A computer is a programmable device which responds to a specific set of

instructions in a well- defined manner and executes a prerecorded list of

instructions. A computer is an electronic device which takes input from the user,
processes it, stores it and gives output in desired form. The computer as a system is
a combination of hardware and software components that jointly offer the necessary
services to the user. Computer is derived from the Latin word Computare which
means to calculate.
1. Speed: The speed of computer for performing a single operation can be
measured in terms of Milliseconds, Microseconds, Nanoseconds and Picoseconds.
1/1000 or (10-3) sec..1 Millisecond (ms) 1/1000000 or (10-6)
sec....1 Microsecond (s) 1/1000000000 or (10-9) sec
.1 Nanosecond (ns) 1/000000000000 or (10-12) sec1
Picosecond (ps) 1/000000000000000 or (10-15) sec..1 Femtosecond (fm)
2. Storage: The storing capacity is measured in terms of Bytes, Kilobytes,
Megabytes, Gigabytes and Terabytes. 4 bits..................................1
Nibble 8 bits..................................1 Byte 1024
Bytes ............................................................1 Kilobyte (KB) 1024
Kilobytes.......................................................1 Megabyte (MB) 1024
Megabytes.....................................................1 Gigabyte (GB) 1024
Gigabytes .....................................................1 Terabyte (TB)
3. Accuracy and Reliability: Computer can perform all the calculations and
comparisons accurately. Sometimes, errors may be produced by computers due to
the fault in the machine or due to mistakes in the programs. If the input data are
not correct, this may also lead to incorrect output.
4. Automatic: Computers is an automatic machine. Everything that is given to
computer are processed and done by computer automatically according to the
instruction provided.
5. Versatility: Computer has a wide range of application areas i.e., computer can do
many types of jobs. It can perform operations ranging from simple mathematical
calculations to highly complex and logical evaluations for any extended period of
time. Some of the application areas of computers are Education, Science and
Technology, Business, Medicine, Astronomy etc.
6. Diligence: A computer can perform repetitive tasks without being bored, tired and
losing concentration. It can continuously work for several hours without human
intervention after the
INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
data and programs are fed to it. There is no ageing effect on computer i.e. efficiency
does not decrease over the years of use.
1. Sometime the failure in devices and programs can produce unreliable
information. 2. Computer is a dull machine. It doesnt have intelligence on it. 3. It
cannot operate without human involvement. 4. Computers lack emotions.
Advantages a. Computers are always accurate and reliable than human. b. They are
faster than human in calculations. c. They never feel exhausted and tired like
human being. d. They can perform complicated and difficult works which are hard
for us. e. They are versatile i.e. master in all types of work and fields like education,
hospital, banks, etc. f. It is used for communication between many peoples.

Disadvantages a. They cannot operate without batteries or electricity. b. Failure in

