Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
The main aim of Unit 38 is to present the issue of English for science, techonology, business and
administration, that is, scientific, technological, business and administrative English texts in terms
of structure and main features. Our aim is to offer a broad account of what these types of texts are
and why they are used for in both linguistic and pragmatic terms, that is, how language and textual
features are used to achieve the purpose of educating students to retain listening, reading, speaking,
writing, and translation skills for furture professions in the fields of science (medicine), technology,
business and economics. So, we shall divide our study in six main chapters.
In Chapter 2 we shall offer a theoretical framework for these types of texts since the concepts of
text and the fields of science, technology, business and administration are related to other key
notions which prove essential in the understanding of their analysis. So, in order to establish the
relationship between both notions, we shall review (1) a definition of text within the notion of text
linguistics and Discourse Analysis; then we shall approach (2) the notion of textuality regarding (a)
the seven standards of textuality and (b) the standard of intertextuality as the source for text
typology. At this point we shall relate the fields of science, technology, business and administration
to the notion of genre as an extensional definition of text type regarding the use of language for
specific purposes; and finally we shall locate (3) scientific, technological, business and
administrative English texts within the study of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Here we shall
offer (a) a definition of the term, (b) historical background and (c) current trends and future
directions so as to prepare the ground for the analysis of English for Science and Technology and
English for Business and Administration.
Chapter 3 will offer then an insightful analysis of English for Science and Technology (EST) in
terms of form, function and main uses, namely following morphological, phonological, syntactic,
semantic and pragmatic guidelines so as to get an overall view of its textual structure regarding
format, technique and content. In order to do so, we shall offer (1) a definition of EST regarding (a)
Scientific and Technical Writing and (b) main constraints. Then we shall analyse the writing style
of scientific and technological texts taking into account how their main constraints affect their
textual structure in terms of (2) types of EST texts from a pragmatic approach (a) regarding the
audience and (b) main purposes; and (3) textual features regarding (a) linguistic devices (content or
mechanics) so as to examine the style of EST texts (grammar, vocabulary), (b) nonlinguistic devices
(punctuation, layouts, indexes), and (c) the paralinguistic devices of English for Science and
Technology (illustrations, images, pictures, power point presentations).
Chapter 4 on English for Business and Economics (EBE) will be introduced in the same way as the
previous chapter on EST. Chapter 5 is devoted to present the main educational implications in
language teaching regarding argumentative texts and Chapter 6 will offer a conclusion to broadly
overview our present study. Finally, Chapter 7 will include all the bibliographical references used
in this study.
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SCIENTIFIC,
In Chapter 2 we shall offer a theoretical framework for these types of texts since the concepts of
text and the fields of science, technology, business and administration are related to other key
notions which prove essential in the understanding of their analysis. So, in order to establish the
relationship between both notions, we shall review (1) a definition of text within the notion of text
linguistics and Discourse Analysis; then we shall approach (2) the notion of textuality regarding (a)
the seven standards of textuality and (b) the standard of intertextuality as the source for text
typology. At this point we shall relate the fields of science, technology, business and administration
to the notion of genre as an extensional definition of text type regarding the use of language for
specific purposes; and finally we shall locate (3) scientific, technological, business and
administrative English texts within the study of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Here we shall
offer (a) a definition of the term, (b) historical background and (c) current trends and future
directions so as to prepare the ground for the analysis of English for Science and Technology and
English for Business and Administration.
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The notion of text linguistics, then, designates any work in language science devoted to the text as the
primary object of inquiry (Beaugrande & Dressler, 1988). In fact, many disciplines have approached the
study of texts, for instance, linguistics (from grammar, morphology and phonology), anthropology (different
speech acts in different cultures), psychology (speaker and hearer behaviour), sociology (the speaker and
listeners environment), stylistics (correctness, clarity, elegance, appropriateness, style), and for our purposes,
the fields of science, technology, business and administration so as to cope with the constant proliferation of
new products and techniques nowadays.
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development and use of text types, being classes of texts expected to have certain traits for certain
purposes.
Since text linguistics does not focus on literary texts only, linguists had to develop a great number
of concepts to account for variety in language use or for the use of language in specific situations
(i.e. laboratories, N.A.S.A., business meeting, banks). In fact, Esser (1991) defines text type as
language variation according to the use as opposed to variation according to user. Yet, traditional
guidelines distinguish, according to Werlich (1975), five main types: description, narration,
exposition, argumentation, and instruction.
