List of Experiments

1. Determine Volumetric Flow rate using Hydraulic Bench .

2. Compute Reynolds Number and Study Laminar,Turbulent and Transition flow using
Osborne Reynolds apparatus.
3. Determine Contraction coefficient, Velocity coefficients and discharge coefficient for an
orifice discharge.
4. Study of the impact of Jet against stationery objects, at different deflection angles.
5. Determine the Coefficient of Discharge for Rectangular notch. Compare actual discharge
with theoretical discharge using Discharge Coefficient Measurement Apparatus

6. Determine the hydrostatic Pressure using Hydrostatic Pressure apparatus.

7. To determine the discharge coefficient of the Venturi meter.
8. Demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem using Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration apparatus.
9. Study different flow patterns using Flow Visualization Apparatus.
10. Calculate the flow rate using venturi meter in the Flow Measurement Apparatus
11. Determine the Coefficient of Discharge for Vee notch. Compare actual discharge with
theoretical discharge using Discharge Coefficient Measurement Apparatus

12. Calculate the flow rate measurement by utilizing rotameter in the Flow Measurement
Apparatus.
13. Calculate the flow rate by using orifice meter in the Flow meter Measurement Apparatus.

Contents
1

Introduction to Hydraulic bench.......................................................................................... 7

1.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................... 7

1.2

General Description.......................................................................................................... 7

1.3

Specifications ................................................................................................................... 7

1.4

Operating Procedures ....................................................................................................... 8

1.4.1
1.5

General Shut-down Procedures ........................................................................................ 8

1.6

General Functions ............................................................................................................ 8

1.6.1

General Start-up Procedures ..................................................................................... 8

Determining Volumetric Flow rate using Hydraulic Bench ..................................... 8

1.7

Maintenance and Safety Precautions................................................................................ 9

1.8

Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 10

Osborne Reynolds Apparatus............................................................................................. 11

2.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................. 11

2.2

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 11

2.3

General Description........................................................................................................ 11

2.4

Theory ............................................................................................................................ 12

2.5

Pipe Flow Conditions ..................................................................................................... 12

2.5.1

Laminar Flow .......................................................................................................... 12

2.5.2

Transitional Flow .................................................................................................... 12

2.5.3

Turbulent Flow........................................................................................................ 12

2.6

Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 13

2.7

Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 14

2.8

Maintenance ................................................................................................................... 15

2.9

Observations andComments........................................................................................... 16

Determination of , for an orifice discharge ............................................... 17

3.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................. 17

3.2

General Description........................................................................................................ 17

3.3

Nozzles ........................................................................................................................... 18

3.4

Technical Data................................................................................................................ 18

3.5

Theory ............................................................................................................................ 19

3.5.1

Discharge through the orifice.................................................................................. 19

3.6

Test Procedures .............................................................................................................. 20

3.7

Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................. 20

2

3.8

Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 22

3.9

Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 23

Studying the impact of jet against stationery objects ....................................................... 24

4.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................. 24

4.2

Unit Description ............................................................................................................. 24

4.3

Calculation of Theoretical Jet Force .............................................................................. 24

4.3.1

Plate......................................................................................................................... 24

4.3.2

Hemisphere ............................................................................................................. 25

4.3.3

Slope ....................................................................................................................... 25

4.3.4

Cone ........................................................................................................................ 26

4.4

Comparison of the Four Bodies ..................................................................................... 26

4.5

Various Deflectors.......................................................................................................... 27

4.6

Theory ............................................................................................................................ 27

4.7

Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 27

4.8

Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 29

4.9

Observations Comments ................................................................................................ 30

Determine the coefficient of discharge for Rectangular notch ........................................ 31

5.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................. 31

5.2

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 31

5.3

Unit Description ............................................................................................................. 31

5.4

Theory ............................................................................................................................ 32

5.5

Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 32

5.6

Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 34

5.7

Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 35

Determination of hydrostatic pressure .............................................................................. 36

6.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................. 36

6.2

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 36

6.3

Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 36

6.3.1

Determining the Centre of pressure ........................................................................ 37

6.3.2

Determining the Resultant Force ............................................................................ 38

6.3.3

Balance of Moments ............................................................................................... 39

6.4

Calculations and Observations ....................................................................................... 40

6.5 .............................................................................................................................................. 40
6.7

Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 41

3

Determination of Coefficient of discharge venture meter ............................................... 42

7.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................. 42

7.2

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 42

7.3

General Description........................................................................................................ 42

7.3.1

Venturi .................................................................................................................... 42

7.3.2

Manometer .............................................................................................................. 42

7.3.3

Control valve........................................................................................................... 42

7.3.4

Connections............................................................................................................. 42

7.4

Unit Construction ........................................................................................................... 43

7.5

Theory ............................................................................................................................ 43

7.5.1

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 43

7.5.2

Venturi Meter .......................................................................................................... 43

7.5.3

The Venturi Tube .................................................................................................... 44

7.6

7.6.1

General Start-Up Procedures .................................................................................. 45

7.6.2

General Shut-Down Procedures .............................................................................. 45

7.6.3

Procedure 1 ............................................................................................................. 45

7.6.4

Procedure 2 ............................................................................................................. 46

7.7

Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................. 45

Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 46

7.7.1

Discharge Coefficient, Cd Determination ............................................................... 46

7.7.2

Flow Rate Measurement ......................................................................................... 47

7.8

Maintenance and Safety Precautions.............................................................................. 47

7.9

Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 48

Demonstration of Bernoullis Theorem ............................................................................. 49

8.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................. 49

8.2

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 49

8.3

Unit Construction ........................................................................................................... 49

8.4

Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 50

8.5

Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 51

8.6

Maintenance and Safety Precautions.............................................................................. 51

8.7

Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 52

Flow visualization Apparatus ............................................................................................. 53

9.1

Aim ................................................................................................................................. 53

9.2

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 53
4

9.3

Operations ...................................................................................................................... 53

9.3.1

Bleeding the unit ..................................................................................................... 53

9.3.2

Assembly of the cover plate .................................................................................... 54

9.3.3

Filling and injecting the dye ................................................................................... 54

9.4

Flow configuration Cylinder ....................................................................................... 54

9.4.1
9.5

Flow Configuration around an aero foil.................................................................. 55

Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 56

10 Determination of flow rate using Venturi meter .............................................................. 57

10.1 Aim ................................................................................................................................. 57
10.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 57
10.3 Part Identification ........................................................................................................... 57
10.4 Specification of dimensions ........................................................................................... 58
10.4.1

Venturi meter .......................................................................................................... 58

10.5 Theory ............................................................................................................................ 58

10.5.1

Venturi Meter .......................................................................................................... 58

10.6 Procedures ...................................................................................................................... 59

10.6.1

For Manometer........................................................................................................ 59

10.6.2

For Venturimeter ..................................................................................................... 60