devices and wrong information by users makes it unreliable. c. It is an expensive
device. d. They can be used for computer crimes like hacking, sending viruses, etc.
1. Banking: Banks use computer for general-purpose computations, to handle
transaction. These days bank provide the ATM service where user can withdraw
their money any time from ATM machine by using the ATM card.
2. Commercial Enterprises: Many business companies use computer to help in the
control of their day- to-day transaction. Computers are used for keeping record of
the employees, managing the stock of company, etc.
3. Communication: Computers are massively used in communication.
Communicating is done by emails, chatting, videoconference, e-fax, etc. with the
help of internet.
4. Desktop Publishing System: A desktop publishing package is more powerful,
attractive and
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
APPLICATION OF COMPUTER IN DIFFERENT FIELDS
efficient than word processor package. The system includes computer and a
number of peripherals with powerful software that can produce various layouts
with pictures and text printed in a variety of attractive way, which are used in
manuals, bulletins, newsletters etc.
5. Education: Computers are used as teaching aid, information resource, and
computing and research tool. When computer is used as a teaching aid, it is referred
to as Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). Software for CAI can be prepared in a
variety of modes, such as tutorial, discovery, problem solving, modeling, and drilling
and practice modes.
6. Health and Medical Field: Computers are widely used in hospitals to help doctors
in diagnosis, getting information on patients, diseases, treatment, drugs, keeping
patients record etc. Examples: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), CT scan
machine, Eye testing machines, Ultrasonic machine, etc.
7. Home: Home computers can be used in recreational activities. Home computers
can also be used in storing personal information such as birth dates, addresses,
telephone numbers, photo albums, to keep the record of family expenses etc.
People use home computers to listen songs, watching movies, accessing the
Internet, etc.
8. Industries: Computers are extensively used in industries for automatic control of
machines, process, measurement and display of electrical and physical quantities.
9. Military: Smart weapons use microprocessor-based control systems. Modern
tanks, torpedoes, missiles etc. employ computerized control systems. A guided
missile uses internal computer for its control.
10. Multimedia: In recording and film studio computer are used intensively. The
music can be recorder in different tracks and later merge to a single music. Movie
editing can be done frame by frame.
11. Office: Computers are used in preparing reports, memorandum, and copy of
advertisement, letter, publicity, contracts, forms, notes, and notices etc., which are
the basic works of an office. Computer helps user in preparing, storing, retrieving
and displaying text. In offices accounting, billing preparation of payrolls, data
analysis, auditing, investment, inventory control, preparation of budgets, sales

analysis etc. are also performed. In most of the computerized offices, word
processing and spread applications are used.
12. Research: Scientific and engineering design and research work involve complex
and massive computations. So computers are must for this type of work.
13. Simulation: Computer simulation involves typing to predict what will happen in a
real-life situation from model of that situation. Computer Aided Design (CAD) is
widely used in the design of electronic circuits, ships, roads cars etc.
The computer, which is one of the most advanced discoveries of mankind, has got a
long history. Around 3000 years before the birth of Jesus Christ, there were no any
kinds of number system. So, people had to remember a lot of information. They felt
the need to count the things. Then they started counting using their fingers. But the
limited number of fingers had made it difficult for them to remember more facts. So,
they used stones for counting or they made scratches on wall or tied knots in a
rope.
The history of computer is classified on the basis of age as follows: 1) Age of
Mechanical Calculators 2) Age of Electromechanical Computers 3) Age of Electronic
Computers
a. Abacus: It is manual calculating device. Basically an abacus consists of wires
having pebbles or beads. The frame consists of two parts upper & lower. The upper
part is called heaven whereas lower part is called earth. The heaven consists of
two beads whereas the earth part consists of five beads to each wire. The value of a
bead on heaven part is five & one in earth part. Each abacus consists of eleven
wires. Its exact origin is unknown. It may have originated in china, Egypt or Greece.
Fig: Abacus
b. Pascals Calculator: In 1642, French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented the
first real calculating machine that could add and subtract numbers quickly, which
was named as Pascals Calculator or Pascaline. It consists of numbered toothed
wheels, each wheel having numbers from 0 to 9. A complete turning of first wheel
causes the 2nd wheel to move the next number. It has a simple monitor to see the
result, too. Calculation including addition and subtraction was possible up to 8
digits, which was a great achievement at that time. The disadvantage of this
machine was that it could not carry out multiplication and divisions.
1) AGE OF MECHANICAL CALCULATORS
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
Fig: Pascaline
Fig: Pascal Calculator
c. Babbages Difference and Analytical engine: In 1822, a professor of mathematics,
Charles Babbage developed a machine called Difference engine in Cambridge
University. It was made to calculate various mathematical function and logarithmic
tables. Difference machine was intended to be steam powered, fully automatic,
even to the printing of the resulting tables and commanded by a fixed instruction
program. While working on the difference table, in 1833, he developed the new idea
to build an Analytical Engine, which was to become a real ancestor of the modern
day computer. Thats why he is known as father of computer. The analytical
machine would operate on words of 50 digits and was able to store 1000 such
numbers. The instructions for the machine were to be stored on punched cards like
on Jacquard loom. He wanted to input data with the help of punched card and
output (result) to be printed on copper plates. Babbages analytical engine and

