept showed to be similar for the column design. Here a reinforced concrete
column with a mechanical reinforcement degree, similar to that of the designed steelconcrete composite column, would exceed its maximum allowable area of longitudinal
reinforcement with 73%. The advantage of using steel-concrete composite, compared to
an equivalent reinforced concrete section, is thus increasing with increasing slenderness.
Assuming that it is faster during construction to install a structural steel member than
an equivalent quantity of reinforcement bars, composite elements may be the more
economical beneficial solution for elements with a high degree of reinforcement.
When designing in accordance with the simplified method of design it is obvious,
that this method is aimed towards the design of columns and not walls. When designing the wall section it was further experienced that a very limiting criterion was
the structural steel contribution ratio. As walls generally have a substantial amount
of concrete and reinforcement compared to structural steel, the design is very likely to
fall within design procedures of reinforced concrete elements, instead of steel-concrete
composite elements. The configuration of the designed wall section was thus obtained
with the primary limiting parameter being the allowance to design it as a composite
wall.
These limiting factors and the fact that only compression members are encompassed
in Eurocodes simplified method of design, makes it difficult to design walls for high-rise
buildings in accordance with its rules.
A steel-concrete composite beam, as a part of a flooring system, was designed in
accordance with Eurocode. Here the governing design requirement for the finished
composite beam was the interaction of local and shear buckling. This interaction of
negative moment and shear force occurred at the beams fixed end-supports. Such
interaction may thus cause the need to increase the shear resisting area, e.g. by applying
109
end-posts.
During construction, when the beam is non-composite, the structural steel beams
moment resistance for lateral torsional buckling, governed the design. Had the beam not
been fixed at its ends, this condition would have been even more critical. This causes
the need to consider lateral restraints of the non-composite beams during erection. If
the composite beams design is limited by conditions during erection, the finished beam
may be uneconomical.
The redundancy of the high-rise buildings structural elements were considered by
analysing the designed wall and column sections for cases of progressive collapse. A
structural element adjacent to the one considered was removed, and the effects were
analysed in ETABS. For the cases considered the designed structural elements were
found to have sufficient redundancy, to maintain their functioning. The load combination applied during the analysis include only minor lateral loads in the form of wind.
This combination was however adopted and applied to the provisions of Eurocode, as
no specific requirements were stated therein. From a probabilistic point of view the
applied combination is reasonable, however it should be sought to apply a combination
of loads coherent with recommendations of the applied code, if such exist.
The comfort of the buildings occupants was analysed by the provisions of Eurocode
and by the analysis of a base moment time series. The results of the the Eurocode
analysis shows excellent performance of the building, as the compliance criterion is far
from exceeded. The same applies to the base moment times series, though the results
from these are inconclusive, as the time series applied are invalid for the considered
building. No comparison of the two methods can thus be made.
Drift indices were considered for both interstorey and total displacements. All
data relevant for this analysis was obtained from the results in ETABS. In the case
of total drift in the buildings x-direction, an exceedance of approximately 10% from
the compliance criterion was seen. It is however noted that this compliance criterion
is based on best engineering practice and is not a requirement for Eurocode design.
The interstorey drift index was considered with a compliance criterion for a faade of
non-structural brittle materials. For both the buildings major axis, the interstorey
drift index did not exceed the allowed limit.
110
References
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standardization, 2002.
EN 1991-1-1. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - Densities,
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EN 1991-1-5. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-5: General actions - thermal
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113
A
A.1
Example calculations
Design of a steel-concrete composite wall
Within this section the steel-concrete composite wall described in Section 1.4 is designed
in accordance with the provisions of Section 3. The design herein considers the ultimate
limit state requirements only, as serviceability limit state requirements are considered
in Appendix A.4.
The wall section considered for design herein is located on the ground floor as a
part of the core structure. The walls at this level are the tallest in the building and
are exposed to the largest section forces. The location of the considered wall is further
described in Section 1.4.1. By an analysis in ETABS the maximum section forces and
moment-axial force interactions are determined, see Table 2.12 and Figure 2.9. The
section forces calculated in ETABS are increased to consider first-order effects by adding
the contribution Mz,0,Ed = l/200NEd to Mz,Ed and My,0,Ed = l/150NEd to My,Ed , as
described in Equation 3.2. Second-order effects are considered in the analysis.
Figure A.1: Principle layout of the steel-concrete composite wall section to be designed.
Figure A.1 shows the principle layout for the design of a steel-concrete composite
wall in accordance with Section 3. The walls external dimensions are not to be changed,
and it is strived to apply the same concrete grade of C45/55 in all vertical elements,
as described in Section 2.2.2. Reinforcement with the diameter e and spacing se is
placed in single or multiple layers at the sections ends, and reinforcement with the
diameter s and spacing ss is placed at the sections sides. The two structural steel
members are chosen amongst the type HE..A from table 6.7 in Teknisk Stbi (20th ed),
and assigned a strength class from Table 2.8. Their placement measured from the
cross sections centroid haz , and their orientation is considered in the design of the
wall. The diameter of the transverse reinforcement sw , and confining hoops h , are
designed to satisfy the relevant requirements. The headed studs creating a sufficient
shear connection between the concrete and the structural steel members are designed
by determining their required diameter dsc , height hsc and placement. Values regarding
the studs are denoted with subscript f or w if the headed stud is attached to the flange
or web, respectively.
The parameters applied for the design in the following calculations are shown in
Table A.1. The designed section is chosen to have two layers with 6 end reinforcement
bars, 14 side bars at each side of the wall, and the structural steel members are HE320A
sections rotated so their strong axis of bending is aligned with the walls weak axis.
A.1
This rotation is reasoned later in the design.

Table A.1: Wall parameters applied in the design (see Tables 2.8 and 2.10).
Structural steel members (HE320A)
ba [mm]
300
ha [mm]
310
fyk [M P a]
420
fyd [M P a]
420
bw [mm]
500
hw [mm]
2500
l[mm]
7550
fck [M P a]
45
fcd[M P a]
30
fcc [M P a]
25.5
e [mm]
25
s [mm]
28
se [mm]
125
A.1.1
Aa [mm2 ]
12400
haz [mm]
930
Ecm [M P a]
36000
dg [mm]
20
fuk,sc[M P a]
520
ss [mm]
103
fsk [M P a]
460
fsd [M P a]
400
tf [mm]
15.5
tw [mm]
9
Ea [GP a]
210
Reinforced concrete
Introductory design requirements
The sections external dimensions must satisfy the requirement of Equation 3.7, where
hw /bw = 2500mm/500mm = 5.0
0.2 5.0 5.0
The minimum cover for the end bars by Equation 3.10.
cmin = max
30mm
10mm + 0mm 0mm 0mm
10mm
= 30mm
The nominal concrete cover for the end bars from Equation 3.9. Here 12mm is
added to consider transverse and hoop reinforcement.
cnom = 30mm + 10mm + 12mm = 52mm
As the end bars are the largest longitudinal reinforcement bars their nominal cover
is applied for all longitudinal reinforcement bars, as it is considered impractical to have
different cover requirements for different reinforcement bars in the wall.
The nominal cover of the structural steel members is calculated from Equation 3.11.
cnom,a = max
40mm
1
300mm
44mm
= 50mm
The minimum spacing of the longitudinal reinforcement bars is here also considered
for the largest reinforcement bar, from Equation 3.12.
smin = max
II
1 30mm
20mm + 5mm
20mm
= 30mm
The maximum spacing from Equation 3.13

smax = min
3 500mm
400mm
= 400mm
Figure A.2: Placement of longitudinal reinforcement and structural steel members in

the cross-section to be designed.
From the layout for the reinforcement in Figure A.2 it is seen that all cover and
spacing requirements of the reinforcement bars and structural steel members are satisfied.
The cross-sectional area of all reinforcement bars in the wall is

As = 2 2 6 (30mm)2 + 14 (25mm)2 = 30709mm2
4
The concrete sections net area is
Ac = 500mm 2500mm 30709mm2 2 12400mm2 = 1194.5 103 mm2

The reinforcement area shall satisfy Equation 3.17.
0.0031194.5103 mm2 = 3584mm2 30709mm2 71669mm2 = 0.061194.5103 mm2
The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement allowed is also checked by Equation
5.3. Here the wall is considered in a full tension state.
As,min =
1.0 0.65 3M P a 1194.5 103 mm2

= 5064mm2 < 30709mm2 = As
460M P a
The area of the longitudinal reinforcement is thereby satisfied. The utilisation of

the maximum allowed area is 43%. To consider to equivalent area of reinforcement if
the wall was non-composite the mechanical degree of reinforcement for composite wall
is calculated
=
30709mm2 400M P a + 2 12400mm2 420M P a

= 0.745
1194.5 103 mm2 25.5M P a
By an iterative procedure the reinforcement area for a similar degree of reinforcement is determined
As =
1193 103 mm2 25.5M P a

= 56.7 103 mm2
0.745 400M P a
Checking this reinforcement area with that allowed by EN 1992-1-1 (see Page 51)
the criterion is
0.0021193103 mm2 = 2.4103 mm2 56.7103 mm2 > 47.7103 mm2 = 0.041193103 mm2
III
A.1
A reinforced concrete wall with the same degree of mechanical reinforcement would
thus not be possible without increasing the concrete area as the maximum allowable
degree of mechanical reinforcement is exceeded with 16%. It is found that the walls
thickness would have to be increased from 500mm to 551mm to satisfy the maximum
reinforcement area requirement As,max = 0.04Ac = 53103 mm2 . The mechanical degree
of reinforcement would then be 0.627.
The cross-sections plastic resistance to compression with no consideration of buckling from Equation 3.34.
Npl,Rd = 2 12400mm2 420M P a + 1194.5 103 mm2 25.5M P a + 30709mm2 400M P a
= 53.2 106 N
The similar characteristic value is Npl,Rk = 70.2 106 N with a concrete strength of
0.85fck .
The structural steel members contribution ratio.
=
2 12400mm2 420M P a
= 0.20
53.2 106 N
In order for the wall to comply with the design procedures of EN 1994-1-1 Equation
3.23 must be satisfied
0.2 0.20 0.9
The wall hereby falls within the scope of EN 1994-1-1, but is very close to being
considered as a reinforced concrete wall in accordance with EN 1992-1-1.
A.1.2
Shear resistance
The shear affected area is taken as the flange area for shear in the z-axis and as the
web area for shear in the y-axis. Av,z = 4 (300mm 15.5mm) = 19840mm2 and
Av,y = 2 ((320mm 2 15.5mm) 9mm) = 5022mm2 . The shear capacities are thus
calculated from Equation 3.41.
Vpl,a,Rd,z = 19840mm2
Vpl,a,Rd,y = 5022mm2
420M P a
p
= 4810.9kN
(3)
420M P a
p
= 1217.8kN
(3)
As 0.5Vpl,a,Rd,z = 2405kN > 2328kN = Vmax,Ed,z and 0.5Vpl,a,Rd,y = 609kN >

138kN = Vmax,Ed,y the moment resistance need not be reduced to consider the effects
of shear. Had the structural steel sections however not been rotated, the shear capacity
in the z-axis would not be sufficient. As EN 1994-1-1 recommends that the only shear
resisting area to consider is that of the structural steel member(s), these are rotated to
align the largest shear resistance with largest shear force.
A.1.3
Moment resistance
The location of the plastic neutral axes (PNA) and all section modulus contributions
are found by computational means, see Section A.1.8. The PNA are located at the
points that satisfy Equation 3.31, see Figure A.3. Here the PNA is located at the
distances hn,z = 799mm from the geometrical neutral axis (GNA), for bending about
IV
Figure A.3: Location of plastic neutral axes (dashed lines) for the considered wall crosssection (circles for reinforcement are not in scale). Dimensions are with reference to
the geometrical neutral axis.
the y-axis, and at hn,y = 41mm, for bending about the z-axis. The GNA is centred in
the wall section for both main directions due to double symmetry.
The plastic section modulus are calculated by Equation 3.26, and are shown in
Table A.2.
Table A.2: Plastic section modulus about y- and z-axes with reference to the plastic
neutral axis and geometrical neutral axis.
About y-axis
Wpl,P N A,y [mm3 ] Wpl,GN A,y [mm3 ]
Concrete
Reinf.
Steel
46.2 106
23.1 106
20.2 106
366.0 106
26.8 106
22.6 106
About z-axis
Wpl,P N A,z [mm3 ] Wpl,GN A,z [mm3 ]
51.4 106
4.3 106
4.9 106
73.2 106
4.4 106
5.5 106
Calculating the maximum moment from Equation 3.27, the plastic moment resistance from Equation 3.28 and the plastic tension moment from Equation 3.44, yields
the results shown in Table A.3.
A.1.4
Axial resistance
The wall is considered very unlikely to buckle about the y-y axis. Only buckling about
the z-z axis is considered.
To calculate the concretes effective modulus of elasticity the creep coefficient must
be determined, see Section 3.4.1. This is done assuming cement of class N and an
exposed perimeter for drying of u = 2hw + bw = 2 2500mm + 500mm = 5500mm.
Hereby h0 = 21194.2103 mm2 /5500mm = 434mm. Considering indoor conditions the
A.1