10.7 Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 60

10.8 Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 61
11 Determination of coefficient of discharge for V-notch ..................................................... 62
11.1 Aim ................................................................................................................................. 62
11.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 62
11.3 Unit Description ............................................................................................................. 62
11.4 Theory ............................................................................................................................ 63
11.5 Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 63
11.6 Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 64
11.8 Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 65
12 Determination of flow rate using Rotameter .................................................................... 66
12.1 Aim ................................................................................................................................. 66
12.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 66
12.3 Part Identification ........................................................................................................... 66
12.4 Theory ............................................................................................................................ 67
12.4.1

Rotameter ................................................................................................................ 67
5

12.5 Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 67

12.5.1

For Manometer........................................................................................................ 67

12.6 Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 68

12.7 Observations and Comments .......................................................................................... 69
13 Determination of flow rate using Orifice meter ................................................................ 70
13.1 Aim ................................................................................................................................. 70
13.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 70
13.3 Part Identification ........................................................................................................... 70
13.4 Specification of dimensions ........................................................................................... 71
13.4.1

Orifice ..................................................................................................................... 71

13.5 Theory ............................................................................................................................ 71

13.5.1

Orifice Meter ........................................................................................................... 71

13.6 Procedures ...................................................................................................................... 72

13.6.1

For Manometer........................................................................................................ 72

13.6.2

For Orifice meters ................................................................................................... 72

13.7 Observations and Calculations ....................................................................................... 72

13.8

........................................................................................................................................ 74

1 Introduction to Hydraulic bench

1.1

Aim
Determine Volumetric Flow rate using Hydraulic Bench .

1.2

General Description
Water is stored in a sump tank in the lower part. A centrifugal pump is provided to draw
the water from the sump tank through a control valve to an outlet in the bed of the open
channel. After passing through testing unit, water is collected in the volumetric
measuring tank which is stepped to accommodate high and low flow rates. The
volumetric tank incorporates a stilling baffle and remote sight tube with calibrated
volumetric scale. A dump valve at the base of the tank returns water to the sump tank for
recycling. An overflow opening is incorporated on the stilling baffle to prevent
overflowing if the dump valve is left closed.

On/off Switch

Calibrated Volumetric Scale

Volumetric tank
Sump tank

Centrifugal Pump

Figure 1-1Hydraulic Bench

1.3

Specifications

a) Sump Tank
Material: Fiberglass
Volume: 90 Liters
7

b) Volumetric Tank
Material: Fiberglass
Volume: 50 Liters
c) Delivery Pump
Type: Centrifugal Pump
Material: Stainless Steel
Motor: 0.37kW
Head: 20 meters
1.4

Operating Procedures

1.4.1 General Start-up Procedures

1. Ensure that the Hydraulic Bench is placed on a leveled ground and lock the wheels.
2. Fill water into the sump tank of the Hydraulic Bench until it is filled to 90% of its
capacity.
3. Connect the water supply from Hydraulic Bench to any Fluid Mechanics equipment in
series using appropriate connector and hose.
4. Connect a drain hose to the testing equipment and direct into the volumetric tank.
5. Connect the Hydraulic Bench to the nearest single phase power supply and switch on the
main power supply.
6. Keep the flow control valve fully closed when you are going to switch on the centrifugal
pump.
7. Gradually open the flow control valve and allow the piping to fill with water until all the
bubbles are removed from the system.
1.5
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.6

General Shut-down Procedures

Switch off the pump first.
Fully close the flow control valve.
Switch off the main power supply.
Retain the water for next use.

General Functions

The Hydraulic Bench serves as a reservoir of water with a pump to supply water to the
testing equipmentat a controlled flow rate. It also provides a method of determining the
volumetric flow rate of water passing through the test equipment using stop watch.
1.6.1 Determining Volumetric Flow rate using Hydraulic Bench
The service module incorporates a molded volumetric measuring tank which is stepped to
accommodate low or high flow rates.
8

A remote sight gauge, consisting of a sight tube and scale, is connected to a tapping in the
base of the volumetric tank and gives an instantaneous indication of water level. The scale is
divided into two zones corresponding to the volume above and below the step in the tank. A
dump valve is installed in the base of the volumetric tank. In operation, the volumetric tank is
emptied by allowing the entrained water to return to the sump by opening the dump wall. When
test conditions have stabilized, retain the water in the tank. Stop watch is used to measure the
time taken by water to fill a certain volume in the volumetric tank. Low flow rates are measured
from the lower portion of the scale corresponding to the small volume beneath the step. Larger
flow rates are monitored on the upper scale corresponding to the main tank.
1.7

Maintenance and Safety Precautions

1.

It is important to drain all water from the volumetric tank when bench is not in use.

2.

Do not place any heavy object on the hydraulic bench.

3.

Clean and wipe the bench after each laboratory session.

4.

Conduct the experiment after having fully understanding of the unit and of
procedure.

1.8

Observations and Comments

10

2 Osborne Reynolds Apparatus

2.1

Aim
Compute Reynolds Number and Study Laminar,Turbulent and Transition flow
using Osborne Reynolds apparatus.

2.2

Introduction
The Osborne Reynolds demonstration apparatus has been designed for students to
learn the concepts oflaminar, transitional and turbulent flow. It consists of a transparent
header tank and flow visualization pipe. The header tank is provided with a diffuser and
stilling materials at the bottom to provide a constant head of water to be discharged
through a bell mouth entry to the flow visualization pipe. Flow through this pipe is
regulated using a control valve at the discharge end. The water flow rate through the pipe
can be measured using the volumetric tank (or volumetric cylinder). Velocity of the water
is therefore determined to calculate the Reynolds number. A dye injecting system is
installed on top of the header tank to make flow pattern visible in the pipe.

2.3

General Description

Dye reservoir

Dye injector

Bell mouth
Stilling tank

Water inlet valve

Water outlet valve

Figure 2-1Osborne Reynolds Demonstration Apparatus

11

The Osborne Reynolds Demonstration apparatus is equipped with a visualization tube

for students to observe the flow condition. The rocks inside the stilling tank are to calm the
inflow water so that there will not be any turbulence to interfere with the experiment. The
water inlet/outlet valve and dye injector are utilized to generate the required flow.
2.4

Theory

The Reynolds number is widely used dimensionless parameters in fluid mechanics.

Reynolds number = =
Re = Reynolds number
V = Fluid velocity, (m/s)
L = Characteristic length or diameter (m)
= Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
Reynolds number Re is independent of pressure.
2.5

Pipe Flow Conditions

For water flowing in pipe or circular conduits, L is the diameter of the pipe. For
Reynolds number less than 2300, the pipe flow will be laminar. For Reynolds number =
2300 the pipe flow will be considered a transitional flow. Turbulent flow occurs when
Reynolds number is above 2300. The viscosity of the fluid also determines the
characteristic of the flow becoming laminar or turbulent. Higher viscosity fluid does not
able to achieve a turbulent flow condition easily. The viscosity is a temperaturedependent
quantity.