modern day computer are similar in their structure. But unfortunately, due to the
lack of time and equipments, he was unable to complete this machine, so the world
had to wait for another hundred years.
Fig: Analytical Engine (Left) and Difference Engine (Right)
d. Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace: After the death of Babbage, an English
mathematician, Ada Lovelace, a long-time supporter of Babbage was successful in
discovering some of the key elements of programming and program design. She got
the idea of loop in the program. Not only this, she made the first program to be
used in Babbages machine. So she is called the first programmer. To honor her
contribution, the programming language used in American defense was named as
ADA
e. Holleriths machine: In 1887, an American statistician, Herman Hollerith
constructed a tabulating machine, to compute the statistics of 1890 US census. He
used the punched cards to store data, with the holes representing data values. This
machine can read 200 punched cards per minute. So, Holleriths punched cards
method become very popular and widely used. In 1896, he established the
Tabulating Machine Company to make and sell his invention. Later in 1923, this firm
merged with other
companies to form the IBM Corporation, which is the most popular and biggest
company in computer
manufacturing.
MarkI: In 1937, Harvard professor, Howard Aiken, constructed an electromechanical
computer named Mark-I (also known as Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator),
which could perform according to pre-programmed instruction automatically. Thus it
is also called the first computer. It was based on Charles Babbages principle after
100 years of his death. Although it was very huge with dimension 51 ft. long, 8 ft.
height and 3ft. wide using 18,000 vacuum tubes (electronic) with 7 lakhs 50
thousands parts, it was the milestone in history of computer. In 1944, Howard
Aiken modified Mark I and invented Mark-II which used 19000 valves.
Fig: Mark I
f. ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer): In 1938, John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry
designed ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer) for solving systems of simultaneous
equation. It used 18000 valves and other 45 valves for internal logic and capacitors
for storage of electrical charges. It used punched cards as secondary storage.
g. John Von Neumann: In 1944, Hungarian mathematician, Jon von Neumann gave
the ideas: Computer instruction as well as the data being manipulated could be
stored internally in the machine. So he is called the father of stored program.
Before that, program required for the computer were integrated and written
permanently in chips, so modification of program was not possible. But after
Neumann, such programs were stored inside computer in some storage media, so
modification was easy and flexible.
h. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator): In 1946, J. Presper Eckert
and John W. Mauchly developed ENIAC. At that time ENIAC was the largest single
electronic apparatus in the world. It was a large-scale, general-purpose digital
electronic computer built from 17468 vacuum tubes. It was the first and last
computer, which used decimal number system instead of binary system.
2) AGE OF ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPUTERS
3) AGE OF ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS
Fig: ENIAC

i. EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer): It was invented by

Maurice Wilkes in 1949. It also used vacuum tubes. Although started after EDVAC, it
was completed before EDVAC. So, it became the first stored program computer.
j. EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer): It was developed by J.
P. Eckert and J. Mauchly in 1952. Although started before, it was completed after
EDSAC. It also used vacuum tubes and some internal storage.
Fig: EDVAC
k. UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer): It was developed by J. P. Eckert and J.
Mauchly in 1961. It was the first computer manufactured for commercial use and
general purpose digital computers. Before this, all the computers were either for
defenses or census.
Fig: UNIVAC
Fig: UNIVAC
In 1962, scientists decided to classify computer into different classes
according to the device technology and system architecture. The computers are
classified into five groups. These groups are called generation of computer. The
classification, their time period and memory device are given below.
Generation Time Duration Electronic Device Used First Generation 1942-1956
Vacuum tubes or valves Second Generation 1956 1963 Transistors Third
Generation 1963- 1971 Integrated Circuits (ICs) Fourth Generation 1971-till now
VLSI or Microprocessor Fifth Generation 1990 onwards Bio-chips, superconductors
The computer, using vacuum tubes or valves as memory devices, are called first
generation computers. Vacuum tubes are the devices in which a stream of electrons
is controlled by electric and magnetic fields. Because, a vacuum must be provided
in the form of an evacuated enclosure in which the electrons can move without
collisions with gas molecules, these devices were called vacuum tubes. Lee De
Forest invented it in 1908.
Characteristics: 1. Very big size and slower than other generation. 2. They produced
large amount of heat and prone to frequent hardware failure. 3. Punch cards were
used as secondary storage. 4. Machine level programming used. 5. Cost was very
high and not available for commercial use. 6. Computing time is milliseconds.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
FIRST GENERATION (1942-1956)
Examples: Mark-I, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer), EDSAC (Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Computer), UNIVAC (Universal Automatic computer).
Second generation of the computer started after the invention of transistors. John
Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley invented the transistor in 1947 at
Bell Laboratory. There are two kinds of transistors, the bipolar transistor (also called
the junction transistor) and the field effect transistor (FET). All computers, which use
transistors as memory device, are categorized as second- generation computer.
Characteristics: 1. Transistors were smaller, faster, occupied less space and higher
reliable compared to vacuum tubes. One transistor can do the tasks of 1,000
vacuum tubes. 2. Transistors required less electricity and emitted less heat than
vacuum tubes. 3. Magnetic cores were developed for primary storage and magnetic
tape and magnetic disk for secondary storage. 4. Second-generation computer
replaced machine language with assembly language (abbreviated or mnemonic
form) to replace long difficult binary codes for giving instructions. 5. High level

languages such as COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) and FORTRAN

(Formula Translator) came in common use during this time. 6. The operating speed
was increased up to the microseconds range.
Examples: The examples of the second-generation computers are IBM 1401, IBM
1600, 7070, 7080, 7080, and ICL 1950/10 and Honey well 400 series.
The third generation computers replaced transistors with Integrated circuits (IC)
popularly known as chips. An IC is an electronic circuit with a large number of
components (many transistors, resistors and capacitors) built on a small silicon chip.
The third generation computer use SSI (Small Scale Integration) and MSI (Medium
Scale Integration) circuits for internal operations.
Characteristics: 1. Using ICs proved to be highly reliable, relatively inexpensive and
faster. 2. Less human labor was required at assembly stage. 3. Operation speed
increased beyond nanoseconds. 4. Computers became portable. They were smaller
in size but had high memory. 5. The computer used programming languages such
as Pascal and FORTRAN.
Example: IBM 360 series, IBM 370 series, ICL 1900 series, ICL 2900, UNIVAC 9000
THIRD GENERATION (1963 1971)
SECOND GENERATION (1956-1963)
The fourth generation computer use LSI (large Scale Integration) and VLSI
(Very large Scale Integration) circuits for internal operations. VLSI has squeezed
hundreds of LSI (1000 transistors) onto a single chip.
Characteristics: 1. Highly accurate and totally reliable. 2. Operation speed increased
beyond Picoseconds and MIPS (Millions of Instruction per Seconds) 3. This chip
reduced the physical size of the computer and increased their power. 4. Magnetic
and optical storage devices.
Examples: IBM PC, Apple/ Macintosh, Wang Laser, Letron etc.
The fifth generation computer will use AI (Artificial Intelligence) and be based on
advances in silicon technology, i.e. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) termed as superconductor or bio- chips. Scientists are now at work on these computers.
Characteristics: 1. They will be able to understand natural language, speak
command, capacity to see their surrounding and will have thinking power called
Artificial Intelligence (AI). 2. In contrast to present DIPS/LIPS (Data/Logic Information
Processing System), the 5th generation computer will have KIPS (knowledge
Information Processing System) 3. It will support parallel processing in full fledge.
Examples: There are different programs under way to develop fifth generation
computer. ICOT program in Japan. MCC and DARPA project of USA. Alvey
project of UK. The famous 5th generation computer is fictional HAL9000.
The Colossus machines were electronic computing devices used by British code
breakers to read encrypted German messages during World War II. These were the
world first programmable (if not fully)digital electronic computing devices. Colossus
used state-of-the-art vacuum-tubes (thermionic valves), thyratrons and
photomultipliers to optically read a paper tape and then applied a programmable
logical function to every character, counting how often this function
returned "true". Although machines with many valves were known to have high
failure rates, it was recognized that valve failures occurred most frequently with the
current surge at power on, so the Colossus machines, once turned on, were never
powered down unless they malfunctioned.
FIFTH GENERATION (FUTURE GENERATION)
COLOSSUS MACHINE