These five types are conceived as an idealized norm of distinctive text structuring which serves as
a deep structural matrix of rules and elements for the encoder (Werlich, 1975). Werlichs ideal
types exist only as an abstract matrix in language users minds and are recognized because of three
features: the ideal type (prototypical nature of the text which exist only in the users mind), the text
form (the specific text type: the self-help manual, prescription comments), and the real manifest text
as language (format: sentences, paragraphs, chapters).
However, we find very often that large numbers of readers share the same names for a particular
type of text (narrative: novel, short story, tale). Hence they have a shared understanding of the
general purpose of a certain kind of text and a shared awareness of some of the formal text features
that one associates with certain kinds of texts. So, it is the vocabulary and text forms (format) of one
field which are used to rationalize and legitimize changes in another, so text types are subdivided in
accordance with multiple parameters (i.e. length, oral vs. written, fictional vs. non-fictional). It is
here that we find the concept of genre as a sub-category of text types.
Then, the concept of genre refers to a specific style of expressing yourself in writing when the
ideal types (narrative, argumentation, description, exposition, instruction and conversation) cannot
account for a given type of text (scientific, business letter). So, the term genre is often defined as
an analytic tool for those sub-categories or sub-classes which work by different criteria (form,
technique and content). In fact, nowadays, the concept of genre has to cope not only with new types
of documents but also with new ways of searching for, retrieving and conveying electronic
documents. Therefore, it is a dynamic issue to help deal with the novel circumstances and with the
development in the fields of science, technology, business and administration.
Hence, these sub-types of texts (known as genres) show differences with respect to the former
typology regarding, technique, content (or theme) and the form of the work. Thus, (1) techniques
refer to the functions of communication in a specific field (i.e. telephone conversation in business,
conversations between doctor-patient, a letter in administrative affairs, computer manuals); (2)
content refers to internal criteria on lexico-grammatical features (specific vocabulary, syntactic
structures, idiomatic expressions); and finally, (3) the form of the work refers to the surface level of
texts (format).
It is within this multiplicity of contexts in use and the specific features of a text regarding form and
function that the notion of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) comes into force. Then, we shall
approach this specific use of language from different time perspectives in a time line (past, present
and future) so as to prepare the ground for the analysis of English for Science and Technology and
English for Business and Administration. So, we shall offer (1) a definition of the term, (2) a brief
historical background and (3) current trends and future directions on ESP.
2.3.1. Definition.
On defining English for Specific Purposes (ESP), we must clarify first the exact meaning of the
word specific and distinguish between its use regarding language and purposes since special
language and specialized aims are two entirely different notions. On the one hand, the only
practical way in which we can understand the notion of special language is as a restricted repertoire
of words and expressions selected from the whole language because that restricted repertoire covers
every requirement within a well-defined context, task or vocation (Mackay & Mountford, 1978).
On the other hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose for which learners learn a language, not
the nature of the language they learn (1978). Therefore, the focus of the word specific in ESP
ought to be on the purpose for which learners learn and not on the specific jargon or registers they
learn.
And now, what is ESP? Some people described it as simply being the the teaching of English for
any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, were more precise, describing it as the
teaching of English used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or
professional purposes. Tony Dudley-Evans, co-editor of the ESP Journal2 , defined ESP as an
attitude of mind since it is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline nor does it have to
be aimed at a certain age group or ability range.
The ESP Journal is now a well-established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion called English
for Specific Purposes: An international journal whose development is reflected in the increasing number of
universities offering an MA in ESP (i.e. The University of Birmingham, Aston University in the UK, Aizu
University in Japan). In fact, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most
prominent areas of English Foreign Language teaching today.
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However, What is the difference between ESP and General English approach in language teaching
then? Hutchinson et al. (1987) answered again on saying that in theory nothing, in practice a great
deal, that is, it depends on the learners needs and purposes: educational or professional. Yet this
doesnt mean that ESP is useless with young students in secondary school settings. On the contrary,
it is, nowadays, the most required method to meet both the learners and the labor market needs.
Thus, in ESP teachers are expected to conduct interviews with specialists in the field, analyse the
language that is required in the profession or even conduct students needs analysis by using
General English approaches. Actually, they are interrelated since ma ny General English teachers
use the ESP approach on basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their own specialist
knowledge of using English for real communication.
Strevens (1988) originally identified four absolute and two variable characteristics. In contrast, DudleyEvans (1998) has improved this division substantially by removing the absolute characteristics that ESP has in
contrast with those of General English.
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added more variable characteristics which assert that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific
discipline and that is likely to be used with adult learners although it could be used with young
adults in a secondary school setting.