2.5.1 Laminar Flow

Laminar flow denoted a steady flow condition where all streamlines remain
parallel to each other, there being no interaction (mixing) between shear planes. Under
this condition the dye observed will remain as a solid, straight and easily identifiable
component of flow.

2.5.2 Transitional Flow

Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow with turbulence in the
center of the pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behaves in
different manners in terms of their frictional energy loss while flowing, and have
different equations that predict their behavior.

2.5.3 Turbulent Flow

Turbulent flow denotes unsteady flow condition where streamlines interact
causing shear plane collapse and mixing of the fluid. In this condition the dye observed
will disperse in the water and mix with the water. The observed dye will not be
identifiable in this flow condition.

12

2.6
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Procedure

Lower the dye injector until it is seen in the glass tube.

Open the inlet valve and allow water to enter stilling tank.
Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant level.
Allow water to settle for a few minutes.
Open the flow control valve fractionally to let water flow through the visualizing tube.
Slowly adjust the dye control needle valve until a slow flow with dye injection is
achieved.
7. Regulate the water inlet and outlet valves until an identifiable dye line is achieved.
8. Measure the flow rate using volumetric method i.e. collect the water from the outlet
having dye in it in a volumetric tank and calculate the time with a stop watch to measure
the flow rate.
9. Repeat the experiment by regulating water inlet and outlet valve to produce different
flows.

13

2.7

Observations and Calculations

Sr. #

Discharge
(Liter)

Time (sec)

Flow rate Q
(Liter/Sec)

Flow Rate Q
(m3/sec)

Reynolds
Number

14

Figure 2-2Different Regimes

2.8

Maintenance
1. After each experiment, make sure that the liquids are drained off from the unit and
tubing.
2. Wipe off any spillage on the bench.
3. Drain the ink from the apparatus with water.

15

2.9

Observations andComments

16

Determination of , for an orifice discharge

3.1

Aim
Determine Contraction coefficient, Velocity coefficients and discharge coefficient
for an orifice discharge.

3.2

General Description
This equipment allows measurement of contraction,velocity coefficients and
discharge coefficient for an orifice discharge. It is to be used with HB100 Hydraulic
Bench (separately supplied). It consists of a removable clear acrylic cylinder with
adjustable constant head. Water is admitted to the cylinder via a stainless steel wire mesh
discharge head. An adjustable overflow allows various constant heads for the test. An
orifice is fitted at the bottom of the cylinder flush with the base plate. A traverse
assembly is provided below the cylinder. A wire and a Pitot tube are attached to this
assembly. The wire is to measure the jet diameter hence the Vena Contracta diameter and
the Pitot tube is to measure the jet velocity. The velocity head on Pitot tube and total head
due to tank water level are indicated on manometer tubes. The apparatus rests on
adjustable footings and a bulls eye level is provided. The apparatus has a hose with a
quick male coupling for connection to the Hydraulic Bench.

Static Head Manometer

Inlet
Pitot Head Manometer

Water Level Scale

Pitot Tube

Over flow pipe

Figure 3-1 Orifice Discharge Apparatus

17

3.3

Nozzles

Figure 3-2Different Types of Nozzles

3.4

Technical Data
Standard orifice: 8 mm diameter, sharp edge.
Traverse mechanism: Micrometer with 0.01 mm division.
Pitot tube diameter: 4.5mm

18

3.5

Theory

3.5.1 Discharge through the orifice

As the tank size is much larger than the orifice diameter the velocity of the water
in the tank in the direction of the orifice flow is very small and can be neglected.
The velocity of water slowly increases as it approaches the orifice from point 1 on the
water surface of the tank to point 2 which is at the smallest area of the jet. The water jet
will reduce its diameter after passing through the orifice. This is known as Vena
Contracta.Pitot head level can be adjusted to measure the velocity of the jet at the Vena
Contracta. Apply Bernoullis equation.
1 12
2 22
+
+ 1 =
+
+ 2 (1)
2
2
Where: p = Pressure, /2
V = Velocity, /
Z = Elevation,
= Specific weight of water, /3
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 / 2
Subscript 1 and 2 refer to point 1 and point 2 respectively.
Since 1 and 2 are equal to the atmospheric pressure. The theoretical velocity of jet at
Vena Contracta is obtained from equation (1).
22
0 + 0 + 1 = 0 +
+ 2
2
2, = 2(1 2 )
2, = 2
The actual velocity V2,act of the jet at Vena Contracta can be measured directly by a Pitot
tube. The velocity head from the Pitot tube is equal to the height H of water in the Pitot
tube, therefore,
2, = 2
The ratio of V2,actto V2,th is called Velocity Coefficient Cv of the orifice, then
=

2,
2

=
=
2,
2

The ratio of the cross section area Ac of the jet at Vena Contracta to the cross-sectional
area Ao of the orifice is called the Coefficient of Contraction Cc, then

2
=
=( )

0
do= Orifice diameter = 8mm
Ao= Orifice cross-sectional area, m2
19

dc= Diameter of jet at Vena Contracta, m

Ac= Cross-sectional area of jet at Vena Contracta, m2
Theoretical discharge through the orifice
= 2, = 2
Actual discharge through the orifice
= 2, = 2
The ratio of actual discharge of orifice to theoretical discharge is called the Coefficient of
Discharge Cd then:

2,
=
=
2,
3.6
1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9

10

Test Procedures
The objective of the experiment is to determine Cv, Cc and Cd at various heads H.
Place the apparatus on the Hydraulics Bench and connect the water supply from the
Hydraulics Bench to the apparatus.
Adjust the apparatus so that the tank is vertical.
Adjust the over flow tube to the required level by first loosening the screws underneath
the tank bottom in order to move the tube up or down to the required level and tighten
the screw.
Start the pump and slowly open the discharge valve to admit water to the tank until a
small and steady over flow is observed.
Record Ho and the flow rate by using the Hydraulics Bench measuring tank and stop
watch.
Swing the micrometer so that the Pitot tube is in line with the jet and at a distance below
the orifice approximately equal to the diameter of the orifice.
Slowly turn the micrometer knob until the wire starts touching the jet and record the
micrometer reading.
Turn the micrometer knob further and record the Pitot tube reading Hc.
Turn the micrometer knob until the wire start leaving the jet and again record the
micrometer reading. Diameter of the Vena Contracta is the difference between3.7 and 3.9
readings.
Repeat steps 3.3 to 3.9 at other overflow tube positions (different values of H).