Table A.3: Moment capacities.
About
Mmax,Rd [kN m]
Mpl,Rd [kN m]
Mpl,t [kN m]
y-axis
z-axis
29516
5926
18903
5100
17724
3789
creep coefficient (, 10) = 2.0 is read of figure 3.1a in EN 1992-1-1. The concretes
effective modulus of elasticity is calculated from Equation 3.36.
Ec,ef f =
36000M P a
1+
3000103 N
11530103 N
2.0
= 23678M P a
The moment of inertia about the z-z axis is determined by computational methods
(see Section A.1.8). Is,z = 606.5 106 mm4 , Ia,z = 458.6 106 mm4 and Ic,z = 24976.5
106 mm4 . The walls effective flexural stiffness is calculated from Equation 3.38.
(EI)ef f
= 210000M P a 458.6 106 mm4 + 210000M P a 606.5 106 mm4

+0.6 23678M P a 24976.5 106 mm4 = 5785174.9 109 N mm2
The wall is fixed at both ends and the elastic critical normal force from Equation
3.37 is
2 5785174.9 109 N mm2
= 400.7 106 N
Ncr =
2
(0.5 7550mm)
The relative slenderness from Equation 3.39.
=
70.2 106 N
= 0.419 2.0
400.7 106 N
The buckling reduction factor from Equation 3.40 with the buckling factor z =
0.49.

= 0.5 1 + 0.49 (0.419 0.2) + 0.4192 = 0.641
=
= 0.887 1.0
0.641 + 0.6412 0.4192
The plastic compression design resistance is thus
Npl,Rd = 0.887 53.2 106 N = 47.2 106 N

The design compressive resistance of the concrete alone from Equation 3.32.
Npm,Rd = 1194.5 103 mm2 25.5M P a = 30.5 106 N
The walls full tension capacity from Equation 3.46.

Nt,Rd = 2 12400mm2 420M P a + 30709mm2 400M P a = 22.7 106 N

The plastic tension force from Equation 3.45, is determined by computational means
(see Section A.1.8) to Npl,t,y = 8.7106 N and Npl,t,z = 16.4106 N for bending about
the y- and z-axis, respectively.
VI
(a) y-axis.
(b) z-axis.
Figure A.4: M-N interaction curves for the considered cross-section. The dashed line
is the maximum axial force. Dots are the (MEd ; NEd ) interaction.
A.1.5
Force interaction
The calculations hereby form moment-normal force interaction curves as seen in Figure
A.4.
For bending about y-y:
A
Npl,Rd = 47173kN and MRd = 0kN m
B
NRd = 0kN and Mpl,Rd = 18903kN m
C
Npm,Rd = 30460kN and Mpl,Rd = 18903kN m
D
0.5Npm,Rd = 15230kN and Mmax,Rd = 29516kN m
E
Npl,t = 8747kN and Mpl,t = 17724kN m
F
Nt,Rd = 22700kN and MRd = 0kN m
A
B
C
D
E
F
For bending about z-z:

NRd = 0kN and Mpl,Rd = 5100kN m
Npm,Rd = 30460kN and Mpl,Rd = 5100kN m
0.5Npm,Rd = 15230kN and Mmax,Rd = 5926kN m
Npl,t = 16428kN and Mpl,t = 3789kN m
Nt,Rd = 22700kN and MRd = 0kN m
The combination of forces affecting the wall calculated in ETABS is shown as black
circles. As they all lie within the outlined interaction curve the interaction capacity in
each direction of bending is sufficient.
As it is seen in Figure A.4, bending about both axes are utilized to a similar
degree. d is therefore not to be taken as a larger value than 1.0. The intersection
of the maximum compression force NEd,max = 11530kN , and the interaction curves
corresponds to moments of MRd,y (11530kN ) = 26940kN m and MRd,z (11530kN ) =
5726kN m. d may hereby be calculated for each direction from Equation 3.49.
26940kN m
= 1.43 1.0
18903kN m
5726kN m
= 1.12 1.0
=
5100kN m
dy =
dz
VII
A.1
Both values are thus taken as dy = dz = 1.0. As the structural steel members
grade is S420, M = 0.8. The requirements for biaxial bending and compression from
Equations 3.47 and 3.48 are
5578kN m
= 0.3 0.8
1.0 18903kN m
757kN m
= 0.2 0.8
1.0 5100kN m
The most critical combination of biaxial bending occurs for My,Ed = 5578kN m and
Mz,Ed = 549kN m. The calculation to check the columns capacity for biaxial bending
is seen below.
549kN m
5578kN m
+
= 0.4 1.0
1.0 18903kN m 1.0 5100kN m
The wall is hereby shown to have sufficient resistance to biaxial bending and compression.
A.1.6
Transverse and hoop reinforcement
The maximum spacing of the transverse reinforcement from Equation 3.14.

scl,tmax = min
20 25mm
500mm
400mm
= 400mm
The minimum diameter of the transverse reinforcement from Equation 3.20.

sw,min = max
6mm
1/4 28
= 7mm 8mm
The transverse reinforcement must satisfy Equation 3.21.

As,hmin = max
0.25 30709mm2
0.001 1194.5 103 mm2
= 7677mm2
The necessary number of transverse reinforcement bars with a 12mm diameter is

thus
7677mm2
nt =
= 67.9 68
2
4 (12mm)
Placing 68 reinforcement bars evenly distributed along the wall length thus gives
a spacing of st = 7550mm/68 = 111mm. This is less than 0.6scl,tmax = 240mm, so
spacing requirements for transverse reinforcement is satisfied.
The minimum dimension of the confining hoops is 8mm, as shown above. These
are placed at the two wall ends confining the cross-sectional area around each of the
structural steel members. The minimum and maximum dimensions of the confinement
area is bo = 404mm and ho = 597mm, respectively. The critical wall length is considered as the entire wall length, lcr = l = 7550mm (Equation 3.15). The maximum
spacing of the hoop reinforcement within this region from Equation 3.16.
scl,max = min
VIII
404mm
2
260mm
9 25mm
= 202mm
Transverse reinforcement may thus be placed as Y 12/100 and hoops as Y 8/200.

By this nh = 38 hoops are placed at each confinement zone along the walls length.
The confinement zones of the wall must each satisfy Equation 3.25. The distances
between the longitudinal reinforcement bars within the hoop is from Figure A.2 seen
to be 60mm, 122mm and 125mm. Between the hoops two corner bars located opposite
of the end bars, an intermediate bar is placed. The distance here is thus (500mm 2
50mm 28mm)/2 = 186mm. The capacity of this intermediate bar is not considered
in any of the calculations.
n = 1
(60mm)2 + (122mm)2 + (125mm)2 + (186mm)2
= 0.953
6 404mm 597mm
200mm
200mm
1
= 0.626
2 404mm
2 597mm
The mechanical volumetric ratio. Here the hoops length is 2 404mm + 2 597mm =
2002mm.

s = 1
wd =
(8mm)2 2002mm 38
400M P a
= 0.029
(404mm 8mm) (597mm 8mm) 7550mm 30M P a
The first fundamental modes period is T1 = 4.19s (see Table 2.11), Tc = 0.5s and
q0 = 2.5 (see Section 2.1.3). The curvature ductility factor is thus
= 1 + 2 (2.5 1)
0.5s
= 1.36
4.19s
The normalized design axial force is

d = 11530kN/47173kN = 0.244
The reinforcement yield strain
sy,d =
400M P a
= 0.0019
210000M P a
Equation 3.25 is thus

0.953 0.626 0.029 = 0.017 > 0.012 = 30 1.36 0.244 0.0019
500mm
0.035
404mm
The walls cyclic plastic response is thus satisfied, and the hoops provide sufficient
confinement.
A.1.7
Shear connection
No consideration is made to the concrete cover being more than 40mm. Two shear
interfaces are considered as shown in Figures A.5 and A.6. For a full shear connection
the shear studs must resist the equivalent force couple of the moment Mpl,Rd . The
force to resist from Equation 3.56 is determined by computational means (see Section
A.1.8), in accordance with the principles described in Section 3.7.
For shear interface 1:
Vs,Ed = min
9942.7 103 N
3917.4 103 N
= 3917.4 103 N
IX
A.1
Figure A.5: Outline of shear interface 1.

The shear area is delimited by cz = 0.3 310mm = 93mm and cy = 0.4 300mm =
120mm from Equations 3.51a and 3.51b. The shear zone has a width parallel to the
shear interface of bex = 310mm215.5mm227mm+293mm = 411mm. The area of
the shear zone, with reduction for the rolled curvature, is found to be Aex = 54504mm2 .
The distance from the shear zones centroid to the wall sections centroid is found to
be z = 847mm. The shear resistance related to friction between the steel and concrete
is from Equation 3.52.
Vz,f,Rd =
1
500mm (2500mm)3 411mm
0.5 0.30M P a 12
= 869.4 103 N
54504mm2 847mm
It is chosen to use headed studs of S420 steel with a diameter of dsc = 20mm and
a height of hsc = 100mm, whereas = 1. The shear resistance of one headed stud is
from Equation 3.53.
PRd = min
0.8520M P a(20mm)2 /4
= 104.6 103 N
1.25
2
0.291(20mm) 45M P a36000M P a
= 118.1
1.25
103 N
= 104.6 103 N
As the free distance between the flanges is less than 300mm, the studs may not be
placed parallel. The contribution to PRd due to the flanges preventing lateral expansion
of the concrete is from Equation 3.54.
0.5 104.6 103 N
1+
2
= 27.2 103 N
Whereas PRd = 104.6 103 N + 27.2 103 N = 131.8 103 N .

The necessary number of headed studs is from Equation 3.55.
n=
3917.4 103 N 869.4 103 N

= 23.1 24
131.8 103 N
The moment distribution across the height of the wall element is always with a
maximum or minimum moment at the top and the opposite at the bottom. The studs
may therefore be distributed evenly along the elements length by a maximum distance
of 7550mm/24 = 315mm. From Equation 5.64 they may not be placed closer than
5 20mm = 100mm.
For shear interface 2:
The shear force is found to be
Vs,Ed = min
X
8861.1 103 N
16629.5 103 N
= 8861.1 103 N
Figure A.6: Outline of shear interface 2.