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means taken to achieve the end is very different indeed in terms of cognitive academic
proficiency vs. basic interpersonal skills.
3. English with specific topics.
4. Finally, in this type of ESP the emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. English with specific
topics is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs of, for instance,
scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or
working in foreign institutions. It is in fact an integral component of ESP courses or
programs which focus on situational language which is determined by the interpretation of
results from needs analysis of authentic language used in target workplace settings (i.e.
Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences: students simulation of a
conference, preparation of papers, reading, notetaking, writing; presentation of a business:
market research, pamphlets, creation of logos, websites, power point presentations, etc).
language is used in real communication. Hutchinson & Wate rs (1987) point out that one
significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and written English vary. In other words,
given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of English will change, but
this idea was taken one step further. If language in different situation varies, then tailoring
language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible.
Hence, in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English
for Science and Technology (EST) on the part of relevant figures such as Ewer and Latorre,
Swales, Selinker and Trimble who were defined as a few of the prominent descriptive EST
pioneers.
3. Finally, the focus on the learner also influenced the emergence of ESP although it is said to
have less to do with linguistics and everything to do with psychology. Rather than simply
focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which
learners acquire langauge and the differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners
were seen to employ different learning strategies, use different skills, enter with different
learning schemata, and be motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on
the learners needs became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate
linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these individual needs was
a natural extension of this thinking.
2.4. English for Science and Technology, and English for Business and Administration.
As stated above, when reviewing the main types of English for Specific Purposes, David Carter
(1983) identified three main types of ESP: English as a restricted language, English for Academic
and Occupational Purposes and finally, English with specific topics. Within the second type,
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English for Academic and Occupational Purposes, Hutchinson & Waters (1987) identified three
main branches in their Tree of ELT (English for Language Teaching): (1) English for Science and
Technology (EST), (2) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and (3) English for Social
Studies (ESS) where we shall include two sub-types: (a) English for Art and Design (EAD) and (b)
English for Legal Purposes (ELP).
For our purposes, we shall focus on the two first items: English for Science and Technology (EST)
and English for Business and Economics (EBE). As we may observe, the former accounts for the
fields of science and technology whereas the latter accounts for the fields of business and
admin istration (or economics), as it is expressed in the title. So, let us carry out an analysis of each
type of ESP in terms of form, function and main uses.
In addition, EST is defined as the scientific and technical writing which introduces the reader or
listener (student, professor, manager, engineer, scientist or technician) to the kinds of writing skills
you need in practically any technically oriented professional job. The study of scientific and
technical writing communications is not writing about a specific technical topic such as computers,
electronics, space or medicines, but about any scientific or technical topic. The term technical
refers to knowledge that is not widespread, that is more the territory of experts and specialists in a
particular scientific or technical area. Moreover, whe never you try to write or say anything about
these fields, you are engaged in scientific technical communications.
Hence, its relationship to Science and Technical Writing since writing is an essential skill for the
successful engineer and scientist. As an engineer or scientist, you cannot treat your writing in the
same way that you treat fluid mechanics or organic chemistry. Scientific writing is not a science;
rather, it is a craft. So, before you commit words to paper in an engineering or scientific document,
you must understand the subject matter that you are trying to communicate. Yet, even after you
have a general understanding of your subject, you still should not begin writing until you analyze
your writing constraints, which are those aspects of the writing that you do not control.
So, in next sections we shall analyse the writing style of scientific and technological texts taking
into account their main constraints. First, we shall approach EST texts in terms of types (regarding
the audience and main purposes from a pragmatic approach) and secondly, regarding their textual
structure in terms of content: grammar (linguistic approach), body movements (nonlinguistic
approach) and sounds and images (paralinguistic usage of English for Science and Technology).
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It may be oral or written and is aimed to convince the audience in a reasonable way of a universal
truth, idea or thesis, almost always questionable. The fact of being questionable brings about the
essence of description 4 : to present a number of data and concepts in a logical and progressive order
by showing cohesion between the different aspects of the theme (linking ideas between each
paragraph) for the audience to accept and feel interested in it. We namely identify two types of
structure: deductive and inductive.
(1) On the one hand, the deductive structure deals with an analytic structure in which the thesis
is placed at the beginning of the text. Here the encoder moves from the context to the text,
that is, the thesis is related to a general proposition (cause-effect) which in turn is related to
a particular one which serves as proof. The conclusion then is a logical number of
reasonings.