3.7 Experimental Procedure

1. Adjust the micrometer in such a manner that distance between top of Pitot tube end and
orifice is equal to diameter of orifice.
2. Then fill up the tank with water up to required head by adjusting the head knob & to keep
the head constant adjust the drain knob and valve of hydraulic bench.
20

3. To measure the diameter of vena contract move the Pitot tube attached to micrometer
towards the water outlet from the orifice touch the outer end of Pitot tube with water out
and read the value on micrometer then move the micrometer such that its inner end touch
the water. To measure the diameter of vena contract subtract the value of pito tube
diameter (4.5mm) from value taken from micrometer.
4. Now move the pitot tube beneath the water discharging from orifice as shown in the
figure and calculate Hc. Head H can be measured directly on the tube.
5. Move the degaussing valve to its outer extent.
6. To measure the flow rate calculate the water in liters in hydraulic bench and the time
taken with a stopwatch.

Figure 3-3

21

3.8 Observations and Calculations

Sample: ________________
Flow Rate: ______________

Sr.
#

Diameter of jet
at vena contract
Dc(mm)

Static
head
H(mm)

Velocity
Head
Hc(mm)

Coefficient of
velocity
Cv

Coefficient of
contraction
Cc

Coefficient of
discharge
Cd

22

3.9

Observations and Comments

23

4 Studying the impact of jet against stationery objects

4.1

Aim
Study of the impact of Jet against stationery objects, at different deflection angles.

4.2

Unit Description
The unit is designed to investigate the impact of jet forces on stationary deflectors.The
force produced by a water jet is measured using a lever mechanism and loading
weights.The impact forces of the water jet are set via the flow rate. Water is supplied
from the hydraulic bench.

4.3

Calculation of Theoretical Jet Force

The theoretical jet force is calculated from the principle of linear momentum.The density
of the water is = 1000 /3

4.3.1 Plate

Figure 4-1Plate
= . . (1 2 )
If 2 = 0 then
= . . 1

24

4.3.2 Hemisphere

Figure 4-2Hemisphere

= . . (1 2 )
If 2 = 1 then
= 2. . 1

4.3.3 Slope

Figure 4-3Slope
= . . 1
=
Where = 45o
= . . 1 . 2

25

4.3.4 Cone

Figure 4-4Cone

= . . (1 2 )

2 = 1 .
Where = 45

2 = 2 . cos
= . . 1 . (1 + 2 )
4.4 Comparison of the Four Bodies
The four bodies used in this experiment are of different geometry. This is the reason, why the
energy of the water jet is used differently by each of the body. How large the extent of
utilization is, can be seen, for example, on the amount of water needed to raise a body against
the force F.

26

4.5

Various Deflectors

Figure 4-5Various Deflectors

4.6 Theory
Water turbines are widely used throughout the world to generate power. Water turbinessuch
as Peltonwheel with one or more water jets are directed tangentially onto its buckets that are
fastened to the rim of the turbine disc. The impact of the water on the vanes generates a torque
on the wheel, causing it to rotate and to develop power. Although the concept is essentially
simple, such turbines can generate considerable output at high efficiency. Power in excess of
100 MW, and hydraulic efficiencies greater than 95%, are not uncommon. It may be noted
that the Pelton wheel is best suited to conditions where the available head of water is great,
and the flow rate is comparatively small. For example, with a head of 100 m and a flow rate of
1 m3/s, a Pelton wheel running at some 250 rev/min could be used to develop about 900 kW.
The same water power would be available if the head were only 10 m and the flow were
10m3/s, but a different type of turbine would then be needed.
To predict the output of a Pelton wheel, and to determine its optimum rotational speed, we
need to understand how the deflection of the jet generates a force on the buckets, and how the
force is related to the rate of momentum flow in the jet. In this experiment, we measure the
force generated by a jet of water striking a flat plate or a hemispherical cup, and compare the
results with the computed momentum flow rate in the jet.
4.7 Procedure
1. Place the test set-up on the hydraulic bench so that the drain routes the water into the
channel.
2. Fit connecting hose between hydraulic and unit.
3. Assemble deflector (plate, hemisphere, slop or cone) for this, loose the 4 screws on the
cover and remove the cover.
4. Fit appropriate deflector on the threaded end of the rod, cover back the vessel & tighten
the 4-screws. Now the 3 adjusting screws are adjusted accordingly so that the deflector is
in line with the nozzle to avoid eccentric loading.

27

Figure 4-6
5. Now make sure that the defector is almost 10mm away from the nozzle before applying
any load with the help of spring and the plate.
6. Now switch on the hydraulic benchs pump let water impinge through the nozzle.
7. Adjust the valve of hydraulic bench so that the deflector moves upward within range of
10 to 30 mm when the deflector gets steady mark this position with the pointer.
8. Close drain chock) determine the volumetric flow.
9. This involves recording time t required to fill up the volumetric tank of hydraulic bench
from 20 to 30 liters.
10. Now add load on the plate and adjust the hydraulic benchs valve so that the previous
pointer position is achieved. (Note: By adding load the nozzle & deflector may touch).
11. Now determine the volumetric flow for loaded condition by following the same
procedure with the help of volumetric tank of hydraulic bench and stop watch.

Figure 4-7

28

4.8

Observations and Calculations

Sr. #

Flow rate V
Liter/sec

Velocity w1 m/s

Calculated
force Fth (N)

Measured force
F (N)

29

4.9

Observations Comments

30

5 Determine the coefficient of discharge for Rectangular

notch
5.1

Aim
Determine the Coefficient of Discharge for Rectangular notch. Compare actual discharge
with theoretical discharge using Discharge Coefficient Measurement Apparatus

5.2

Introduction
A weir may be defined as any regular obstruction in an open channel over which the flow
takes place. It is made of masonry or concrete. It is used for measuring the rate of flow of
water in rivers or streams.
More broadly a weir is an overflow structure extending across a stream or a channel and
normal to the direction of the flow. They are normally categorized by their shape as either
sharp-crested or broad-crested. This laboratory experiment focuses on sharp-crested weirs
only.

5.3

Unit Description

Scale

Rectangular weir

Hydraulic Bench

Figure 5-1Discharge Coefficient Measurement Apparatus for Different Notches

31

5.4 Theory
The theoretical discharge for the rectangular weir is given by:
2
Qth = . (2g)1/2 . B. H 3/2
3
Where

B = Breadth of rectangular notch

H = Height of flow over notch
g = Gravitational acceleration
To the contraction of the flow area downstream of the notch, the actual discharge Q is
considerably less and may be expressed as:
2
Qact = . . (2g)1/2 . B. H 3/2
3
Qact = Qth
Where Cd = the coefficient of discharge for the rectangular notch.