The same procedure as before apply, though with no increase due to the confinement
of the flanges. Here bex = 2 (300mm + 2 120mm) = 1080mm and the shear zones
area is found to be AEx = 95273mm2 . The distance from the shear zones centroid to
the wall sections centroid is z = 202mm.
Vy,f,Rd =
0.5 0.30M P a
1
12
2500mm (500mm)3 1080mm

= 219.2 103 N
95273mm2 202mm
Due to the cover the headed studs are only hsc = 65mm high, thus giving a concrete
cover of 30mm. Their diameter is uppedto dsc = 22mm,
and the same steel grade is

65mm
applied. As 65mm/22mm = 3, = 0.2 22mm + 1 = 0.8.
PRd = min
0.8520M P a(22mm)2 /4
= 126.5 103 N
1.25
2
0.290.8(22mm) 45M P a36000M P a
= 142.9
1.25
103 N
= 126.5 103 N
The necessary number of headed studs

n=
8861.1 103 N 219.2 103 N

= 68.3 69
126.5 103 N
As the shear interface is located at both the structural steel members flange surfaces,
35 headed studs are placed in a single line along each members length, with a distance
of 7550mm/35 = 216mm.
The wall in this example calculation is now fully designed, and the results are shown
in Figure A.7, where all distances are rounded to nearest reasonable value.
Figure A.7: Finished design of steel-concrete composite wall.
XI
A.1
A.1.8
Computational calculations
The following describes the computational procedures performed in MATLAB, used in

the calculations for the design of the steel-concrete composite wall. The routine below
calculates the location of the plastic neutral axis by evaluating Equation 3.31 and the
plastic section modulus by Equation 3.26. In the code shown below nsz and nez are
the number of side and end bars in the z-direction, respectively. zss and zse are the
z-coordinate for the centroid of the side and end bars, respectively. ds and de are
the diameter of the side and end bars, respectively. proz indicates the structural steel
members z-axis orientation with the walls z-axis. If 'z' they are aligned and if 'y'
the structural steel members are rotated, as they are in these calculations. iaz is the
z-coordinate for the location of the structural steel members centroid (), and zat and
yat are the z- and y- coordinates for their perimeter. prol is a list of section properties
for the structural steel members equal to that of table 6.7 in Teknisk Stbi (20th ed).
pro is the selected element number, in this case pro=12, whereas prol(pro,5) gives
the thickness of the structural steel sections flange. The wall height and width is hc
and bc. Material strengths are fcc for fcc , fsd for fsd and fyd for fyd .
%moments of inertia
Isei = 0;
for i=1:length(yse)/2
Isei = Isei + (pi*(de/2)^4/4 + pi/4*de^2*abs(yse(i,j))^2)*nez;
end
Issi = (pi*(ds/2)^4/4 + pi/4*ds^2*abs(yss(1,1))^2)*nsz;
Is = 2*Isei+2*Issi; % Reinforcement bars
Ia = 2*prol(pro,13); % Structural steel
Ic = 1/12*hc*bc^3IsIa; % Concrete
%BENDING ABOUT YAXIS
%location of elements
j=1;
for i=1:nsz/2 % Location of side bars top and bottom
zhs(j,1) = zss(1,i)+ds/2;
zhs(j+1,1) = zss(1,i)ds/2;
j = j+2;
end
j=1;
for i=1:nez % Location of end bars top and bottom
zhe(j,1) = zse(1,i)+de/2;
zhe(j+1,1) = zse(1,i)de/2;
j = j+2;
end
if proz == 'z' % zcoordinates for structural steel member
zha = [ zat(12) ; zat(11) ; zat(11)prol(pro,6) ; zat(8)+prol(pro,6)...
; zat(8) ; zat(7) ];
elseif proz == 'y'
zatdd = yat+iaz;
zha = [ zatdd(12) ; zatdd(10)+prol(pro,6) ; zatdd(10) ; zatdd(3)...
; zatdd(3)prol(pro,6) ; zatdd(1) ];
end
zh = [hc/2 ; zhs ; zhe ; zha ]; % Relevant placement of steel, reinf. & conc
zh = sort(zh,'descend');
zhs = [zhs ; 0];
zhe = [zhe ; 0];
zha = [zha ; 0];
%area increments
XII
dh = 0.01; % Increment (mm)

dhi = 0.0002; % Acceptable deviation on pna placement (%)
hn = [dh:dh:hc/2]'; % All points of interest, by the increment dh
dvs = 360/(ds/dh);
dAs = pi*(ds/2)^2*dvs/360; % Approx. area increase of side bars per dh
dve = 360/(de/dh);
dAe = pi*(de/2)^2*dve/360; % Approx. area increase of end bars per dh
if proz == 'z' % Area increase of structuralsteel member per dh
dAf = prol(pro,3)*prol(pro,5)/(prol(pro,5)/dh); % in flange
dAw0 = (prol(pro,2)2*prol(pro,5))*prol(pro,4)/((prol(pro,2)...
2*prol(pro,5))/dh); % in web, without rolled curvature
dAw1 = ((prol(pro,7)2*prol(pro,3)*prol(pro,5)(prol(pro,2)...
2*prol(pro,5))*prol(pro,4))/4)/(prol(pro,6)/dh); % in web with curv.
elseif proz == 'y'% Area increase of structuralsteel member per dh
dAf0 = 2*prol(pro,3)*prol(pro,5)...
/(prol(pro,3)/dh); % in flange without rolled curvature
dAf1 = 2*((prol(pro,7)2*prol(pro,3)*prol(pro,5)(prol(pro,2)...
2*prol(pro,5))*prol(pro,4))/4)/(prol(pro,6)/dh); % flange with curv.
dAw = (prol(pro,2)2*prol(pro,5))*prol(pro,4)...
/(prol(pro,4)/dh); % in web
end
dAc = bc*hc/2/length(hn); % Area increase (gross) of concrete
%build of area distribution vectors
RcIIs1 = zeros(length(hn),1);
RcIIs0 = RcIIs1;
RcIIe1 = RcIIs1;
RcIIe0 = RcIIs1;
RcIIa = RcIIs1;
RcIIc = RcIIs1;
for i=1:length(hn)
% Reinforcement steel side bars
for j=1:length(zhs)1
kk0 = zhs(length(zhs)+1j);
kk1 = zhs(length(zhs)j);
if (hn(i) > kk0 && hn(i) <= kk1)
RcIIs1(i,1) = (floor((j1)/2))*2*pi/4*ds^2;
if mod(j,2) == 0
RcIIs0(i,1) = 2*((hn(i)kk0)/dh*dAs);
end
elseif hn(i) > kk1
RcIIs1(i,1) = (floor((j)/2))*2*pi/4*ds^2;
end
end
% Reinforcement steel end bars
for j=1:length(zhe)1
kk0 = zhe(length(zhe)+1j);
kk1 = zhe(length(zhe)j);
if (hn(i) > kk0 && hn(i) <= kk1)
RcIIe1(i,1) = (floor((j1)/2))*ney*pi/4*de^2;
if mod(j,2) == 0
RcIIe0(i,1) = ney*((hn(i)kk0)/dh*dAe);
end
elseif hn(i) > kk1
RcIIe1(i,1) = (floor((j)/2))*ney*pi/4*de^2;
end
end
% Structural steel
if (hn(i) > zha(6) && hn(i) <= zha(5))
if proz == 'z'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAf;
XIII
A.1
elseif proz == 'y'

RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAf0;
end
elseif (hn(i) > zha(5) && hn(i) <= zha(4))
if proz == 'z'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAw0+2*dAw1;
elseif proz == 'y'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAf0+dAf1;
end
if proz == 'z'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAw0;
elseif proz == 'y'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAf0+dAw;
end
if proz == 'z'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAw0+2*dAw1;
elseif proz == 'y'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAf0+dAf1;
end
if proz == 'z'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAf;
elseif proz == 'y'
RcIIa(i,1) = RcIIa(i1,1)+dAf0;
end
elseif hn(i) > zha(1)
RcIIa(i,1) = max(RcIIa);
end
% Concrete (gross)
if i > 1
RcIIc(i,1) = RcIIc(i1,1)+dAc;
else
RcIIc(i,1) = dAc;
end
end
RcIIcA = (RcIIc (RcIIs0 + RcIIs1) (RcIIe0 + RcIIe1) ...
RcIIa); % Concrete area distribution vector (net)
RcIIc = RcIIcA*fcc; % Concrete area weighted by it's strength
RcIIsA = (RcIIs0 + RcIIs1); % Side bar area distribution vector
RcIIs = RcIIsA*fsd;% Side bar area weighted by it's strength
RcIIeA = (RcIIe0 + RcIIe1); % End bar area distribution vector
RcIIe = RcIIeA*fsd;% End bar area weighted by it's strength
RcIIaA = RcIIa; % Structural steel area distribution vector
RcIIa = RcIIaA*fyd;% Structural steel area weighted by it's strength
% plot((RcIIs).*10^4,[dh:dh:hc/2],'k');
% plot((RcIIe).*10^4,[dh:dh:hc/2],'r');
% plot((RcIIa).*10^4,[dh:dh:hc/2],'m');
% plot((RcIIc).*10^4,[dh:dh:hc/2],'b');
%placement of pna
for i = 1:length(hn)
Rc1 = max(RcIIc)RcIIc(i,1); % Concrete above pna
Ra2 = 2*(RcIIs(i,1)+RcIIe(i,1)+RcIIa(i,1)); % Steel below pna
if (Rc1 >= Ra2Ra2*dhi && Rc1 <= Ra2+Ra2*dhi) % Success criterion
break
else
if i == length(hn) % Failure if no pna location found
disp(['<a href="matlab: disp(dhi)">NO result for hn.</a>'...
' Decrease tolerance and run again.'])
XIV
end
end
end
hnz = hn(i); % Location of pna (mm)
hnzi = i; % Location of pna (place in vector)
plot([2*bc 2*bc],[hnz hnz],'k'); plot([2*bc 2*bc],[hnz hnz],'k');
disp(['PNA placement: z=' num2str(hnz)])
%material distribution along the entire height of the wall
oss=RcIIcA(1:end)[0;RcIIcA(1:end1)];
RcIIcAd = [oss(end:1:1);oss]; % Concrete
oss=RcIIsA(1:end)[0;RcIIsA(1:end1)];
RcIIsAd = [oss(end:1:1);oss]; % Side bars
oss=RcIIeA(1:end)[0;RcIIeA(1:end1)];
RcIIeAd = [oss(end:1:1);oss]; % End bars
oss=RcIIaA(1:end)[0;RcIIaA(1:end1)];
RcIIaAd = [oss(end:1:1);oss]; % Structural steel
% plot(RcIIcAd*100,[hc/2:dh:dh dh:dh:hc/2])
% plot(RcIIsAd*100,[hc/2:dh:dh dh:dh:hc/2])
% plot(RcIIeAd*100,[hc/2:dh:dh dh:dh:hc/2])
% plot(RcIIaAd*100,[hc/2:dh:dh dh:dh:hc/2])
%moment arm around pna
Warm = [hn(end:1:1)+hnzdh/2;abs(hnhnzdh/2)]; % Moment arm from pna
for kkio = length(Warm)/2hnzi:length(Warm)/2+hnzi+length(Warm)
Warm(kkio) = 0; % Zero moment arm at mid section between pna
end
% plot(Warm,[hc/2:dh:dh dh:dh:hc/2])
%shear resistance
if proz == 'z'
Avz = 2*((prol(pro,2)2*prol(pro,5))*prol(pro,4));
VzRd = Avz*fyd/sqrt(3)*10^3;
elseif proz == 'y'
Avz = (4*(prol(pro,3)*prol(pro,5)));
VzRd = Avz*fyd/sqrt(3)*10^3;
end
if max(abs(VzEd)) > 0.5*VzRd % Criterion for shear area reduction on MRd
rhovz = max([(1((2*max(abs(VzEd)))/(VzRd)1)^2) 0]); % Reduction factor
disp(['X: Shear force too large! Affected area reduced with ' ...
num2str(rhovz)])
elseif max(abs(VzEd)) < VzRd
rhovz = 1;
disp(['Shear capacity OK! ' num2str(max(abs(VzEd))/(0.5*VzRd)*100)...
'% Total: ' num2str(max(abs(VzEd))/VzRd*100) '%'])
else
disp('Shear capacity failed!')
break
end
%plastic section modulus' around pna
Wplcv = RcIIcAd.*Warm;
Wplc = sum(Wplcv(end/2:end)); % Concrete (only compression areas)
Wplsv = RcIIsAd.*Warm;
Wpls = sum(Wplsv); % Side bars
Wplev = RcIIeAd.*Warm;
Wple = sum(Wplev); % End bars
Wplav = RcIIaAd.*Warm;
Wpla = sum(Wplav); % Structural steel member
if proz == 'z' % Reduction on shear affected area
Wplaxx = ((prol(pro,2)2*prol(pro,5))*prol(pro,4)*(iazhnz) + ...
(prol(pro,2)2*prol(pro,5))*prol(pro,4)*(iaz+hnz))*rhovz;
elseif proz == 'y'
Wplaxx = (2*(prol(pro,3)*prol(pro,5)*(iazhnz)) + ...
XV
A.2
Design of a steel-concrete composite column
2*(prol(pro,3)*prol(pro,5)*(iaz+hnz)))*rhovz;
end
Wplaxx = 0; % manual setting
Wpla = WplaWplaxx;
%plastic section modulus' around gna
Warmcent = abs([hc/2:dh:dh dh:dh:hc/2]'); % moment arm
Wplcvcent = RcIIcAd.*Warmcent;
Wplccent = sum(Wplcvcent(1:length(Wplcvcent)/2)); % Concrete
Wplsvcent = RcIIsAd.*Warmcent;
Wplscent = sum(Wplsvcent); % Side bars
Wplevcent = RcIIeAd.*Warmcent;
Wplecent = sum(Wplevcent); % End bars
Wplavcent = RcIIaAd.*Warmcent;
Wplacent = sum(Wplavcent); % Structural steel
if proz == 'z' % Reduction on shear affected area
Wplacentxx = ((prol(pro,2)2*prol(pro,5))*prol(pro,4)*(iaz))*rhovz;
elseif proz == 'y'
Wplacentxx = 2*(prol(pro,3)*prol(pro,5)*(iaz))*rhovz;
end
Wplacentxx = 0; % manual setting
Wplacent = Wplacent2*Wplacentxx;
% Nplt (tension area above pna)
Nplt = 0;
for hii = 1:length(Warm)/2
if Warm(hii) > 0
Nplt = Nplt + RcIIaAd(hii)*fyd + RcIIsAd(hii)*fsd + RcIIeAd(hii)*fsd;
end
end
%forces at shear interface 1
ppot = (hc/dh)/2(iazprol(pro,4)/2)/dh;
P1y = ((sum(Wplcv(1:ppot))*fcc + sum(Wplev(1:ppot))*fsd + ...
sum(Wplsv(1:ppot))*fsd + sum(Wplav(1:ppot))*fyd))/(hnz*2+((hc/2)hnz));
P2y = ((sum(Wplcv(ppot+1:end))*fcc + sum(Wplev(ppot+1:end))*fsd + ...
sum(Wplsv(ppot+1:end))*fsd + sum(Wplav(ppot+1:end))*fyd))/(hnz*2+...
((hc/2)hnz));
% A similar procedure is used for the other axis.
A.2
In the following a circular steel-concrete composite column will be designed, considering