(2) The inductive structure deals with a synthetic structure in which the thesis is developed
progressively, as propositions that lead to a logical conclusion at the end of the text. In fact,
the structure is similar to the deductive type, but here the encoder moves to particular facts
to general abstractions as the basis of his/her conclusion.
Regarding the authors purpose, EST texts namely aim at classifying, illustrating (giving examples),
instructing, analysing and describing.
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paralinguistic ones (illustrations, images, pictures, power point presentations, music, mobile phone
melodies).
3.4.1.1. Cohesion.
Semantically speaking, the term cohesion concerns the ways in whic h the components of the
surface text (the actual words we hear or see) are mutually connected within a sequence of
utterances (Beaugrande & Dressler, 1988), that is, intra-text linking devices are connected to extratextual reference. The notion of cohesion is expressed through the stratal organization of language
which can be explained as a multiple coding system comprising three levels of coding common for
all text types: the semantic one (meanings), the lexicogrammatical (morphological forms, grammar
and vocabulary) and the phonological and orthographic one (expressions: sounding and writing).
Cohesion has been a most popular target for research, and it is well known its relation to the second
of the textuality standards, coherence. Since cohesive markers are important for the understanding
of EST texts, all speakers make extensive use of them, for example in order to enhance coherence,
but also for reasons of economy (e.g. articles, object pronouns). Since cohesion is expressed partly
through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary, we find two main types of cohesive
devices considered as general categories of cohesion: grammatical cohesion (substitution, ellipsis,
conjunction, reference) and lexical cohesion (reiteration, collocation) by means of grammatical
categories such as adjectives, nouns, process verbs, connectors and so on.
1. Grammatical cohesion.
Thus the concept of cohesion accounts for the essential semantic relations in EST texts:
substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and reference. Note that these items make reference to the
terms anaphora and cataphora, connectors and deixis, quite frequent in this type of texts. It is
relevant to mention first that anaphora, cataphora and deixis will be examined under the
heading of reference, and connectors under the heading of conjunction.
The cohesive device of substitution is very similar to that of ellipsis. These two cohesive
relations are thought of as processes within the text: substitution as the replacement of one
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item by another so as not to repeat similar vocabulary (i.e. We are going to launch a new
mobile phone with different functions. Which ones?). This cohesive device can also
function under morphological shape with synonyms (i.e. a brand name, a product, a
invention, a virus); and ellipsis as the omission of an item (i.e. Do think it will be
successful? Yes, I do).
The reference type of grammatical cohesion is another well researched area within EST
texts. It is defined by Halliday & Hasan (1976) as the case where the information to be
retrieved is the referential meaning, the identity of the particular thing or class of things that
is being referred to; and the cohesion lies in the continuity of reference, whereby the same
thing enters into the discourse a second time. As we stated before, paragraph ideas are
linked and interrelated although they are in different paragraphs, so theme and rheme
(anaphora and cataphora) are always present in ESt texts (i.e. Have you seen my new
mobile? I think so. Is it the one you were using yesterday?). In addition, we must highlight
the universal use of the definite article the (i.e. the atom, the electronic machine).
Conjunction is a relevant relationship with respect to EST texts since connectors establish
the necessary links between ideas and thoughts within the text and, in particular, between
paragraphs (coordination: and, but, although, however, in addition). They indicate how the
subsequent sentence or clause should be linked to the preceding or the following sentence
or parts of sentence.
Connectors play an essential role in EST texts since they reflect cohesion within the
discourse and show a logical and progressive development of the discussion by establishing
different relationships between the presented ideas: summative (i.e. In addition, moreover),
restrictive (i.e. specially, in particular), causal (i.e. because, because of, due to), explanatory
(i.e. I see; yes, I know), previous reference (anaphora: As I said before), consequence (i.e.
Therefore, so, thus), condition (i.e. If, as long as, provided that), and conclusive (i.e. To end
up with, to conclude).
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sentences (i.e. It is said that); (g) passive sentences (i.e. The product was launched
last month); (h) and impersonal passive (i.e. The new mobile phone is said to be a
successful invention); and finally, (i) the use of nominal sentences with infinitives
(i.e. Having an operation is a difficult task); and finally, (j) specific formulae
(apositions: that is, that is to say, in other words).
2. Lexical cohesion.
From a lexical approach, we can determine specific and technical vocabulary which make EST
texts be so clear and precise. Hence this type of texts is namely characterized by
(1) the abundant use of technical vocabulary to refer to scientific and technological
concepts since there is a lexical-associative field closely related to the main
elements, concepts, laws and processes in science and technology. In fact, technical
writing is incorporated to EST by different means:
(2) Abstract terms which refer to principles, laws, concepts and processes related to
science (function, equation, derivation) and also, less concrete nouns which
represent elements from the referred reality (human body parts).