Figure 5-2Rectangular Weir

5.5 Procedure
1. Install the weir plate on the upstream side of the weir carrier and secure it using the
thumb nuts.
2. Position the hook and point gauge, mounted on the instrument carrier, on the side
channels adjacent to the weir plate.
3. Start the pump, and admit water to the channel by opening the flow control valve. Allow
the level to rise until water discharge over the weir plate. Close the flow control valve
and allow the water level to stabilize. Set the height gauge to a datum reading using the
top of hook.
4. Admit water to the channel and adjust the flow control valve to obtain heads H increasing
in steps of about 1cm.
32

5. For each flow rate allow conditions to become steady, measure and record H and take
readings of volume and time using the volumetric tank to determine the flow rate.
6. For each notch obtain five readings of H and Q.

33

5.6

Observations and Calculations

Sample Attached: _______________

Sr #

Time
(sec)

Qact
(m3/sec)

H
(mm)

Qtheo
(m3/sec)

Cd

34

5.7

Observations and Comments

35

6 Determination of hydrostatic pressure

6.1

Aim
Determine the hydrostatic Pressure using Hydrostatic Pressure apparatus.

6.2

Introduction
The effect of hydrostatic pressure is of major significance in many areas of engineering,
such as shipbuilding, the construction of dykes, weirs and locks, and in sanitary and
building services engineering.
With Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus,the correlation between the water level andthe
dependent side pressure can be investigated.The unit is of robust construction and can be
setup quickly. It is therefore highly suitable for everydayuse in schools and universities.
A transparent measuring vessel with mm scale and a scale with mm increments permits
precise water level and lever arm readings.

Scale

Scale

Measuring tank

Weight Hanger

Hydraulic Bench

Figure 6-1Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus

6.3

Procedure
First of all balance the equipment by adding 2 small hangers in the left hand side lever.
Now fill water in the apparatus. Add weights on both hangers to balance the apparatus.
36

Now proceed according to formulas given in the theory below and find out Hydrostatic
Pressure.
To verify that the Hydrostatic Pressure calculated is nearly exact, use the conservation of
moments law.

6.3.1 Determining the Centre of pressure

At a water level below the 100 mm, the height of the active surface changes with the
water level. If the water level is above 100mm, the height of the active surface is always
100 mm.

Figure 6-2
Meaning:
s - Water level
e - Distance of center of pressure D from planar center of force C of the active surface
ID - Distance to center of motion of the unit
For water level s < 100 mm
(Pressure has a triangular profile)

=
(1)
6

= 200
(2)
3
For water level s > 100 mm
(Pressure has a trapezoidal profile)

37

Figure 6-3
(100)2
12( 50)
= 150 +
=

(3)
(4)

6.3.2 Determining the Resultant Force

The resultant force corresponds to the hydrostatic pressure at the planar centre of force C
of the active surface. Thus, the height of water level s must again be differentiated:
Meaning:
Aact- Superficial content of active surface
b- Width of liquid vessel
pc- Hydrostatic pressure at planar centre of force
Measured values:
s - Water level reading
l - Lever arm of the force due to weight
FG - Force due to weight of the appended weights
Fp - Resultant force for hydrostat. Pressure on active surface:
For s < 100 mm
(Triangular profile)

= = . (5)
2

38

Figure 6-4
For s>100 mm
(Trapezoidal profile)
= ( 50) = 100.
The resultant force is produced as
=

(6)

(7)

6.3.3 Balance of Moments

Figure 6-5

39

Calculated variables:
FG- Appended weight
l - Lever arm of appended weight referred to centre of motion O
To check the theory, a balance of moments around the centre of motion O can be
established and checked:
() = 0:
6.4

Sr.

. = .

Calculations and Observations

Appended
weight
FG

Water
level
reading
s

Distance
to centre
of motion
e
of the unit

Hydrostatc
pressure
pc

ID

Superficial
content of
active
surface
Aact

Resultant
force for
hydrostat.
pressure
Fp

Balance
of
moments
Fp

40

6.5

Observations and Comments

41

7 Determination of Coefficient of discharge venture meter

7.1

Aim
To determine the discharge coefficient of the Venturi meter.

7.2 Introduction
Venturi Meterunit consists of a classical Venturi made of transparent acrylic. A series of wall
tapping allow measurement of the static pressure distribution along the converging duct.
These tapings are connected to a manometer bank incorporating with air bleed screw.
The Venturi Meter has been designed to be operated together with a basic hydraulic bench or
any water supply to study the characteristics of flow through both converging and diverging
sections. During the operation, water is fed through a hose connector. A control valve is
installed at the Venturi outlet for flow rate control. The venturi can be demonstrated as a
means of flow measurement and the discharge coefficient can be determined.
7.3

General Description
Please familiarize with the unit before operating the unit. The unit consists of the
followings.

7.3.1 Venturi
The venturi meter is made of transparent acrylic with the following specifications:
Throat diameter= 12-12.5 mm
Upstream Diameter= 26 mm
Designed Flow Rate= 20 LPM

7.3.2 Manometer
There are eight manometer tubes, each of length 300 mm, for static pressure measurement along
the venturi meter. The manometer tubes are connected to an air bleed screw for air release as
well as tubes pressurization.

7.3.3 Control valve

One control valve is installed at the venturi discharge section for flow rate control.

7.3.4 Connections
Hose connections are installed at both inlet and outlet. The venturi meter may be connected to
the system with one inch hose.

42

7.4

Unit Construction

Degassing valve

Manometer tubes

Scale

Manometer board

Venturimeter
Flow control valve

Union

Venture outlet connection

Venture inlet connection

Baseboard

Figure 7-1Set-up of Venturi Meter

7.5

Theory

7.5.1 Introduction
In engineering and industrial practice, the measurement of fluid flow variables and its
properties such as density, viscosity, pressure, velocity, flow rate, etc., is one of those
problems frequently encountered by engineers. It is therefore an essential for engineers to
be well equipped with knowledge of the fundamentals and existing methods of measuring
various fluid flow parameters. This apparatus is specially designed to obtain the flow rate
measurement using venturi meter.

7.5.2 Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi
tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure
below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and
lower its static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat isdeveloped in

43

this way. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the entrance
area and convert velocity head into pressure head.

Figure 7-2

7.5.3 The Venturi Tube

Assume incompressible flow and no frictional losses, from Bernoullis Equation
p1

v1
p
v
Z1 2 2 Z 2
2g

2g

(1)

Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, equation (1) becomes

p1 p 2

22

A
1 2
Z1 Z 2
2 g A1

(2)

Ideally,
A
Qi A2V2 A2 1 2
A1

1 / 2

p1 p 2

Z1 Z 2
2 g

1/ 2

(3)

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that given
by equation (3) because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between inlet and throat.
Therefore,
A
Qa C d A2 1 2
A1

1 2

p1 p 2

Z1 Z 2
2 g

12

(4)

In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined

discharge coefficient, Cd that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2 in this
apparatus, the discharge coefficient is determined as follow:
Q
Cd a
(5)
Qi
Discharge coefficient, Cd usually lies in the range between 0.6 and 0.99.