the requirements for its ultimate limit state. Requirements related to the serviceability limit state are considered in Appendix A.4. The design procedure herein is in
accordance with the provisions of Section 4.
The column considered for design in the following is one of two columns which
together with a wall support a steel-concrete composite slab of approximately 100m2 ,
see Section 1.4. The column considered for design is located on the ground floor and
has a length of l = 7587mm. By an analysis in ETABS the maximum section forces and
combinations of moments-axial forces are obtained, see Table 2.13 and Figure 2.10. To
consider first order effects the moments are increased by adding My,0,Ed = Mz,0,Ed =
l/300NEd , see Equation 3.2.
The column will be designed with no reinforcement bars, whereas the only steel
is the circular hollow section (CHS) in which the concrete is poured. The geometric
design parameters are thus the outer diameter da,o , and wall thickness ta , of the CHS.
Structural steel sections from the Australian manufacturer and distributor OneSteel is
considered. The parameters applied in the design are shown in Table A.1.
XVI
Table A.4: Column parameters applied in the design (see Tables 2.8 and 2.10).
Structural steel member (CHS1301.137)
da,o [mm]
900
fyk [M P a]
420
A.2.1
ta [mm]
24.6
Aa [mm2 ]
67654
fyd [M P a] Ea [GP a]
420
210
Reinforced concrete
l[mm]
7587
Ac [mm2 ]
568517
fck [M P a]
45
fcd[M P a]
30
fcc [M P a]
30
Ecm [M P a]
36000
fuk,sc[M P a]
520
Introductory design requirements
As the column is circular its external dimensions satisfy Equation 3.7 with a value of
1. The largest eccentricity calculated by MEd /NEd is found to be 121 103 mm. This
gives e/d = 134. As this is larger than 0.1, Npl,Rd may not be calculated from Equation
4.1. The plastic resistance to compression from Equation 3.34.
Npl,Rd = 67654mm2 420M P a + 568517mm2 30M P a = 45.5 106 N
The characteristic value is Npl,Rk = 54.0 106 N . The steel contribution ratio is
=
67654mm2 420M P a
= 0.62
45.5 106 N
This thus satisfies Equation 3.23, whereas the column is applicable for design according to EN 1994-1-1.
0.2 0.62 0.9
To consider local plate buckling of the structural steel member Equation 4.3a is
checked.
235M P a
900mm
= 36.6 50.4 = 90
24.6mm
420M P a
Local buckling is therefore of no concern.
A.2.2
Shear resistance
The shear affected area

Av =
2 67654mm2
= 43070mm2
The shear capacity from Equation 3.41

Vpl,a,Rd = 43070mm2
420M P a
= 10.4 106 N = 10443.9kN

3
As 0.5Vpl,a,Rd = 5222.0kN > 467kN = Vmax,Ed the moment capacity is sufficient

and need not be reduced.
XVII
A.2
The mechanical degree of reinforcement is

=
67654mm2 420M P a
= 1.960
2
4 (850.8mm) 30M P a
The reinforcement area of an equivalent reinforced concrete column with a diameter

corresponding to da,o is
As =
(900mm)2 30M P a
= 81.6 103 mm2
1.960 420M P a
As the maximum allowable area of reinforcement for such a column is As,max =

0.04 4 (900mm)2 = 22.2 103 mm2 the reinforcement area is exceeded by 73%.
A.2.3
Moment resistance
The location of the plastic neutral axes for the composite column is determined by computational means, see Section A.2.7 . The location determined thus satisfy Equation
3.31, with a placement of hn = 113mm, see Figure A.8.
Figure A.8: Location of plastic neutral axes in the considered columns cross-section.
Dimensions are with reference to the geometrical neutral axis.
The plastic section modulus are likewise determined (from Equation 3.26) by computational means, to the values shown in Table A.5.
Table A.5: Plastic section modulus with reference to the plastic neutral axis and geometrical neutral axis.
Concrete
Steel
Wpl,P N A [mm3 ]
Wpl,GN A[mm3 ]
24.6 106
18.2 106
51.3 106
18.9 106
The moment capacities obtained from Equations 3.28 and 3.27 are shown in Table
A.6.
XVIII
Table A.6: Moment capacities.
A.2.4
Mpl,Rd [kN m]
Mmax,Rd [kN m]
8390.9
9459.4
Axial resistance
As the concrete is encased in the steel pipe the perimeter exposed to drying is u = 0,
whereas h0 is undefinable. The most conservative value for the creep factor is read
from figure 3.1a in EN 1992-1-1 to (, 10) = 2.4. The concretes effective modulus of
elasticity is calculated from Equation 3.36.
Ec,ef f =
36000M P a
= 12063M P a
12692kN
2.4
1 + 15351kN
The steel pipes moment of inertia

Ia =

900mm)4 (850.8mm)4 = 6486 106 mm4
64
The concretes moment of inertia
(850.8mm)4 = 25721 106 mm4

64
Ic =
The columns effective flexural stiffness from Equation 3.38.

(EI)ef f = 210000M P a6486106 mm4 +0.612063M P a25721106 mm4 = 15.5101 4N mm2
The elastic critical normal force from Equation 3.37.
Ncr =
2 15.5 101 4N mm2

= 1061.8 106 N
(0.5 7587mm)2

=
54.0 106 N
= 0.226 2.0
1061.8 106 N
The buckling reduction factor from Equation 3.40 with the buckling factor z = 0.21
from Table 5.4 as s = 0.

= 0.5 1 + 0.21 (0.226 0.2) + 0.2262 = 0.528

=
0.528 +
1
= 0.99 1.0
0.5282 0.2262
Whereas the reduction of Npl,Rd due to buckling is Npl,Rd = 0.99 45.5 106 N =
45.2 106 N .
The compressive resistance of the concrete from Equation 3.31.
Npm,Rd = 568517mm2 30M P a = 17.1 103 N
XIX
A.2
A.2.5
Force interaction
The preceding calculations form the moment-normal force interaction curve seen in
Figure A.9. The columns tensile resistance is not considered, as the largest tension
force NEd = 161kN , is not combined with any significant moments and is significantly
smaller than the columns maximum tension force of Nt,Rd = 67654mm2 420M P a =
28414kN .
A
B
NRd = 0kN and Mpl,Rd = 8390.9kN m
C
Npm,Rd = 17056kN and Mpl,Rd = 8390.9kN m
D
0.5Npm,Rd = 8528kN and Mmax,Rd = 9459.4kN m
Figure A.9: M-N interaction curve for the considered column cross-section. The dashed
line is the maximum axial force NEd,max . Dots are the (MEd ; NEd ) interaction.
As no direction of bending is utilized to a degree considerably lower than the opposite direction, d is to be taken as a maximum value of 1. The intersection of
the maximum axial force NEd,max and the interaction curve in Figure A.9 is read to
MRd (15351kN ) = 8605kN m. d calculated from Equation 3.49.
d =
8605kN m
= 1.02 1
8390.9kN m
Whereas d = 1.0. The requirements for biaxial bending and compression are
checked (from Equations 3.47 and 3.48) with M = 0.8 as the structural steel is grade
S420.
3283.6kN m
= 0.39 0.8
1.0 8390.9kN m
6121.2kN m
= 0.73 0.8
1.0 8390.9kN m
6121.2kN m
2166.2kN m
+
= 0.99 1.0
1.0 8390.9kN m 1.0 8390.9kN m
The columns biaxial bending and compression capacity is thus sufficient.

XX
A.2.6
Shear connection
The shear connection designed in the following is established with headed studs. This
however might be an impractical solution as welding the studs to the inside of the CHS
is a difficult task. If possible, because of the wall thickness, a nailed shear connection
should be considered.
Figure A.10: Shear zone and interface for circular composite column.
The shear interface is considered as half of the circular perimeter of the concrete
part of the column, see Figure A.10. By this the force for the shear connection to
transfer from Equation 4.4 is to be reduced by 50%.
Vs,Ed = 0.5 min
568517mm2 30M P a
67654mm2 420M P a
= 17.1 106 N
To calculate the shear resistance from friction Equation 3.52 is applied, with the
changes for circular columns described in Section 4. By this the shear strength due
to friction is Rd = 0.55M P a and the length of the shear interface is bex =
850.8mm/2 = 1336mm. The distance from the composite columns centroid to the
shear zones centroid is equal to the location of the shear zones centroid, thus z =
4 850.8mm/2/ (3 ) = 181mm.
Vf,Rd =
0.5 0.55 (25721 + 6486) 106 mm4 1336mm

= 230.0 103 N
0.5 (850.8mm/2)2 181mm
The headed studs are made of S420 steel with a height of hsc = 100mm and a
diameter of dsc = 20mm. Hereby = 1. The shear resistance of one headed stud from
Equation 3.53.
PRd = min
0.8520M P a(20mm)2 /4
= 104.6 103 N
1.25
2
0.291(20mm) 45M P a36000M P a
= 118.1
1.25
103 N
= 104.6 103 N
No increase of PRd due to the confined concrete in the structural steel pipe is
considered.
The minimum amount of headed studs at the considered shear interface is from
Equation 3.55.
17.1 106 N 230.0 103 N
= 161.3 162
n=
104.6 103 N
XXI
A.2
This hereby require a total of 2 162 = 324 headed studs to be placed within
the column. Placing 9 studs in a layer at the same height around the inside of the
CHS gives a distance of 7587mm/(324/9) = 211mm between each layer along the
height of the column. The lateral distance between each headed studs base is thus
2(850.8mm/2)/9 = 267mm and between the heads 2((850.8mm/2)100mm)/9 =
227mm (from center line to center line). This is well within the requirements for
spacing from Section 5.5, where the maximum distance is 800mm and the minimum is
5 20mm = 100mm.
The column considered in this example calculation is fully designed as shown in
Figure A.11 (distances are rounded to nearest reasonable value).
Figure A.11: Finished design for circular steel-concrete composite column.
A.2.7
Computational calculations
The following describes the computational procedures performed in MATLAB, used in

the calculations for the design of the steel-concrete composite column. The following
code calculates the location of the plastic neutral axis by evaluating Equation 3.31. In
the routine shown below ry is the columns outer radius and ri is its inner radius.
Material strengths are fcc for fcc and fyd for fyd .
dh = 0.001; % Increment (mm)
dii = 0.00002; % Acceltable deviation of pna placement (%)
%area distribution of structural steel
xsc = [dh:dh:ry];
Asv = zeros(ry/dh,1);
hi = 0;
for i=dh:dh:ry
hi = hi+1;
dxx = (i/ry);
ang = atan(dxx);
angleay = 1802*(2*ang/(pi/180));
Aouter = (angleay/360*pi*ry^2)(0.5*i*tan(pi/22*ang)*i);
dxx = min([(i/ri) 1]);
ang = atan(dxx);
angleay = 1802*(2*ang/(pi/180));
Ainner = (angleay/360*pi*ri^2)(0.5*i*tan(pi/22*ang)*i);
AsaA(hi,1) = AouterAinner;
end
AsaA = abs(AsaAmax(AsaA));
plot(AsaA/100,xsc,'b')
XXII
%area distribution of concrete