(3) The use of verbs which refer to transformation sources, states or processes (i.e. be,
exist, turn into, become). Note that the use of emotive verbs is forbidden (i.e. love,
like, hate).
(4) Abundant specifying adjectives, also called neuters, which aim at qualifying and
delimiting the mentioned nouns (direct, material, sinthetic). Note that we never use
emotive adjectives (i.e. horrible, great, disgusting, beautiful).
(5) A great number of connectors are used in order to link paragraphs (i.e. explicative,
summative, restrictive, opposition, conclusive, etc).
3. Graphological devices.
With respect to graphological resources, we are mainly dealing with format and therefore, the
way you place the type upon the page (the visual outcome the receiver gets) as we make
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reference to orthography and punctuation, as well as with headings, foot notes, tables of
contents and indexes. The arrangement of type upon the page is the choice of typeface, the
placement of headings, the method of citing references or the arrangement of information into
sections for longer documents (reports), among others. In engineering and science, there is no
universal format although there exist a great variety of them. These are much more detailed
than common ones (double spaced and front side of the paper only) so as to make the reading
process efficient. For instance, in a laboratory report, having all the information follow a
specific sequence makes it easier for readers to locate specific information such as the results.
Rather, companies, journals, and courses select formats to serve their particular audiences,
purposes and occasions. Thus, we may find formats for correspondence (letters and memos),
formal reports (laboratory reports, design reports, progress reports), and other documents
(proposals, instructions, journal articles, and presentations visuals). Moreover, there are general
guidelines for the typography, layouts, and reference citations of documents. But why are
formats in engineering and science so varied?
One reason is identity as a way to distinguish the look of one journal from other scientific
journals. This is achieved by means of using different types of typeface, writing the descriptive
summary in italics on the articles first page and writing the four columns for the articles text,
among others. These visual devices are a signature that helps readers identify the magazine
even when they dont see the masthead. To a lesser extent, companies and laboratories often
want their own look as well.
Some common differences are the hierarchy of headings and the listing of references in
the text. One reason that a format specifies a hierarchy for headings is so that readers
can understand what information in the document is primary and what information is
subordinate. The actual ways to represent these hierarchies vary considerably. Common
ways are different type sizes for the headings, different amounts of white space
surrounding the headings, different typestyles for the headings, and numbering schemes
for different order headings. In still other cases, such as the option of word processors,
the formats call for combinations of these variables.
Given the wide variety of format issues and the even wider variety of options for those
issues, these format guidelines cannot possibly present every format option that we may
encounter in engineering and science. Such a collection would be cumbersome and, in
the end, not particularly helpful. What is important is not that we learn every format
which exists, but that you realize a specified formats exist and that we may choose the
appropriate professional format we need for our situation.
On the other hand, orthography is related to a correct spelling, and in relation to this
term, Byrne (1979) states that the mastery of the writing system includes the ability to
spell. This device covers different word categories, but mainly, rules of suffixation,
prefixation, and addition of verbal markers as gerunds, past tenses or third person
singular in present tenses. The importance of correct spelling is highlighted when Byrne
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says that most of us are obliged to consult a dictionary from time to time so as not to be
indifferent to misspelling. Therefore, students are encouraged to acquire the habit of
consulting a dictionary in order to ensure an adequate mastery of spelling.
Finally, according to Quirk et al (1972) punctuation serves two main functions. Firstly,
the separation of successive units (such as sentences by periods, or items in a list by
commas), and secondly, the specification of language function (as when an apostrophe
indicates that an inflection is genitive). Moreover, punctuation is concerned with purely
visual devices, such as capital letters, full stops, commas, inverted commas, semicolons,
hyphens, brackets and the use of interrogative and exclamative marks. It is worth
noting that punctuation has never been standardised to the same extent as spelling, and
as a result, learners tend to overlook the relevance of punctuation when producing a
text.
In fact, as people speak, oral devices such as nodding, gestures, facial expressions or the way of
looking become essential in the communicative exchange since the physical outcome is very
important to establish communication. For instance, if we are to describe a new kind of prehistoric
animal, our sight will get an overall description just by looking at it. Yet, when writing a scientific
report, all this visual information must be substituted by a given enumeration of statements which
describe the finding in detail. Then when writing, we must present the physical outcome in an
appropriate format for our readers, where the format becomes essential in our presentation
(punctuation, layouts, indexes).