44

7.6

Experimental Procedure

7.6.1 General Start-Up Procedures

1. Fully close the water supply valve of hydraulic bench and fully open the control valve.
2. Ensure that the discharge hose is properly directed to the sump tank.
3. Turn on the pump and gradually open the water supply valve. At this point, you will see
water flowing into the venturi and discharge into the collection tank of hydraulic bench.
4. Proceed to fully open the water supply valve. When the flow in the pipe is steady and
there is no trapped bubble, start to close the control valve to reduce the flow to the
maximum measurable flow rate.
5. You will see that water level in the manometer tubes will begin to display different level
of water heights. If the water level in the manometer board is too low/high where it is out
of visible point, adjust the water level using the degassing valve. With the maximum
measurable flow rate, retain maximum readings on manometer. Reduce the water supply
head by adjusting the water supply valve if necessary.
6. At this point, slowly reduce the flow by controlling the flow control valve; you may close
this control valve totally.
7. You will begin to see that the water level in the manometer tubes turn into same height.
8. This level maybe at the lower or maybe at the higher end of the manometer board range.
(Take note that the pump from the hydraulic bench is at this time, still supplying water at
a certain pressure in the system).
9. Also check for Trapped Bubbles in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube. You need to
remove them from the system for better accuracy.

7.6.2 General Shut-Down Procedures

1. Close water supply valve and venturi control valve.
2. Turn off the water supply pump.
3. Drain off water from the unit when it is not in use.

7.6.3 Procedure 1
1. Perform the General Start-up Procedures.
2. Adjust the control valve to the maximum measurable flow rate of the venturi. This is
achieved when tube 1 and 3 give the maximum observable water head difference.
3. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method and
record the manometers reading.
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 with at least three decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
control valve.
5. Obtain the actual flow rate, Qa from the volumetric flow measurement method.
6. Calculate the ideal flow rate, Qi from the head difference between hA and hC using
Equation 3.
7. Plot Qa Vs Qi and finally obtain the discharge coefficient, Cd which is the slope.
45

7.6.4 Procedure 2
1. Perform the General Start-up Procedures.
2. Adjust the control valve to a high measurable flow rate.
3. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method and
record the manometers reading.
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi control
valve.
5. Calculate the venturi meter flow rate (refer to Equation 4) of each data by applying the
discharge coefficient obtained.
6. Compare the volumetric flow rate with venturi meter flow rate.
7.7

Observations and Calculations

7.7.1 Discharge Coefficient, Cd Determination

Qa
LPM

Water Head (mm)

hA

hB

hC

hD

hE

hF

hG

hH

Data Analysis
Throat Diameter, D3 (mm)
Inlet Diameter, D1 (mm)
Throat Area, At (m2)
Inlet Area, A (m2)
g (m/s2)
(kg/m3)

= 12-12.5
= 26.0
= 1.22 104
= 5.309E-04
= 9.81
= 1000

46

Qa

LPM hA-hC Qi
m

LPM

7.7.2 Flow Rate Measurement

Data Analysis
Cd
Throat Dia, D3 (mm)
Inlet Dia, D1 (mm)
Throat Area, At (m2)
Inlet Area, A (m2)
g (m/s2)
(kg/m3)

= _____
= 12-12.5
= 26.0
= 1.2272E-04
= 5.309E-04
= 9.81
= 1000

Qa
LPM

Qi
LPM

Cd

%Error

7.8 Maintenance and Safety Precautions

1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus
should be stored properly to prevent damage.
2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill, indicates that tapping or
connection of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle, disconnect the flexible
connection tube and blow through.
3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses.
4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles throughout the laboratory
session.
5. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.

47

7.9

Observations and Comments

48

8 Demonstration of Bernoullis Theorem

8.1

Aim

Demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem using Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration

apparatus.
8.2

Introduction

Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration apparatus consists of a classicalVenturi made of

clear acrylic. A series of wall tapings allow measurement of the staticpressure distribution along
the converging duct, while a total head tube is provided totraversealong the center line of the test
section. These tapings are connected to amanometer bank incorporating a manifold with air bleed
valve. Pressurization of themanometers is facilitated by a hand pump.
This unit has been designed to be used with a Hydraulics Bench for students to study
thecharacteristics of flow through both converging and diverging sections. During
theexperiment, water is fed through a hose connector and students may control the flow rateof
the water by adjusting a flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section.The venturi can be
demonstrated as a mean of flow measurement and the discharge coefficient can be determined.
This test section can be used to demonstrate thosecircumstances to which Bernoullis Theorem
may be applied as well as in othercircumstances where the theorem is not sufficient to describe
the fluid behavior.
8.3

Unit Construction

Manometer tubes

Degassing valve

Scale

Manometer board

Venturimeter
Union
Venture inlet connection

Flow control valve

Venture outlet connection
Baseboard

Figure 8-1Bernoullis Principle Demonstrator

49

8.4 Procedure
1. Check that all manometer tubes are properly connected to the corresponding pressure taps
and are air-bubble free.
2. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
3. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method.
4. Gently slide the hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to manometer H, so
that its end reaches the cross section of the Venturi tube at
a. Wait for some time and note down the readings from manometer H.
b. The reading shown by manometer H is the sum of the static head and velocity
heads, i.e. the total (or stagnation) head (h*), because the hypodermictube is held
against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero velocity).
c. The reading in manometer measures just the pressure head (hi) because it is
connected to the Venturi tube pressure tap, which does not obstruct the flow, thus
measuring the flow static pressure.
5. Repeat step 5 for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D, #E and #F).
6. Repeat step 3 to 6 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.
7. Calculate the velocity, ViB using the Bernoullis equation where;
= 2(8 )
8. Calculate the velocity, ViC using the continuity equation where

9. Determined the difference between two calculated velocities.

50

8.5

Observations and Calculations

Cross
Section

Using Bernoullis Equation

=
(mm)

=
(mm)

= 2( )
(m/sec)

Using equation of Continuity

= 4
(2 )

Difference

(m/sec)

(m/sec)

8.6 Maintenance and Safety Precautions

1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus
should be stored properly to prevent damage.
2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill, indicates that tapping or
connection of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle, disconnect the flexible
connection tube and blow through.
3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses.
4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles throughout the laboratory
session.
5. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.

51

8.7

Observations and Comments

52

9 Flow visualization Apparatus

9.1

Aim
Study different flow patterns using Flow Visualization Apparatus.