FOURTH GENERATION (1971-PRESENT)

Fig: Colossus Computer
International Business Machines Corporation (known as IBM or Big Blue) is
a multinational computer technology and consulting corporation headquartered in
Armonk, New York, USA. The company is one of the few information technology
companies with a continuous history dating back to the 19th century. IBM
manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and offers infrastructure
services, hosting services, and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe
computers to nanotechnology.
The company which became IBM was founded in 1888 as the Tabulating Machine
Company by Herman Hollerith, in Broome County, NY. It was incorporated as
Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (CTR) on June 16, 1911, and was listed
on the New York Stock Exchange in 1916. IBM adopted its current name in 1924,
when it became a Fortune 500 company.
IBM has been known through most of its recent history as the world's largest
computer company, but in 2007 it fell to second place behind Hewlett Packard. IBM
holds more patents than any other US based technology company. It has engineers
and consultants in over 170 countries and IBM Research has eight laboratories
worldwide. IBM employees have earned three Nobel Prizes, four Turing Awards, five
National Medals of Technology, and five National Medals of Science. As a chip
maker, IBM is among the Worldwide Top 20 Semiconductor Sales Leaders.
Turing machines are extremely basic abstract symbol-manipulating devices which,
despite their simplicity, can be adapted to simulate the logic of any computer that
could possibly be constructed. They were described in 1936 by Alan Turing. Though
they were intended to be technically feasible, Turing machines were not meant to
be a practical computing technology, but a thought experiment about the limits of
mechanical computation; thus they were not actually constructed.
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINE
TURING MACHINE
In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon
chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor
devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface
of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.
The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-Scale
Integration" (SSI), they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens.
The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s,
introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called
"Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI).
Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-Scale
Integration" (LSI) in the mid1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.
The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing
through the present, was "Very Large-Scale Integration" (VLSI). This could be said to
start with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues
beyond several hundred million transistors as of 2007.
To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "UltraLarge Scale Integration" was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million
transistors.

A microprocessor is a programmable digital electronic component that incorporates

the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single semiconducting
integrated circuit (IC). The microprocessor was born by reducing the word size of the
CPU from 32 bits to 4 bits, so that the transistors of its logic circuits would fit onto a
single part. One or more microprocessors typically serve as the CPU in a computer
system, embedded system, or handheld device.
Computer System is a group of physical parts that are integrated to achieve
the objectives. A complete computer system consists of 4 parts: hardware,
software, people, and data.
A computer system needs to do the following operations: Input: i.e. to accept the
data/instructions from users. Process: i.e. to process the data. Storage: i.e. to
store or holds the data. Output: i.e. to provide the final result to users.
SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI, ULSI
MICROPROCESSOR
COMPUTER SYSTEM
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Secondary Memory
CPU ALU Input Unit Output Unit
Primary Memory
This cycle of operation of a computer is referred as Input-Process-Output or IPO
cycle.
Every computer is constructed by combining various parts. All these parts work in
an organized way to perform calculations, organize data, and communicate with
other computer systems. The design, arrangement, construction or organization of
the different parts of a computer system is called as computer architecture.
Computer system architecture (Anatomy) is concerned with the structure of
computer. In other words, the style of construction & organization of many parts of
the computer system is called as computer architecture. Computer System
Architecture consists of the various components such as: Input Unit Central
Processing Unit (CPU) Memory Unit (MU) Output Unit
Fig: Block diagram of computer system architecture
Hardware refers to all the physical parts that make up a computer. That is,
all the electric, electronic, and mechanical devices of the computer are hardware.
Examples of hardware are keyboard, mouse, monitor, and printer. So, hardware is
those parts of the computer, which we can touch. Software is a set of electronic
instructions that make computer perform tasks. In other words, software tells the
hardware what to do. Without software, hardware is useless. Hardware needs
instructions to process data into information. Those instructions are supplied from
software.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Software is also referred to as a set of program. Computer uses varieties of
programs. Some programs are developed for computers own use and internal
maintenance. Other types of programs are used for calculating and processing data.
Input means data or instructions given to the computer. Similarly, input unit refers
to the part of the computer, which supplies input. Every computer needs input to
work or do a task. Computers are machines and do not understand human
language. So, inputs must be given in the form, which the computer understands.