4. Phonological devices.
Finally, we shall also mention the role of phonology. Note that in oral interactions we face
another type of cohesive features since written devices are substituted by, first, a falling
intonation in statements so as to highlight the discourse referential function and, second, the
absence of exclamative and persuasive intonation.
3.4.1.2. Coherence.
Coherence is a purely semantic property of discourse, while cohesion is mainly concerned with
morpho-syntactic devices in discourse. A coherent text is a semantically connected, integrated
whole, expressing relations of closeness, time or location between its concepts and sentences. A
condition on this continuity of sense is that the connected concepts are also related in the real world
and that the speakers identify these relations through the structure, language and illustrations of the
text, that is, the style (Alley, 1996).
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In a coherent text, there are direct and indirect semantic referential links between lexical items in
and between sentences, which the reader must interpret. These markers are defined as all the
devices which are needed in writing in order to produce a text in which the sentences are coherently
organised so as to fulfil the writers communicative purpose: to ommunicate specific information
about a scientific or technical subject to a specific audience for a specific purpose (educational or
professional).
Hence we find a relevant coherent device in EST texts: the Griceans cooperative principles under
the form of four conversational maxims. The English language philosopher H. Paul Grice (1969)
termed the Cooperative Principle by making their messages conform to four general rules or
maxims where speakers/writers shape their utterances to be understood by readers/hearers. Thus,
the maxims are quality, quantity, relation and manner: first, quality envisages messages to be
truthful; quantity, by means of which messages should be as informative as is required, but not
more informative; relation, for messages to be relevant; and manner, where messages should be
clear, brief and orderly. These four maxims apply perfectly to scientific and technical reports which
must be clear, organized, informative and objective.
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(marketing, general secretarial skills, practical commercial English, computer science, international
business representative, journalism, tourism, international interpreter, etc). Thus, business language
will be integrated into general English conversation and hence, its relationship with dialogic and
written texts rega rding format (i.e. letters, faxes, reports).
On the other hand, Administrative English (or more techically defined English for Economics) is
quite similar to Business English since they share the same purposes. Yet, English for
Administrative purposes is aimed at improving the competence in speaking and writing English in a
professional and social context for administrative and management purposes in different fields (i.e.
language (linguistics), trade, services, professional, educational and health). These different fields
provide participants with the opportunity to actively work on everyday language for international
contacts, writing letters, faxes, e-mails and reports, for taking part in meetings, and making
presentations. Written and oral language feedback is given as and when necessary.
specific lexis (complaints, administrative English: letter, envelope, index, layout, etc). In
addition, we find non-linguistic (body movements) and paralinguistic resources (sound,
images) which prove essential in business and administrative affairs (shaking hands as a
sign of agreement and power point presentations with an advert budget, respectively).
3. Finally, the format of the document refers to the way you place the type upon the page
(the visual outcome the receiver gets) which proves crucial to write letters or present reports
in business affairs.
So, in next sections we shall analyse the writing style of scientific and technological texts taking
into account their main constraints. First, we shall approach EBE texts in terms of types (regarding
the audience and main purposes from a pragmatic approach) and secondly, regarding their textual
structure in terms of content: grammar (linguistic approach), body movements (nonlinguistic
approach) and sounds and images (paralinguistic usage of English for Business and Economics).
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4.4.1.1. Cohesion.
Semantically speaking, the term cohesion concerns the ways in which the components of the
surface text (the actual words we hear or see) are mutually connected within a sequence of
utterances (Beaugrande & Dressler, 1988), that is, intra-text linking devices are connected to extratextual reference: the semantic one (meanings), the lexicogrammatical (morphological forms,
grammar and vocabulary) , the graphological (format, orthography and punctuation) and the
phonological (intonation, rhythm).
1. Grammatical devices.
Thus the concept of cohesion accounts for the essential semantic relations in EBE texts (the
same as for EST texts): substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and reference (see previous notes on
it) in both oral and written texts. Yet, other grammatical devices involve the use of
a. specific morphology, as for the use of third person singular when addressing
individuals and also, f irst person plural when it has a collective meaning.
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b. On the other hand, we find syntactic structures, such as (a) brief sentences, (b) the
use of active voice rather than passive voice, (c) the use of nominal sentences with
infinitives (i.e. Having considered your proposition,...); and (d) specific formulae
(letters, bank accounts, translators, computers).
c. Combination of sentences in a brief way. Word order plays an important role in
readability. It is generally desirable to keep subject and verb together, and to make
sentences relatively brief.
d. Linking and punctuation are crucial for the reader to be able to establish the
relationships between ideas and structures of the text.