9.2

Introduction

The unit uses water as the flow medium. A water supply and drain is required for
operation of theunit" Otherwise it can be operated independently. A contrast medium (dye) is
injected through small nozzles into the flow area between two parallel glass plates. The glass
plates provide an excellent means of observing the flow configurations.
Various drag bodies can be placed in the area of flow. In addition, sources and sinks
can be simulated and illustrated using eight additional openings inthe flow area.

Contrast medium

Valves for sources

Nozzles for injection

Water supply
Water drain
Cell with sources/sinks

Valves for sinks

Figure 9-1Flow Visualization Apparatus.

9.3

Operations

9.3.1 Bleeding the unit

Before experiments can be carried out, all hoses and valves must be bled;

53

1) Open the cover plate and secure against tipping with the chains. The chains are attached
to the hook on the cover plate.
2) Shut discharge valve.
3) Open valves for sources and sinks.
4) Open supply valve and allow water to flow through the unit.
5) The lines and valves will be flushed by a strong flow of water.
6) Adjust the overflow of the weir so that the water level on the base plate would reach
approximately as high as the bottom of the cover plate (5 mm). If necessary the water
flow can be changed using the supply valve.

9.3.2 Assembly of the cover plate

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

If desired, insert a drag model and fasten to the base plate.

Slowly lower the cover plate.
Remove the chains from the hook, while holding the cover plate securely.
Ensure that no air bubbles have been trapped.
Repeat procedure if necessary. Adding a small amount of detergent may help avoid the
formation of bubbles.

9.3.3 Filling and injecting the dye

For good results, it is sufficient to dilute the dye to the ratio 1:5
1) Shut contrast medium valve.
2) Fill supply tank 2/3 full with diluted dye.
3) Open the contrast medium valve slightly and wait until dye flows from every injection
nozzle.
4) Install the distributing tube to the unit so that the injection nozzles are between the
cover plate and base plate.
9.4

Flow configuration Cylinder

Figure illustrates the circulation around the cylinder. It is apparent that the flow around
the body is smooth. The pattern of the streamlines is symmetrical and shows no turbulence or
stalling. The approximation of the streamlines indicates the areas with higher velocities.

Figure 9-2Cylinder
54

9.4.1 Flow Configuration around an aero foil

Figure clearly shows that the flow configuration is relatively small. However, the turbulence
will increase as the Reynolds number Re decreases:

Figure 9-3Aerofoil

55

9.5

Observations and Comments

56

10 Determination of flow rate using Venturi meter

10.1 Aim
Calculate the flow rate using venturi meter in the Flow Measurement Apparatus
10.2 Introduction
Flow Measurement Apparatus is designed to operate together with a basic
hydraulic bench or any water supply. It is to familiarize the students with typical methods
of flow measurement of an incompressible fluid.
The apparatus is able to demonstrate the flow measurement comparison by using
a venture device, orifice device and rotameter. The flow comparison can further be used
to compare against the flow measurement of the hydraulic bench which can be either by
Gravimeteric or Volumetric Method, depending on the type of hydraulics bench in use.

Degassing Valve

10.3 Part Identification

Rotameter

Manometer Tube

Discharge Valve

Water Supply

Orifice

Venturi Meter

Water Outlet

Figure 10-1Flow meter Measurement Apparatus

57

10.4 Specification of dimensions

10.4.1 Venturi meter

Figure 10-2Specification of the Venturi Meter

Tapping A = 26 mm
Tapping B = 21.6 mm
Tapping C = 16 mm
Tapping D = 20 mm
Tapping E = 22 mm
Tapping F = 26 mm
10.5 Theory

10.5.1 Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and a suitable differential pressure gauge.
The venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure
below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower
its static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is developed in this way. The
diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the entrance area and convert
velocity head into pressure head.

Figure 10-3Venturi Meter

58

Ideal flow rate can be calculated by given formula

1/2

1/2
2 2
1 2
= 2 2 = 2 [1 ( ) ]
[2 (
) + 1 2 ]
1

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less, because of
frictional effects and consequent head loss between inlet and throat. In metering practice, this
non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined coefficient, Cd that is
termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2 in this apparatus, Actual flow rate can be
calculated by given formula

2 2
= 2 2 = 2 [1 ( ) ]
1

1/2

1 2 1/2
[2 (
)]

Hence,
1/2

Where,
Cd
=
D2
=
D1
=
At
=
A
=
g
=

=
p1
=
p2
=

2
= [1 ( ) ]

[2 (

1 2 1/2
)]

Coefficient of discharge
Throat diameter = 16 mm
Inlet diameter = 26 mm
Throat area = 2.011 x 10-4 m2
Inlet area = 5.309 x 10-4 m2
9.81 m/s2
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
Inlet pressure (Pa)
Throat pressure (Pa)

10.6 Procedures

10.6.1 For Manometer

Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into
volumetric tank. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up
the pump supply from hydraulic bench. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the bench valve
to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate. By using the air bleed screw, adjust
water level in the manometer board. Retain maximum readings on manometers with the
maximum measurable flow rate. Note readings on manometers rotameter and measure flow rate.
Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing
both bench valve and discharge valve. To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system
static pressures, adjust bench and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels as
required.
59

10.6.2 For Venturimeter

To calculate the flow rate through venturi meter 1st of all note 4 to 5 values of manometer
at different flow rates now draw graph between ideal flow rate calculated by the formula and
flow rate calculated by volumetric method (which the help of measuring tank and stop watch).
The slope of the curve will give coefficient of discharge. Now the actual discharge through
venturimeter is calculated by multiplying ideal discharge and coefficient of discharge as
mentioned here.
10.7 Observations and Calculations
Sr. #
A

Sr. #

Manometer Reading (mm)

D
E
F

Flow rate calculated Using

Bernoullis Equation
(liter/min)
Venturi meter

Ideal Flow rate

Venturi meter

60

10.8 Observations and Comments

61

11 Determination of coefficient of discharge for V-notch

11.1 Aim
Determine the Coefficient of Discharge for Vee notch. Compare actual discharge with
theoretical dischargeusing Discharge Coefficient Measurement Apparatus

11.2 Introduction
A weir may be defined as any regular obstruction in an open channel over which the
flow takes place. It is made of masonry or concrete. It is used for measuring the rate of flow of
water in rivers or streams.
More broadly a weir is an overflow structure extending across a stream or a channel and
normal to the direction of the flow. They are normally categorized by their shape as either
sharp-crested or broad-crested. This laboratory experiment focuses on sharp-crested weirs
only.
11.3 Unit Description

Scale

Rectangular weir

Hydraulic Bench

Figure 11-1Discharge coefficient measurement apparatus for different notch

62

11.4 Theory
The theoretical discharge for the Vee notch is given by:
1
8
=
. (2)2 . tan(2) . 5/2
15
Where
H = Height of flow over notch
= Angle of Vee notch
g = Gravitational acceleration
Towards the contraction of the flow area downstream of the notch, the actual discharge Q is
considerably less and may be expressed as:

1
8
. (2)2 . tan(2) . 5/2
15
=
Where Cd : the coefficient of discharge for the Vee notch.