That is, inputs must be given in the machine language (binary code). This is
achieved through the input unit.
The input unit allows user to enter data and instructions into a computer. Input unit
is also responsible to convert data and instructions from human-readable form to
machine code. Hardware, which is used to send input to the computer is called input
device. Varieties of input devices are used for sending inputs. Keyboard, mouse,
joystick, and microphone are the most commonly used input devices.
Functions of the input unit can be summarized as followings: Provides users
facility to send data and instructions. Converts data and instructions from humanreadable from to machine code. Supplies data and instructions to the computers
storage unit for processing.
The procedure that converts raw data into useful information is called
processing. In the computer, processing is done by central processing unit (CPU).
CPU is perhaps the most vital part of the computer. It is often regarded as brain of
the computer. It is because CPU performs computers entire work of calculating and
processing. In personal computer (PC), this job is done by microprocessor.
In addition to the processing, the CPU also controls all other units of the computer. It
accepts inputs from input device, keep them into memory, processes them, and
send outputs to the output device.
The CPU is made up of three units. They are: a. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) b.
Memory Unit (MU) c. Control Unit (CU)
a. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is the part of the
CPU, where all the processing jobs are performed. As the name suggests, two types
of operations are done inside the ALU arithmetic operation and logical operation.
Arithmetic operation means calculations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division on data. Similarly, logical operation means comparison of data like
equal to, greater than, less than, and not equal.
2. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
1. INPUT UNIT
All the operations in the ALU are done under directions of the control unit. Once
data enter into memory, the data necessary for processing are transferred into the
ALU. When processing completes, the data is again transferred back into the
memory unit. This transfer of data from the memory unit to the ALU and vice-versa
is also done under the directions of the control unit.
Main functions of the ALU are given below. Carries out arithmetic operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Performs logical operations
such as comparison among data (equal to, greater than, less than and not equal to).
Works under the direction of the control unit.
b. Control Unit (CU) Control unit is the most vital part of the CPU. It reads every
instruction stored into the memory. Thereafter, it issues control signals necessary to
execute the instruction. The control unit, actually, ensures that every instruction is
read, understood, and executed in sequence.
The CU coordinates and controls all the parts of the computer. It is the nerve center
of the computer. It coordinates and controls the interpretation, flow and
manipulation of all data and information. It also controls the flow of data from input
devices to memory and from memory to output device.
Main functions of the Control Unit are as here under: Receives inputs send by
input device, and store them into memory unit. Bring instruction from the
memory unit, and decode the instruction (interpret what the instruction is saying).