2. Lexical cohesion.
From a lexical approach, we can determine specific and technical vocabulary which make EBE
texts be so clear, simple, concise and positive . Hence this type of texts is namely characterized
by
a. the abundant use of positive vocabulary (where possible) so as to avoid negative
associations (i.e. blame, wrong, complaint, never, impossible, fault). Abstract terms
which refer to principles, laws, concepts and processes related to science (function,
equation, derivation) and also, less concrete nouns which represent elements from
the referred reality (human body parts).
b. The use of simple and concise words.
c. Specific formulae in letters, when writing headings, salutation, body, farewell and
signature.
3. Graphological devices.
With respect to graphological devices, we are mainly dealing with format, which is crucial in
writing letters or reports. It is the arrangement of type upon the page that makes us recognize
the business and administrative letters (in formal or informal style ): (1) the placing of address
on the top right-hand corner; (2) the date is immediately below the address; (3) the recipents
name and address on the left-hand side of the page, just below the date (in formal letters only);
(4) use Dear Sir/Madam only when you dont know the persons name in salutations; (5) begin
the letter on the left-hand side, next to the margin; (6) in a handw ritten letter each paragraph
must be indented (by starting a little way inside the margin); (7) the body must include the
purpose of the letter and information about it (complaint, greetings, acknowledgements,
appointment), for instance, Im writing to express my deep concern about... or I must draw
your attention to the fact that...; (8) a short final sentence must be written on a separate line
before the ending (i.e. Im looking forward to hearing from you); (9) the subscription, nearly
the end of the letter, must be Yours faithfully if you began with Dear Sir (unknown
addressee) or Yours sincerely is you began with Dear Mr X (formal letters). Yet, in informal
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letters, we use Yours, Best wishes or Love depending on how well we know the other
person; finally, (10) the signature must introduce the name of the writer and his full position in
the company should appear below the signature (i.e. Manager, Headmaster, Secretary).
On the other hand, orthography is related to a correct spelling, and in relation to this term,
Byrne (1979) states that the mastery of the writing system includes the ability to spell. This
device covers different word categories, but mainly, rules of suffixation, prefixation, and
addition of verbal markers as gerunds, past tenses or third person singular in present tenses. The
importance of correct spelling is highlighted when Byrne says that most of us are obliged to
consult a dictionary from time to time so as not to be indifferent to misspelling. Therefore,
students are encouraged to acquire the habit of consulting a dictionary in order to ensure an
adequate mastery of spelling .
Finally, according to Quirk et al (1972) punctuation serves two main functions. Firstly, the
separation of successive units (such as sentences by periods, or items in a list by commas), and
secondly, the specification of language function (as when an apostrophe indicates that an
inflection is genitive). Moreover, punctuation is concerned with purely visual devices, such as
capital letters, full stops, commas, inverted commas, semicolons, hyphens, brackets and the use
of interrogative and exclamative marks. It is worth noting that punctuation has never been
standardised to the same extent as spelling, and as a result, learners tend to overlook the
relevance of punctuation when producing a text.
4. Phonological devices.
Regarding the linguistic level in oral discourse, the phonological system is involved and is
concerned with the analysis of acoustic signals into a sequence of speech sounds, thus
consonants, vowels, and syllables. At the this level, we find certain prosodic elements which
provide us with information about the oral interaction. Thus, stress, rhythm and intonation.
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the righ primary stress on it.The concept of emphasis is closely related, then, to stress.
Emphasis is essential in an oral exchange of information as it gives the message a nonliteral meaning, providing foreign language students with a choice to highlight the
information they may consider important at the speaking act.
The third prosodic element is intonation which is characterized in general terms by the
rising and falling of voice during speech, depending on the type of utterance we may
produce. In case of statements, we will use falling intonation whereas in questions we
use rising intonation. As we will see, intonation and rhythm play an important role
when expressing attitudes and emotions.As a general rule, speakers use a normal
intonation when taking part in an oral interaction, but depending on the meaning the
speakers may convey, they will use a different tone within the utterance. The tone is
responsible for changes of meaning or for expressing special attitudes in the speaker,
such as enthusiasm, sadness, anger, or exasperation. Three types of intonation are
involved in a real situation. Thus, falling and rising tones, upper and lower range tones,
and wide and narrow range of tones. Respectively, they refer first, to certainty,
determination or confidence when we use falling tones in order to be conclusive
whereas indecision, doubt and uncertainty is expressed by means of rising tones to be
inconclusive. Secondly, excitement and animation on the part of the speaker is
expressed by upper range tones whereas an unanimated attitude corresponds to lower
ranges. Finally, in order to express emotional attitudes, we use a wide range of tone
whereas in order to be unemotive, we rather use a narrow range tone.