Asv = zeros(ry/dh,1);
hi = 0;
for i=dh:dh:ry
hi = hi+1;
dxx = min([(i/ri) 1]);
ang = atan(dxx);
angleay = 1802*(2*ang/(pi/180));
Ainner = (angleay/360*pi*ri^2)(0.5*i*tan(pi/22*ang)*i);
AscA(hi,1) = Ainner;
end
AscA = abs(AscAmax(AscA));
plot(AscA/100,xsc,'r')
%pna placement
for i=2:length(xsc)
hn = xsc(i);
Rc1 = fcc*(max(AscA)AscA(i)); % Concrete above pna
Ra2 = AsaA(i)*2*fyd; % Steel below pna
if (Rc1 >= Ra2Ra2*dii && Rc1 <= Ra2+Ra2*dii) % placement criterion
disp(['PNA: ' num2str(hn) 'mm'])
break
end
end
figure(1)
plot([2*ry 2*ry],[hn hn],'k'); plot([2*ry 2*ry],[hn hn],'k');
The plastic section modulus are determined by evaluating the cross-sectional properties in AutoCAD, in accordance with Equation 3.26.
A.3
Design of a steel-concrete composite beam
In the following a steel-concrete composite beam is designed in accordance with Section

5. The beam is a part of the flooring system described in Section 1.4.
The aspects related to the design of a composite beam with satisfactory performance
for ultimate and serviceability limit states are considered. This does however not
include the concrete decks transverse span between the supporting beams. For a full
design this should also be considered. The concrete is cast on plates of profiled steel
sheeting and the beam has fixed end supports, whereas it forms a moment resisting
frame with the supporting columns. Steel sections are chosen as HE..A from table 6.7
in Teknisk Stbi (20th ed).
The principle layout for the design is shown in Figure A.12 and the design parameters applied in the following are shown in Table A.7.
The steel-concrete composite beam has a length of l = 4940mm and the structural
steel member is a HE140A. The concrete slab is cast on profiled steel sheeting defined
by its rib height hp and normal rib width b0 , (from Shandong Hengtong Steel Sheet
Co.). In the following calculations the steel sheeting is not considered as contributing
to the beams capacity.
A.3.1
Cross-section class
The structural steel members cross-section class is determined from Table 5.1.
=
235
= 0.92
275
XXIII
A.3
Figure A.12: Principle layout of the steel-concrete composite beam section to be designed.
Flange
55.3mm
= 6.5 < 8.3 = 9 0.92 hence cross-section class 1
8.5
Web
92
= 16.7 < 66.6 = 72 0.92 hence cross-section class 1
5.5
The section is therefore cross-section class 1 and the design will be by the beams
plastic resistance. The construction stages considered in the following are further described on Page 70.
A.3.2
Construction stage II
As the only load carrying member in construction stage I and II is the structural steel
member, the loading in stage II is most unfavourable. All following section forces are
determined by a static analysis in ETABS.
A.3.2.1
Critical sections
Due to the beams fixed end supports, negative moment occurs here and positive moment at mid-span, see Figure A.13. Due to these force distributions the beams critical
sections are at end supports and mid-span. In the following the critical section at
mid-span is termed CS1 and at the end support CS2.
A.3.2.2
Design load and section forces
All loads affecting the beam are from self weight only. ETABS calculates this loading
qk , by the defined dimensions of the elements and the densities shown in Table 2.8. A
weight of 110N/m2 is applied for the profiled steel sheeting.
XXIV
Table A.7: Section and material properties (see Tables 2.8 and 2.10).
Structural steel member (HE140A)
tf [mm]
cf [mm]
tw [mm]
8.5
55.3
5.5
ba [mm]
140
ha [mm]
133
hw [mm]
116
Aa [mm2 ]
3140
Iv [mm4 ]
81.6 103
fyk [M P a]
275
hc [mm]
126
hp [mm]
34
b0 [mm]
105
Sr [mm]
166.7
fck [M P a]
35
fcd[M P a]
23.3
fcc [M P a]
19.8
fctm [M P a]
3.2
Ecm [GP a]
34
[mm]
12
s [mm]
150
fsk [M P a]
460
fsd [M P a]
400
c [mm]
22
hsc [mm]
150
dsc [mm]
20
fuk,sc[M P a]
520
ra [mm]
12
Wpl,y [mm3 ]
173.4 103
Wel,y [mm3 ]
155.0 103
Iy [mm4 ]
10.3 106
Ea [GP a]
210
Ga [GP a]
80.8
fyd,M 0 [M P a] fyd,M 1 [M P a]
275
275
Reinforced concrete deck
(a) Moment distribution.
cw [mm]
92
(b) Shear force distribution
Figure A.13: Section force distribution relevant for construction stage II and III. Yellow
is positive and red is negative.
The load combination to apply at this stage regards the ultimate limit state in
accordance with Table 2.5.
max
Gj,supD = 1.35D
Gj,supD = 1.15D
The distribution of section forces on the beam is shown in Figure A.13. The section
forces determined in ETABS are shown in Table A.8 where x is the location of the
forces from the beams left support.
Table A.8: Section forces from ETABS at the beams critical sections in construction
stage II.
CS1
CS2
MEd [kN m]
VEd [kN ]
x[mm]
10.6
20.4
0.0
23.4
l
2
XXV
A.3
A.3.2.3
Capacity check
The structural steel members moment capacity from Equation 3.28 (neglecting concrete contributions).
Mpl,Rd = 173.4 103 mm3 275M P a = 47.7kN m
Shear capacity from Equation 3.41.
Vpl,Rd = 638mm2
275M P a
= 101.3kN
3
(A.3)
Here the shear affected area is defined as the web area by Aa,v = hw tw = 116mm
5.5mm = 638mm2 . As VEd = 23.4kN < 50.7kN = 0.5Vpl,Rd the beams moment
capacity need no be reduced.
The moment capacity calculated by Equation 5.31 and the shear capacity from
Equation 5.33 are shown in Table A.9.
Table A.9: Moment and shear capacities with utilization.
MR d
CS1
CS2
[kN m]
47.7
47.7
VR d
Utilization [%]
22.2
42.8
[kN ]
101.3
101.3
Utilization [%]
0.0
23.1
The beams shear and moment capacities are thereby sufficient at construction stage
II.
A.3.2.4
Instability check
The beam is not laterally restrained or stiffened.

A.3.2.4.1
Plate buckling
The flanges buckling factor from Table 5.4 for = 1.

k = 0.43
The flanges slenderness from Equation 5.27.
p =
55.3mm
8.5mm
= 0.38
28.4 0.92 0.43
p = 0.38 <
The flanges buckling stress from Equation 5.35a as
2/2.
bd = 275M P a
The webs buckling factor from Table 5.4 for = 1.
k = 23.9
The webs slenderness from Equation 5.27.
p =
XXVI
92mm
5.5mm
= 0.13
28.4 0.92 23.9
p = 0.13 <
The plates buckling stress from Equation 5.35a as
2/2.
bd = 275M P a
The largest stress to occur at CS1 is
md =
10.6 106 N mm
= 61.1M P a
173.4 103 mm3
And similarly for CS2 md = 117.6M P a. Results and capacities are shown in Table
A.10.
Table A.10: Local buckling resistance and utilization.
md [M P a]
CS1
CS2
Flange plates
bd [M P a] Utilization [%]
61.1
117.6
275
275
22.2
42.8
Web-plate
bd [M P a] Utilization [%]
275
275
22.2
42.8
Condition for control of shear buckling in web-plate from Equation 5.37a

72 0.92
92mm
= 16.7 < 55.2
5.5mm
1.2
Whereas the risk of shear buckling must be considered. The web-plates resistance
to shear buckling from Equation 5.41. No consideration is made to the flanges contribution and the beam has no end posts, whereas w = 1.0 (see Table 5.5).
Vb,Rd =
1.0 275M P a 92mm 5.5mm
= 80.3kN
3
(A.4)
As w < = 1.2 the requirement in Equation 5.41 is satisfied. Results obtained

are shown in Table A.11.
Table A.11: Shear buckling resistance and utilization.
CS1
CS2
VEd [kN ]
Vb,Rd [kN ]
Utilization [%]
0.0
23.4
80.3
80.3
0.0
29.1
The influence of interacting local and shear buckling for CS1 from Equation 5.34

0.0kN
80.3kN
2
61.1M P a
275M P a
2
= 0.05 1.0
Similarly for CS2 0.27 1.0. The structural steel members flange and web-plate
are hereby not at risk for plate buckling.
XXVII
A.3
A.3.2.4.2
Lateral torsional buckling
The moment of inertia for one flange about the structural steel members weak axis is
Iz,f l =
1
8.5mm (140mm)3 = 1.94 106 mm4
12
Elastic euler forces from Equation 5.45.

2 210 103 M P a 1.94 106 mm4
= 164.8kN
49402
4 80.8 103 M P a 81.6 103 mm4
=
= 1701.5kN
(133mm 8.5mm)2
PE,f =
PEv
The elastic moment resistance from Equation 5.47.

q
133mm 8.5mm
= 50.9kN m
ME = 2 2 (164.8kN )2 + 164.8kN 1701.5kN
2
The degree of torsional restraint from Equation 5.48.
=2
1701.5kN
164.8kN
= 20.6
The stiffness coefficient from Equation 5.50b.

s
kk = 1.30
4.03
9.61
+1
= 0.72
4 + 20.6
4 + 20.6
The elastic critical moment from Equation 5.51.

Mcr = 0.72 50.9kN m = 36.7kN m
LT =
155.0 103 mm3 275M P a

= 1.08
36.7 106 N mm
The modified reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling from Equation 5.53.
f =1

1
(1 0.90) 1 2.0 (1.08 0.8)2 = 0.96 1.0
2
Here kc = 0.90 read from Table 5.7 for the relevant moment distribution.

LT = 0.5 1 + 0.34 (1.08 0.4) + 0.75 1.082 = 1.05

Here LT is read from Table 5.6 for 133mm/140mm = 0.95 2.
LT =
1.05 +
1
1.052
0.75
1.082
= 0.65
1.0
0.86 =
1
1.082
0.65
= 0.68 1.0
0.96
The moment resistance with regard to lateral torsional buckling is
LT,mod =
MRd,LT = 0.68 173.4 103 mm3 275M P a = 32.4kN m

The results are shown in Table A.12.
XXVIII
Table A.12: Moment capacities for lateral torsional buckling.

MEd [kN m]
MRd,LT [kN m]
Utilization [%]
10.6
20.4
32.4
32.4
32.7
63.0
CS1
CS2
A.3.2.4.3
Flange induced buckling
The risk of flange induced buckling is evaluated by Equation 5.56.

116mm
210 103 M P a
= 21.1 167.7 = 0.3
5.5mm
275M P a
116mm 5.5mm
140mm 8.5mm
There is no risk of flange induced buckling.