 Controls movement of data in and out of the ALU. Directs the ALU to process
data. Control the movement of data and instruction in and out of the memory
unit. Controls movement of processed data (information) to output device.
Directs output device to produce information. Directs and controls reading and
writing of data on storage unit.
In computer, data moves between RAM and the CPU frequently. In fact, RAM is very
much slower than the CPU. Hence, moving data between RAM and the CPU is a time
consuming process. It makes the CPU often idle and waiting for data. A solution to
this problem is a special type of memory called cache memory (pronounced cash).
CACHE MEMORY
Main Memory
Cache Memory
CPU
The cache memory (also called RAM cache) exists between RAM and the CPU. A
Cache memory is a high-speed memory placed in between central processing unit
(CPU) and RAM to increase the speed of processing. The speed of processor is faster
than the RAM; hence the cache memory is used in between CPU and main memory
(RAM) so that the speed of operation of main memory and cache memory together
can meet the speed requirement of the high speed CPU.
The cache memory is very small, expensive and has high speed. Todays PCs have
256 KB, 512 KB or even 1024 KB cache memory. Cache memory is generally built
directly into the microprocessor chip. Actually, the cache memory stores only a few
and frequently used data and instructions. When the CPU needs data, it first
searches in the cache memory. If the data is not there, it searches RAM. This helps
the CPU to work faster and increase processing speed. Below is the figure that
shows how the cache memory works with the CPU and the main memory (RAM).
Fig: Use of cache memory
Registers are primarily used to store data temporarily during the execution of a
program. They are used as temporary memory locations in the sense that the
information or data is held in them only for as long as it is necessary for one
instruction. Registers can be of different sizes & capacities.
Some registers are special purpose registers and some are general-purpose
registers. General purpose registers store data and intermediate results during the
execution of a program. General- purpose registers are also accessible to
programmer through instructions. Special purpose registers like PC (Program
Counter) holds the address of the next instruction to be executed and SP (Stack
Pointer) holds the address of the first location of the stack.
Memory unit is the area, where the computer keeps programs, files, data, and
instructions. All these things are only stored temporarily. Memory unit is built inside
the computer, so it is also known as internal memory.
The CPU needs data and instructions to operate the computer. These things must be
stored in an area somewhere inside the computer. When data and programs are not
in use, they must be kept permanently in another safe area. In computer, all these
areas are called memory. Therefore, memory is the area in the computer, which
holds data, instructions or programs.
As input unit sends data or instructions, the computer at first keeps them into the
memory unit. When the computer completes processing of data, it again keeps
them into memory unit. When a user launches a program, it is also loaded into and

run from memory unit. Thus memory unit is a space, which is allocated for
temporary storage of data and programs. Memory is a part of computer (device)
that is used to store data as well as instructions (programs). Physically, memory
consists of chips either on the motherboard or on a small circuit board attached to
the motherboard.
There are mainly two types of memory: Primary Memory and Secondary Memory.
Primary Memory: Primary memory is also called main memory. Primary memories
are made up of semiconductor materials and consist of large number of 8-bit
registers, arranged in a sequence (lines). A register can store eight binary bits.
Primary memory is of two types: Read Only Memory (ROM) Random Access
Memory (RAM)
REGISTERS
3. MEMORY UNIT (MU)
Secondary Memory: Secondary memory is also called secondary storage, auxiliary
storage, mass storage or, simply storage. It holds large volume of data, programs,
information and games for future uses. Secondary memory is non-volatile. It can
keep data, programs, and information permanently even when electrical power is
removed from the computer.
The secondary memory is used to store data, information and programs
permanently. So, they are often referred as storage memory. The capacity of
secondary memory is larger than the main memory. The two main categories of
storage technology used today are magnetic storage and optical storage. The
common secondary or auxiliary memories used in computer are floppy disks, hard
disks and compact disk.
Followings are the functions of the memory unit: Stores data and instructions
sent from input units. Stores data and instructions before they undergo
processing (or store raw data). Stores data and instructions during their
processing. Stores data and instructions after their processing (or store useful
information). Loads and unloads programs run by users. Loads files opened by
users.
The read and write memory of a computer is known as RAM. The users of the
computer can write information into RAM and read information from RAM. The main
drawback of RAM memory is that it is a volatile memory, i.e., when the power goes
off, the contents of RAM gets erased. RAM is available in the form of a chip with
different memory capacity ranging, from 640 Kilobytes to 256 Megabytes.
Increasing RAM capacity improves system performance.
There are two types of RAM: Static RAM Dynamic RAM
Static RAM (SRAM) A static RAM retains stored data and programs as long as
power supply is on. Its cost is high. It is made up of flip flops and it stores the
bit as a voltage. Speed is high. Produce more heat. Larger than DRAM