Figure 11-2Vee Weir

11.5 Procedure
1. Install the weir plate on the upstream side of the weir carrier and secure it using the
thumb nuts.
2. Position the hook and point gauge, mounted on the instrument carrier, on the side
channels adjacent to the weir plate.
3. Start the pump, and admit water to the channel by opening the flow control valve. Allow
the level to rise until water discharges over the weir plate. Close the flow control valve

63

and allow the water level to stabilize. Set the height gauge to a datum reading using the
top of hook.
4. Admit water to the channel and adjust the flow control valve to obtain heads H increasing
in steps of about 1cm.
5. For each flow rate allow conditions to become steady, measure and record H and take
readings of volume and time using the volumetric tank to determine the flow rate.
6. For each notch obtain five readings of H and Q.
11.6 Observations and Calculations
Sample Attached: _______________
Sr #

Time
(sec)

Qact
(m3/sec)

H
(mm)

Qtheo
(m3/sec)

Cd

64

11.8 Observations and Comments

65

12 Determination of flow rate using Rotameter

12.1 Aim
Calculate the flow rate measurement by utilizing rotameter in the Flow Measurement
Apparatus.
12.2 Introduction
Flow Measurement Apparatus is designed to operate together with a basic hydraulic
bench or any water supply. It is to familiarize the students with typical methods of flow
measurement of an incompressible fluid.
The apparatus is able to demonstrate the flow measurement comparison by using a
venturi device, orifice device and rotameter. The flow comparison can further be used to
compare against the flow measurement of the hydraulics bench which can be either by
Gravimeteric or Volumetric Method, depending on the type of hydraulics bench in use.

Degassing Valve

12.3 Part Identification

Rotameter

Manometer Tube

Discharge Valve

Water Supply

Orifice

Venturi Meter

Water Outlet

Figure 12-1Flow meter Measurement Apparatus

66

12.4 Theory

12.4.1 Rotameter
The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element.
Basically, a rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through which fluid flow
upward. Within the tube is placed a freely suspended float of pump-bob shape. When there is
no flow, the float rests on a stop at the bottom end. As flow commences, the float rises until
upward and buoyancy forces on it are balanced by its weight. The float rises only a short distance
if the rate of flow is small, and vice versa. The points of equilibrium can be noted as a function
of flow rate. With a well-calibrated marked glass tube, the level of the float becomes a direct
measure of flow rate.

Figure 12-2 Rotameter

12.5 Procedure

12.5.1 For Manometer

Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into volumetric
tank. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up the pump
supply from hydraulic bench. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened. When the
flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the bench valve to reduce
the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate. By using the air bleed screw, adjust water level
in the manometer board. Retain maximum readings on manometers with the maximum
measurable flow rate. Note readings on manometers and rotameter. Repeat the same procedure
for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing both bench valve and
discharge valve. To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static pressures, adjust
bench and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels as required.

67

12.6 Observations and Calculations

Sr. #
A

Sr. #

Rotameter Value
(liter/min)

Manometer Reading (mm)

D
E
F

Volume
(liter)

Time
(sec)

Flow rate
Q (liter/min)

Actual discharge = Cd x Ideal Discharge

68

12.7 Observations and Comments

69

13 Determination of flow rate using Orifice meter

13.1 Aim
Calculate the flow rate by using orifice meter in the Flow meter Measurement Apparatus.
13.2 Introduction
It is designed to operate together with a basic hydraulic bench or any water supply. It is to
familiarize the students with typical methods of flow measurement of an incompressible fluid.
The apparatus is able to demonstrate the flow measurement comparison by using a venturi
device, orifice device and rotameter. The flow comparison can further be used to compare
against the flow measurement of the hydraulics bench which can be either by Gravimeteric or
Volumetric Method, depending on the type of hydraulics bench in use.

Degassing Valve

13.3 Part Identification

Rotameter

Manometer Tube

Discharge Valve

Water Supply

Orifice

Venturi Meter

Water Outlet

Figure 13-1Flow meter Measurement Apparatus

70

13.4 Specification of dimensions

13.4.1 Orifice

Figure 13-2Specification of the Orifice Plate

Orifice upstream diameter (G) = 26 mm
Orifice diameter (H) = 16 mm
13.5 Theory

13.5.1 Orifice Meter

The orifice used as a measuring device in a pipeline consists of a concentric square-edged
circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe as shown in the
figure below.

Figure 13-3: Orifice Meter

Pressure connections for attaching separate pressure gauges are made at holes in the pipe
walls on both sides of the orifice plate. The downstream pressure tap is placed at the minimum
pressure position, which is assumed to be at the vena contracta. The center of the inlet pressure
tap is located between one-half and two pipe diameters from the upstream side of the orifice
plate; usually a distance of one pipe diameter is employed. Equation for the venturi meter can
also be applied to the orifice meter where

71

2 2
= 2 2 = 2 [1 ( ) ]
1

1/2

[2 (

1 2 1/2
)]

The coefficient of discharge, Cd in the case of the orifice meter will be different from that for the
case of a venturi meter.

Where,
Cd
D7
D8
At
A
(h7 h8)

=
=
=
=
=
=

2
= [1 ( ) ]

1/2

[2(7 8 )]1/2

Coefficient of discharge
Orifice diameter = 16 mm
Orifice upstream diameter = 26 mm
Orifice area = 2.011 x 10-4 m2
Orifice upstream area = 5.309 x 10-4 m2
Pressure difference across orifice (m)

13.6 Procedures

13.6.1 For Manometer

Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into
volumetric tank. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up
the pump supply from hydraulic bench. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the bench valve
to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate. By using the air bleed screw, adjust
water level in the manometer board. Retain maximum readings on manometers with the
maximum measurable flow rate. Note readings on manometers and measure flow rate. Repeat
the same procedure for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing both
bench valve and discharge valve. To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static
pressures, adjust bench and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels as required.

13.6.2 For Orifice meters

To calculate the flow rate through orifice meters 1st of all note 4 to 5 values of
manometer at different flow rates, draw graph b/w ideal flow rate calculated by the formula &
flow rate calculated by volumetric method (with the help of measuring tank and stop watch). The
slope of the curve will give coefficient of discharge. Now the actual discharge through orifice is
calculated by multiplying ideal discharge and coefficient of discharge

13.7 Observations and Calculations

72

Sr. #
A

Sr. #

Manometer Reading (mm)

D
E
F

Flow rate calculated Using

Bernoullis Equation
(liter/min)
Orifice

Ideal Flow rate

Orifice

73

13.8

74