A.3.3
Construction stage III
At construction stage III the beam has obtained its composite effect and is fully
loaded. In the following the composite beams capacity is checked. Load combinations
from Table 2.5 relevant for this design situation is
max
Gj,supD = 1.35D
Gj,supD = 1.15D
Gj,supD + Q,1 0,1 L = 1.35D + 1.05L
Gj,supD + Q,1 L = 1.15D + 1.5L
Here 1.15D + 1.5L yields the maximum of all section forces, as shown in Table A.13.
Table A.13: Section forces from ETABS for the critical sections at construction stage
III.
CS1
CS2
MEd [kN m]
VEd [kN ]
19.0
36.2
0
41.5
x[mm]
l
2
The difference in moment is thus 8.4kN m and 15.8kN m for CS1 and CS2, respectively, from construction stage II to III. The corresponding increase in shear force is
0kN and 18.1kN .
To ease the calculations of the plastic neutral axes placement and the corresponding
moment capacity, the following will be based on Table A.14.
A.3.3.1
Critical sections and effective widths
The critical sections are the same as at construction stage I and II, as the section
forces distributions are the same. The effective widths at CS1 and CS2 are determined
from Equation 5.5. At CS1 the geometry of adjacent beams allow for effective widths of
517mm and 922.5mm on the left and right side of the beam, respectively. This is below
l/8 = 4940mm/8 = 617.5mm. at CS1 the beam is affected by positive moment and the
nearest support in the moment resisting frame has a transverse composite beam. By
XXIX
Condition
Neutral axis location x
Moment resistance MRd
A.3
Positive moment
Deck
Flange
Web
hc be fcc > Aa fyd
hc be fcc + ba tf fyd > (Aa ba tf ) fyd

hc be fcc + (Aa ba tf ) fyd > ba tf fyd
x < ra
x > ra
1 Aa fyd +be hc fcc

2
be fcc
1 Aa fyd +be hc fcc
2
ba fyd
1 ra (fyd (3hw tf 2ba ft +Aa )2be hc fcc )
2
fyd (2tw ra +Aa 2ba tf +hw tw )
b h f h t f
21 e c cctw fydw w yd
1 2
2 x be fcc
+ hc + hp + 21 ha x Aa fyd

x 12 hc be hc fcc + hc + hp + 12 ha x Aa fyd
Negative moment
Flange
Web
As fsd + ba tf fyd > (Aa ba tf ) fyd

As fsd + (Aa ba tf ) fyd > ba tf fyd
x < ra
x > ra
Aa fyd As fsd
ba (fyd +fsd )
3h
tf 2ba ft +Aa )2As fsd )
f
r
(
(
w
a
yd
1
2
fyd (2tw ra +Aa 2ba tf +hw tw )
A f hw tw fyd
21 s sdtw fyd
x c 12 As fsd + hc + hp + 21 ha x Aa fyd
PNA in
XXX
Table A.14: Calculation of plastic neutral axis (PNA) location and corresponding positive and negative plastic moment capacity, for
steel-concrete composite beams with a concrete deck cast on profiled steel sheeting and an I- or H-beam. The conditions x < ra and
x > ra considers the placement of the PNA within a rolled section, where the rolled curvature is considered. This is however approximated,
whereas for x < ra the results are not optimal. For welded sections x > ra may be applied. Note that the value of x in the equations to
determine MRd is from the surface of the concrete deck, and that the equations to determine x gives the placement within the deck, flange
or web.
Table 5.3 and requirement [4] (1), bei 0.075l = 0.075 4940mm = 370.5mm, whereas
this requirement is governing.
be,CS1 = 0 + 2 370.5mm = 741mm
At CS2 the moment is negative wherefore bei must be reduced by . On the left
of the beam be = 0mm as the adjacent beam connects to the column at the same
point. At the right side the adjacent beam allow an effective width of 922.5mm, which
is however larger than be = l/8 = 617.5mm, and therefore overruled. By this =
0.55 + 0.025 0.21l/be = 0.55 + 0.025 0.21 4940mm/617.5mm = 0.59. Here 0.21l is the
distance from support to the point of zero moment in a uniformly loaded beam with
fixed end supports. As the beam is affected by negative moment no restrictions from
Table 5.3 apply.
be,CS2 = 0 + 0.59 617.5mm = 365.6mm
As the critical sections are affected by moments with opposite direction, each critical
section is treated individually in the following. It is noted that it has already been shown
that flange induced buckling is of no concern, and that when the structural steel beam
is composite with the concrete deck above, lateral torsional buckling is prevented.
A.3.3.2
Critical section 1
A.3.3.2.1
Capacity check
From Table A.14.

126mm 741mm 19.8M P a = 1.8M N > 0.9M N = 3140mm2 275M P a
Whereas the plastic neutral axis (PNA) is in the concrete deck. The PNA is located
at a distance x from the top of the concrete deck.
x=
1 3140mm2 275M P a + 741mm 126mm 19.8M P a
= 92.4mm
2
741mm 19.8M P a
The sections moment resistance is

MRd =
1
2
(92.4mm)2 741mm 19.8M P a + 126mm + 34mm +
1
2
3140mm2 275M P a = 178.5kN m
133mm 92.4mm
The sections shear capacity is unchanged as no additional capacity from the concrete slab is considered. From Equation A.3
Vpl,Rd = 101.3kN
The moment capacity is thereby sufficient with a 10.6% utilization and the shear
capacity with 0% utilization. As the structural steel member is not in compression at
CS1, there is no risk of instability.
A.3.3.3
A.3.3.3.1
Critical section 2
Capacity check
The number of reinforcement bars in the concrete slab is determined by ns = be /s =

365.6mm/150mm = 2.4. As a conservative approximation ns = 2 is applied. The
XXXI
A.3
reinforcement area is thus As = ns 2 /4 = 2 (12mm)2 /4 = 226.2mm2 . The reinforcement areas maximum and minimum limits are checked by Equation 5.3
0.26
3.2M P a
460M P a
365.6mm 126mm = 83.3mm2 < 226.2mm2
< 46066mm2 = 0.04 365.6mm 126mm
The provided reinforcement is thereby sufficient. Condition from Table A.14.

226.2mm2 400M P a + 3140mm2 140mm 8.5mm 275M P a = 626.7kN
> 327.3kN 140mm 8.5mm 275M P a
Whereas the PNA is in the structural steel members web-plate. The distance from
the PNA to the top of web-plate is
x=
1 226.2mm2 400M P a 116mm 5.5mm 275M P a

= 28.1mm
2
5.5mm 275M P a
As x = 28.1mm > 12mm = ra this placement is valid. The placement of the PNA
in the cross-section is x = 28.1mm + 126mm + 34mm + 8.5mm = 196.6mm from the
surface of the concrete deck.

MRd = 196.6mm 22mm +
1
2
12mm 226.2mm2 400M P a

+ 126mm + 34mm + 21 133mm 198.6mm 3140mm2 275M P a = 41.1kN m
The moment capacity is thereby utilized by 88.1% and the shear capacity by 18.7%.
As the web-plate and the bottom flange is in compression, instability must be considered.
A.3.3.3.2
Plate buckling
The flanges buckling stress is unchanged from what previously determined as = 1

(bd = 275M P a). The composite cross-sections plastic section modulus from Equation
3.26.
Wpl = 198.6mm 22mm
1
2
12mm 226.2mm2

+ 126mm + 34mm + 21 133mm 198.6mm 3140mm2 = 132.1 103 mm3
The stress affecting the cross-section from the change in negative moment of 15.8kN m
from construction stage II to III is
md =
15.8 106 N mm
= 119.4M P a
132.1 103 mm3
The total stress including that from construction state II (see Page XXVII) is thus
md = 117.6M P a + 119.4M P a = 237.0M P a. The flanges local buckling capacity is
thereby satisfied with 86.2% utilization.
As the stresses are no longer evenly distributed on the structural steel member,
a new value of must be determined for the web-plate. The stress ratio may be
calculated by the geometric conditions in the stress distributions, see Figure 5.3, by
= (ha /2 aa )/(ha /2 + aa ). Here aa is the distance from the structural steel
members centroid to the composite sections centroid. As all the concrete is in tension
XXXII
at CS2, the section is not composite, so aa will in the following define the distance
from the structural steel members centroid to the sections elastic neutral axis (ENA).
The location of the sections ENA measured from the middle of the bottom flange is
calculated from Equation 5.6
y =
226.2mm2 (126mm22mm+34mm+133mm0.58.5mm)
226.2mm2 +3140mm2
2
(0.5133mm0.58.5)
= 72mm
+ 3140mm
226.2mm2 +3140mm2
Whereby aa = 72mm(0.5133mm+0.58.5mm) = 1.3mm. The stress distribution

is thus = (133mm/2 1.3mm)/(133mm/2 + 1.3mm) = 0.96. The buckling factor
is calculated from Table 5.4.
k = 7.81 6.29 (0.96) + 9.78 (0.96)2 = 22.9
The webs slenderness from Equation 5.27.
p =
As p = 0.13 <
92mm
5.5mm
28.4 0.92
22.9
= 0.13
2/2 from Equation 5.35a.

bd = 275M P a
The webs local buckling resistance is thereby also utilized to 86.2%. The webplates shear resistance is unchanged from Equation A.4, and is thereby utilized by
51.7%. The interaction of local and shear buckling in the web-plate is evaluated from
Equation 5.34.

41.5kN 2
237.0M P a 2
= 1.0 1.0
+
80.3kN
275M P a
The capacity for the interaction of local and shear buckling in the web-plate is
thereby utilized by 100%.
With the configuration considered herein, the steel-concrete composite beams capacity is sufficient.
A.3.4
Shear connection
The requirement for the calculations in the preceding is that a full shear connection
is established between the structural steel member and the concrete deck. The shear
interface is between the structural steel member and the profiled steel sheeting, whereas
no contribution from friction is considered. The shear force to resist is calculated
from Equation 5.59. Here the largest effective width of the concrete deck is applied
be,CS1 = 741mm.
Vs,Ed = min
P1 = 741mm 126mm 19.8M P a

P2 = 3140mm2 275M P a
= 863.5 103 N
The headed stud is of S420 steel and has a height of hsc = 100mm and a width of
dsc = 20mm, whereas = 1. The resistance of one headed stud is
PRd = min
0.8520M P a(20mm)2 /4
= 104.6 103 N
1.25
0.291(20mm)2 35M P a34000M P a
= 101.2
1.25
103 N
= 101.2 103 N
XXXIII
A.3
As the ribs of the profiled steel sheeting are parallel to the beams span direction,
a reduction of PRd must be considered from Equation 5.60a.
kt = 0.6
105mm
34mm
150mm
1 = 6.3 1.0
34mm

Whereas kt = 1.0 and PRd = 101.2 103 N . The necessary number of headed studs
is from Equation 3.55.
863.5 103 N
= 8.5 9
n=
101.2 103 N
This number of headed studs must be placed between the point of maximum positive
moment (at mid span) and maximum negative moment (at support). Therefore a total
of 18 headed studs are placed with a distance of 4940mm/18 = 274mm. For ribs
parallel to the beam the maximum distance is ssc,max = 228.5mm0.92 = 173mm from
Equation 5.62a. By this 7940mm/173mm = 45.9 46 headed studs must be placed,
to assure a coherent behaviour of the shear connection. This also satisfy Equation 5.63.
As 173mm > 100mm = 5 20mm the minimum distance in Equation 5.64 is satisfied.
The composite slab is thus designed as seen in Figure A.16.
A.3.5
Deflections and vibration
ETABS reports a maximum total deflection of the composite beam of 12.5 mm. The
deflection calculations presented in Section 5.6 are inapplicable as the loading requirements for these calculations are not satisfied for the beam considered in this example.
Deflection contributions from construction stage II and III are calculated by a simple
FEA-routine developed by Niels Holck, at the Technical University of Denmark. The
resulted line loads on the beam are obtained from ETABS.
Deflection at construction stage II:
Figure A.14b shows the loading and deflection of the steel beam with the stiffness Ea Ia
where the deflection is found to be w1 = 7.4mm.
Deflection at construction stage III:
For long term deflection the modulus factor nL is applied. Concrete creep and shrinkage
is thereby considered in accordance with Section 3.4.1. The perimeter of the beams
concrete deck exposed to drying is taken as the smallest effective width u = be,CS2 =
365.6mm. The notional size h0 is determined by h0 = 2 365.6mm 126mm/365.6 =
252mm. Reading from figure 3.1a in EN 1992-1-1 for cement of class N and concrete
grade C35/45 the result (, 2) = 3.2 is obtained. The ratio for the transformed
cross-section to apply is from Equation 5.12.
nL = 7 (1 + 1.1 3.2) = 31.6
(A.6)
The transformed cross-sections area is from Equation 5.13.

Ai = 3140mm2 +
1
365.6mm 126mm = 4595.9mm2
31.6
(A.7)
The distance between the centroids of the structural steel member and the concrete
deck is
a = (126mm + 34mm + 0.5 133mm) 0.5 126mm = 163.5mm
XXXIV
(A.8)
(a) Equivalent loads from ETABS.
(b) Deflection at construction stage II.
Figure A.14: Loading and deflection for steel beam at construction stage II.
The distances from the concrete deck and steel section centroids to the transformed
cross-sections centroid is from Equation 5.14.
3140mm2
163.5mm = 111.7mm
4595.9mm2
365.6mm 126mm
163.5 = 51.8mm
aa =
31.6 4595.9mm2
The transformed sections moment of inertia from Equation 5.15 including contributions from translation
1
Ii = 10.3 106 + 3140mm2 (51.8mm)2 +
31.6

1
365.6mm (126mm)3 + 365.6mm 126mm (111.7mm)2 = 273.2 106 mm4
12
The loading considered here is the difference in loading from construction stage II
to III. Figure A.14b shows the loading and deflection of the composite beam with the
stiffness Ea Ii .
Whereas w3 = 5.8mm, the total deflection is wtot = 7.4mm+5.8mm = 13.2mm, and
the deflection limit is w = max = 4940mm/300 = 16.5mm. By this the deflection is
within the maximum limit at all construction stages wmax > wtot > w3 > w1 . If desired
the structural steel member may be applied with a precamber of wc = wtot = 13.2mm,
whereby the resulting deflection would be 0mm.
No criterion for vibration is considered as the procedure described in Section 5.6 is
inapplicable for the considered beam.
ac =
A.4
A.4.1
Progressive collapse
The following outlines the procedure to be applied when considering the risk of progressive collapse for a building. The steps are (1) identifying the risk, (2) evaluating
XXXV
A.4
(a) Equivalent loads from ETABS (difference from stage II to III.
(b) Deflection at construction stage III.
Figure A.15: Deflection for composite beam at construction stage III.
Figure A.16: Finished design of steel-concrete composite beam.

its consequence and extent of damage, (3) performing the relevant analysis considering
the effects of this damage on the building structure and (4) ensuring sufficient structural redundancy. Only a few relevant cases of local structural failure are considered.
Additional cases should be considered for a full design.
To limit the extent of the analyses the procedure described above is performed for
selected elements on the bottom storey. Vehicle impact is the general risk of damage
for these structural elements. In accordance with that described in Section 6.1 the sustained damage from such an impact is considered to be total local failure of the affected
element. In the analysis the selected element is therefore just simply removed from the
analysis in ETABS, and the effects of this loss of structural integrity is considered for
the neighbouring elements.
The situations of progressive collapse is considered by the load combination from
Equation 6.1. As wind is included here all 16 wind tunnel and 2 code based wind
loads are considered. A total of 36 load combinations are thus included in the progressive collapse analysis. The construction sequence analysis in ETABS is applied. The
XXXVI
structures self weight is thus applied incrementally and as a last step the considered
element is removed from the structure. This will result in the most realistic distribution
of forces, rather than performing a one-step analysis with the column removed.
The risk of progressive collapse for the wall designed in Appendix A.1 is considered
for two cases. In each case a column placed near the wall is removed, whereas the
loading from the storey above is redistributed to the vertical structural elements nearby.
The columns are those placed nearest the wall, whereas it is considered the worst
case scenario for the considered wall. As it is seen in Figure A.17, the loss of the
nearby columns has little effect on the wall. None of the biaxial bending combinations
exceeds those previously verified and the M N interaction is still well within the
walls capacities. For these considered cases of progressive collapse the wall as designed
in Appendix A.1 thus offers a sufficient redundancy.
When this wall section is affected by self weight alone it is in a tension state, as
shown in Figures 2.8a and 2.8b. It is further noticed that for the progressive collapse
cases considered herein the wall remains in a tension state, though its axial compression
load has increased.
(a) y-axis.
(b) z-axis.
Figure A.17: Additions to the moment-normal force interaction due to progressive

collapse (also see Figure A.4).
The column designed in Appendix A.2 is checked for the risk of progressive collapse
by a similar analysis. The column is one of two that support the steel-concrete composite deck, whereas the largest immediate risk is the loss of the adjacent column. Three
cases are considered for the column on the ground level. The removal of the adjacent
column on the ground level, the removal of the adjacent column on the level above and
the removal of the adjacent column and the slab these support. In the first two cases
the considered column is affected by additional axial compression as the loading redistributes. In the third case load redistribution will also occur along with the removal of
the considered columns lateral restraint.
The third case thus concerns the allowable loss of the 100m2 floor area supported
by the considered column. This floor area is assumed to collapse when the adjacent
column is removed. The gravitational loading on the column is thus less, but the
lateral restraint the floor offered is now gone. The column therefore has a total length
of 11.6m, instead of the approximately 7.6m used for the design in Appendix A.2. This
XXXVII
A.4
leads to a reduction in the columns plastic compression capacity Npl,Rd , due to column
buckling. From Equation 3.40 this reduction is found to be 0.97, Whereas Npl,Rd = 0.97
45470kN = 44106kN . This is not very different from what was previously calculated
for the shorter column, whereas the change in capacity is only slightly affected, see
Figure A.18. The new loading is seen to be within the uni-axial capacity for bending
and axial force interaction. Failure caused by biaxial bending and axial force interaction
is of no concern, as it is seen that the ultimate limit state loading pose more critical
combinations, see Page XX.
Figure A.18: Additions to the moment-normal force interaction due to progressive

collapse (also see Figure A.9).
The column is thus shown to have sufficient redundancy for the three considered
cases of progressive collapse.
As the steel-concrete composite beam designed in Appendix A.3 is encompassed by
the acceptable loss of structural integrity associated with a progressive collapse and does
not support any other structural elements, analyses for its resistance in a progressive
collapse situation is unnecessary. It is shown above that the loss of the slab, that this
beam is a part of, does not pose a larger risk of failure for the supporting column.
A.4.2
Occupant comfort
With regard to the evaluation of the occupants comfort the load case shown in Equation
6.2 is applied as Equation A.10 by the partial load factors shown in Table 2.6.
1.0 D + 0.0 L
(A.10)
The building structures damping, normalized modal translation in the x-axis,

modal frequency and mass distribution is shown below. Here the buildings fundamenP
tal mode is considered, see Figure 2.7a. the total mass is M = m = 43164.18 103 kg
and the evenly distributed mass along the buildings height is the mean of m, m
=
1.54 106 kg/m.
XXXVIII
1 (z) =
1.00
1.00
0.97
0.95
0.92
0.88
0.86
0.83
0.79
0.75
0.71
0.68
0.64
0.60
0.55
0.51
0.45
0.40
0.36
0.31
0.26
0.22
0.17
0.13
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.00
A.4.2.1
f1 = 0.24Hz
m(z) =
906.07
1294.38
1320.86
1347.33
1373.81
1400.28
1426.76
1453.23
1479.70
1506.18
1532.65
1559.13
1585.60
1612.08
1638.55
1665.02
1691.50
1717.97
1744.45
1770.92
1797.39
1823.87
1850.34
1876.82
1903.29
1929.77
1956.24
103 kg s = 2% z =
0.00
Maximum acceleration by base moment times series
98.98
95.55
92.05
88.55
85.05
81.55
78.05
74.55
71.05
67.55
64.05
60.55
57.05
53.55
50.05
46.55
43.05
39.55
36.05
32.55
29.05
25.55
22.05
18.55
15.05
11.55
7.55
The occupants comfort will be considered in the following. By this the maximum
acceleration of the building when excited by maximum wind in the x-direction, is
calculated and compared to the maximum value of 20milli g. In the following the
maximum acceleration based on the record of a base moment time series (BMTS) is
analysed in accordance with Section 6.2.1. The BMTS applied is however not relevant
for the considered building, whereas the following only shows the procedure of the
analysis. The BMTS applied is that obtained from wind tunnel tests for one of the
two buildings of the Cour de Justice in Luxembourg, see Figure 6.1. This building
has a rectangular foot print which measures approximately 45m by 16m, and is 103m
tall. Though these scales are comparable to the building considered in this example
calculation, the buildings surroundings are far from similar.
Due to their vectorial size, 1 , m and z are only shown by their symbol in the
following calculations. The BMTS is obtained at a mean wind speed of vma = 26.3m/s
and an observation period of Tob = 600s. The basic wind speed determined for the
building in Equation 2.2, vb,0 = 27.5m/s, is to be expressed as a mean value at the
top of the building, and have its return period lowered from 50 years to 10 years. The
XXXIX
A.4
basic wind speed with a R = 10 year return period from Equation 6.3.
vb,10 = 26.3
1 0.2 ln ln 1
1
10
0.5
s
1 0.2 ln ( ln (0.98))
= 24.8
m
s
The mean wind speed is calculated in accordance with clause 4.3 in EN 1991-1-4.
The terrain factor is

0.3m 0.07
kr = 0.19
= 0.215
0.05m
The roughness factor at the top of the building is
cr (98.98m) = 0.215 log
98.98m
0.3m
= 1.25
The mean wind velocity is thus

vm = 1.25 24.8
m
m
= 31.0
s
s
(A.11)
The ratio of which to scale the BMTS is from Equation 6.4.

f=
(31.0m/s)2
= 1.39
(26.3m/s)2
The resonant peak factor from Equation 6.5.

gR =
0.5772
= 3.34
2 ln (0.24Hz 600s) + p
2 ln (0.24Hz 600s)
The spectral base moment for the fundamental frequency S(f1 ), is found by computational means as shown below. Here the first fundamental modes frequency f1 is
defined as f1.
N = 133889; % Number of lines in CSV file
[tim,mom] = textread('BendTs.txt', '%f %f',N); % Time and moment data saved
tim(1,:) = [];
mom(1,:) = [];
moma = mom*f; % Correction factor applied to the base moment
fsamp = 1/(tim(2)tim(1)); % Sample frequency (constant)
nfft = 4.5*1024;
[PSD,fx] = pwelch(moma,[],[],nfft,fsamp); % Power spectral density function
Gvar = trapz(fx,PSD); % Variance control & normalisation, start
Grms = sqrt(Gvar);
Srms = std(moma);
Svar = Srms^2;
Smean = mean(moma);
m2 = size(PSD);
for k=1:m2
SDF0(k) = PSD(k);
SDF1(k) = PSD(k);
SDF2(k) = SDF1(k)*Svar;
end
PSD = PSD/Gvar*Svar; % Variance control & normalisation, end
zz = abs(fxf1);
xx = find(min(zz)==zz); % Lookup of fundamental mode's frequency in PSD
Sf1 = PSD(xx); % Ordinate of the base moment at (closet value to) f1
XL
Here the result S(0.24Hz) = 276330.8 109 (N m)2 is obtained for Sf1. The background peak factor from Equation 6.6.
R =
0.24Hz 276330.8 109 (N m)2 = 51.3 106 N m

4 0.02
The resonant base moment from Equation 6.7.
r,R = 3.34 51.3 106 N m = 171.4 106 N m

M
The equivalent static wind loads from Equation 6.8.
m(z) 1 (z)
PR (z) = 171.4 106 N m R h
= result not shown
0 zm(z)1 (z)dz
The peak acceleration along the buildings height from Equation 6.9.
h
PR (z)1 (z)dz
Ypeak (z) = R0h
= result not shown
2
0 m(z)1 (z)dz
From the calculation above a maximum peak at the top of the building of Ypeak (z) =
2.97milli g is found. This is well within the limit of maximum 20milli g, but it
is again emphasised that the BMTS applied here does not represent the considered
building. The results for Ypeak (z) is seen in Figure A.19a.
A.4.2.2
Maximum acceleration by EN 1991-1-4 provisions
As the calculations in this section considers acceleration in the x-direcction the buildings width is b = 14.5m and the depth is d = 48.6m, whereas cf = cf,0 = 2.1 read
from figure 7.23 in EN 1991-1-4. By this no consideration is made to the shape of the
building, which is a conservative assessment. The stagnation point for the incoming
air flow is at a height of zs = 0.6 98.98m = 59.34m with an air density of 1.2kg/m3 .
The mean wind speed at this height is determined by the same method as in Equation
A.11 to vm (59.34m) = 28.4m/s. The turbulence length scale from Equation 6.10.
L(59.34m) = 300m
59.34m
200m
0.67+0.05 ln(0.3)
= 143.1m
The non-dimensional frequency from Equation 6.12.

fL (59.34m) = 0.24Hz
143.1m
= 1.225
28.4m/s
The background factor from Equation 6.11.

1
B2 =
1 + 0.9
14.5m+98.98m
143.1m
0
= 0.563
.63
The aerodynamic admittance functions from Equation 6.13.

4.6 14.5m
1.225 = 0.571
143.1m
4.6 98.98m
h =
1.225 = 3.897
143.1m
b =
XLI
A.4
1
1
0.571 2 0.5712
1
1
Rh =
3.897 2 3.8972
Rb =

1 exp20.571 = 0.707

1 exp23.897 = 0.224
The non-dimensional power spectral density from Equation 6.14.

SL (59.34m) =
6.8 1.225
(1 + 10.2 1.225) 3
= 0.110
The logarithmic decrement of the structural damping is equal to s = 0.10, as

described on Page 20. The aerodynamic damping logarithmic decrement from Equation
6.15.
2.1 1.2kg/m3 28.4m/s
a =
6 kg/m = 0.0014 = 1.4%
2 0.24Hz 1.5410
14.5m
The total damping of the building is thus = 0.10 + 0.0014 = 0.1014. Resonance
response factor from Equation 6.17.
R2 =
2
0.110 0.224 0.707 = 0.839
2 0.1014
The up-crossing frequency from Equation 6.18.

= 0.24
0.839
= 0.188
0.563 + 0.839
The peak factor from Equation 6.19.

kp =
0.6
= 3.27
2 ln (0.188 600s) + p
2 ln (0.188 600s)
The turbulence intensity from Equation 6.21.

Iv (59.34m) =
0.215 24.8 ms
= 0.188
28.4 m
s
The deviation along the buildings height of the wind induced acceleration from
Equation 6.20.
Rh 2
0 vm (z)1 (z)dz
= 1.405
(A.14)
Kx =
R
(28.4m/s)2 0h 1 (z)dz
2.11.2kg/m3 14.5m0.188(28.4m/s)2
1.54106 kg/m
a,x (z) =
p
(0.839) 1.405 1 (z) = result not shown due to z dependency

The maximum acceleration at the buildings top is found to be a,x (98.98m) =
1.37milli g, which as in the previous section is well below the maximum allowed
20milli g. The provisions followed in these calculations are those available for the
analysis of occupants comfort, when no further studies on the influence of the surroundings on the airflow around the building and its behaviour has been performed. The
calculations does thereby not take into account the effects of turbulence, flutter or wake
XLII
(a) Analysis of BMTS.
(b) Calculation in accordance

with code.
Figure A.19: Acceleration along the considered buildings height as calculated by the
analysis of a base moment times series (BMTS), see Section A.4.2.1, and in accordance
with Eurocode as described herein.
buffeting for the considered building. As the only reference to these circumstances is
the terrain category, the influence of surrounding buildings is very poorly represented
by EN 1991-1-4 provisions.
In Figure A.19 the calculations of the accelerations within this section and from the
previous section is seen. It is noted that the distribution is very similar, though the
maximum results deviate with almost 50%. The analyses shows a larger acceleration for
the results obtained by the BMTS analysis. This is expected as the BMTS represents
the fluctuating effects that a near standing building has on the results. As EN 1991-1-4
can not consider this, its methods can not always be considered as conservative when
calculating accelerations.
A.4.3
Drift assessment
The drift limitations described in Appendix 6.3 is checked for the considered building.
From the analysis in ETABS interstorey drift values may be viewed. The results obtained here are directly applicable as they are calculated by non-linear analyses. As
mentioned in Sections 2.1.3 and 6.3 drift is to be considered as a serviceability limit
state requirement related to the damage limitation requirements of EN 1998-1. By
EN 1998-1 it is to be considered for seismic events related to a peak ground acceleration representing this limit state, see Page 17.
Figure A.20 shows the maximum interstorey drift in the x- and y-directions. These
values are taken directly from ETABS for the seismic excitations resulting in maximum
interstorey drift. Assuming that the faades are made of brittle material the limit for
interstorey drift is 1/200. This is shown as the dashed line, whereas no storey exceeds
this limit at any time. The interstorey drift limitation is thereby satisfied.
To consider the buildings total drift the diaphragm displacements and their respective height above the buildings base is evaluated from Equation 6.26. The results
XLIII
A.4
(a) In x-direction.
(b) In y-direction.
Figure A.20: Interstorey drift for maximum excitation in x- and y-directions.
(a) In x-direction.
(b) In y-direction.
Figure A.21: Total drift for maximum excitation in x- and y-directions.

are shown in Figure A.21 where it can be seen, that the total drift limit of 1/400 is
exceeded for all stories above 36m from the base. This is generally not acceptable in
accordance with common engineering practice, but as no limit for total drift is discussed
in EN 1998-1 no further initiatives are taken to limit it.
XLIV
ETABS settings
ETABS settings
This appendix presents the settings in ETABS by showing a figure of the relevant dialog
from ETABS. This appendix is to be considered as a supplement to Section 2.3, where
the settings shown here are described in depth. All figures included in the following
showing properties used in the ETABS model are in units N mm.
To view analysis results the three analyses must first be run. To initiate the linear
analysis click in the toolbar. The construction sequence analysis is started by clicking
and the non-linear analysis by . Analyses results may be viewed by going to Display
> Show Tables or File > Print Tables > Analysis Output.
B.1
Materials
To view material definitions and settings click

Material Properties in the menu bar.
in the toolbar, or go to Define >
Figure B.1: Material definition for concrete of grade C35/45.
B.2
Sections
To view frame sections (sections associated with line elements) click

or go to Define > Frame Sections.
in the toolbar,
XLV
B.2
Sections
(a) Section definition
(b) Section modifiers
(c) Reinforcement definition
Figure B.2: Definition of column section with reinforcement, and associated section
modifiers for concrete columns (as of Table 2.9).
To view wall, slab or deck sections (sections associated with area elements) click
in the toolbar, or go to Define > Wall/Slab/Deck Sections.
XLVI
(a) Section definition
ETABS settings
(b) Section modifiers
Figure B.3: Definition of deck section with solid concrete slab cast on profiled steel
sheeting, and associated section modifiers for concrete slabs (as of Table 2.9).
To view the steel-concrete composite wall section go to Design > Shear Wall Design
> Define Pier Sections for Checking. Next select the section CW1, click Modify/Show
Pier Section and click Section Designer. This will open the steel-concrete composite
wall named CW1 for editing in the section designer utility. To view the steel-concrete
composite column section click in the toolbar and select the section COMCOL. Next
click Modify/Show Property and the Section Designer.
Figure B.4: Modelling of steel-concrete composite wall section using the section designer
in ETABS. Here the wall is seen with two HE280A structural steel members, 25mm
end reinforcement and 20mm side reinforcement.
XLVII
B.3
Settings
B.3
Settings
B.3.1
Loads
Load settings may be viewed by clicking in the tool bar, or going to Define > Static
Load Cases. From here the settings for any static load, e.g. WINDX as shown in Figure
B.5, may be viewed by clicking Modify Lateral Load or Modify Load.
Figure B.5: Settings for wind acting in the x-direction.
Figure B.6: Settings for wind loads obtained from the wind tunnel tests.
XLVIII
ETABS settings
Figure B.7: Settings for static seismic loading.
The response spectrum functions defined in ETABS may be viewed by clicking

in the toolbar, or going to Define > Response Spectrum Functions in the menu bar.
Next select a response spectra and click Modify/Show Spectrum.
Figure B.8: Response spectrum settings for dynamic seismic loading.
To view the response spectrum cases click

in the toolbar or go to Define >
Response Spectrum Cases in the menu bar. Select a response spectrum case and click
Modify/Show Spectrum.
XLIX
B.3
Settings
Figure B.9: Settings for the application of the response spectrum cases for dynamic
seismic excitations.
The mass source may be viewed by clicking

Mass Source in the menu bar.
in the toolbar, or going to Define >
Figure B.10: Settings for the buildings mass source.
The settings for temperature loads shown in Figure B.11 may be accessed by selecting an area element and going to Assign > Shell/Area Loads > Temperature. A
similar approach can be used for frames/line elements.
L
ETABS settings
Figure B.11: Settings for the application of temperature loading on an area element.
B.3.2
Analysis
To view the settings for P 4 effects go to Analyze > Set Analysis Options and click
Set P-Delta Parameters.
Figure B.12: Settings for the inclusion of P effects in the analysis.
The settings for the dynamic analysis may be viewed by going to Analyze > Set
Analysis Options in the menu bar and click Set Dynamic Parameters.
LI
B.4
Model verification
Figure B.13: Settings for the modal analysis to be performed by ETABS.
The auto mesh options ma be viewed by selecting an area object in the model and
going to Assign > Shell/Area > Area Object Mesh Options in the menu bar.
Figure B.14: Settings for auto meshing of area elements.
The model check function may be accessed by going to Analyze > Check model in
the menu bar.
B.4
Model verification
The model check function in ETABS is accessed by the menu bar Analyze > Check
Model.
LII
ETABS settings
Figure B.15: Options for model check function in ETABS.
LIII
Enclosed CD-ROM
Enclosed CD-ROM
This appendix is related to the enclosed CD-ROM. The contents are

ETABS model
The ETABS model of the building described in Section 2.
Main report
A digital copy of the main report.
Appendices
A digital copy of the appendices.
LV

Konnerup (2012) Design of Steel-Concrete Composite Structures For A High-Rise Building

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Design of Steel-Concrete

Associate Professor at the Technical University of Denmark,

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

3 Design of steel-concrete composite walls

4 Design of steel-concrete composite columns

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Latin upper case letters

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Considered concrete cover

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Maximum spacing of confining hoop reinforcement within the critical region

Factor used to determined

Confinement effectiveness factor

Imperfection factor for buckling

Equivalent moment factor

Steel contribution ratio

Relative slenderness for lateral torsional buckling

Curvature ductility factor of the critical regions

Parameter related to the reduction of moment resistance when considering

Reduction factor for reduced area

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Elastic shear stress

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Structural design of high-rise buildings

buildings up to around five stories and were driven by steam.

Structural design of high-rise buildings

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

(a) Gravity control.

(b) Base moment control.

(c) Deflection control.

Structural design of high-rise buildings

Interior structural systems

As mentioned above a building may be categorised with interior structures, if the

Figure 1.2: Interior structures (from Ali and Moon, 2007).

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Exterior structural systems

As mentioned in the preceding a building may be categorised as having an exterior

Structural design of high-rise buildings

primarily by tension compression force couples in the exterior columns at opposites of

Figure 1.3: Exterior structures (from Ali and Moon, 2007).

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Steel-concrete composite structures

Steel-concrete composite structures were first seen applied in bridge construction in

Project building: The Pad

Project building: The Pad

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Structural systems overview

(a) Typical floor plan.

Project building: The Pad

The structural system considered for analysis in Section 2 is comprised of what is

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

0.82 and 0.85

Superimposed dead loads

Table 2.3: Superimposed dead loads on the building.

testing of the building by Windtech (2008).

Eurocode wind loads

Wind load in accordance with EN 1991-1-4 is represented by corresponding load actions

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark

Wind tunnel test loads

of the proposed building with a tolerance of 1m.

Py = x,mean Fx,mean + x,dynamic Fx,dynamic