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4.4.1.2. Coherence.
Coherent markers are defined as all the devices which are needed in writing or speaking in order to
produce a text in which the sentences are coherently organised so as to fulfil the writers
communicative purpose (to do business, to complain, to convince consumers to buy a product). Yet,
since business and administrative affairs are often face-to-face or phone conversations, we shall
concentrate on the devices that work in oral interaction rather than in writing. Hence we may
establish three main coherent devices: the interlocutors cooperative principles under the form of
four conversational maxims, and the notions of turn-taking and adjacency pairs in conversational
analysis.
1. Grices cooperative principles.
The English language philosopher H. Paul Grice (1969) was not the first to recognize
that non-literal meanings posed a problem for theories of language use, but he was
among the first to explain the processes that allow speakers to convey, and addressees
to identify, communicative intentions that are expressed non-literally, as for him,
meaning is seen as a kind of intending, and the hearers or readers recognition that the
speaker or writer means something by x is part of the meaning of x.
His insight that the communicative use of language rests on a set of implicit
understandings among language users has had an important influence in both linguistics
and social psychology. In a set of influential papers, Grice (1957, 1969, 1975) argued
that conversation is an intrinsically cooperative endeavor. To communicate
participants will implicitly adhere to a set of conventions, collectively termed the
Cooperative Principle or Conversational Maxims, by making their messages conform
to four general rules or maxims where speakers shape their utterances to be understood
by hearers. Thus, the maxims are quality, quantity, relation and manner: first, quality
envisages messages to be truthful; quantity, by means of which messages should be as
informative as is required, but not more informative; relation, for messages to be
relevant; and manner, where messages should be clear, brief and orderly.
2. Conversational Analysis and Turn-Taking.
A main feature of conversations is that they tend to follow the convention of turn
taking. Simply, this is where one person waits for the other to finish his/her utterance
before contributing their own. This is as much a utilitarian convention as mere manners
- a conversation, given the aforementioned definition, would logically cease to take
place if the agents involved insisted on speaking even when it was plain that the other
was trying to contribute.
It is, additionally, comforting to know that the other person respects your opinions
enough not to continually interrupt you. The best example of this occurs in the Hous es
of Parliament - a supposed debating chamber which is often anything but, due to the
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failure of the members to observe the turn-taking code. Note, however, that a person
rarely explicitly states that they have finished their utterance and are now awaiting
yours. Intriguing exceptions to this are in two-way radios, where many social and
psychological cues are lacking, and thus it is more difficult for speakers to follow turntaking.
The potential for one to reply can be missed, deliberately or not, so that the first person
may contribute once more. Failure to realise this can result in an awkward pause or a
cacophany of competing voices in a large crowd.
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phone, from the words they use, the pauses, the tone and pronunciations of the words.
In short, we may be able to substitute these auditory cues for more conventional
physical cues, and then empathise with the other person. This way, we could be
visualising, or at least imagining with a fair degree of accuracy, how the person is
feeling, and gaining cues that way.
Yet, we cannot forget that speaking on the phone is an essential part of business life and may brind
advantages as well as disadvantages. On the one hand, we can see face -to-face the other interlocutor
and therefore establish an immediate and personal contact, which guarantees the possibility of
creating a positive (or negative) impression of efficiency, reliability and professionalism. On the
other hand, when we use the phone we do not handle nonlinguistic and paralinguistic parameters
which help face-to-face interaction (gestures, body movement, physical appearance, interjections ).
Actually, we may obtain the opposite effect when using the phone badly.
In terms of functional language, we may establish a sequence of functions inherent to a phone call,
such as greeting, identifying oneself, asking to speak to someone, explaining the purpose of the call,
sharing understanding (by means of paralinguistic signals), thanking or ending the call. We may
also distinguish between formal, informal and friendly registers and highlight the relevance of
maintaining clarity and politeness at all times so as to avoid misunderstandings (interrupting the
other person, imposing your ideas, etc). We must, however, realize how important these functions
are for students in their future professional and personal lives.
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5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
According to Hedge (2000), since the introduction of communicative approaches, the ability to
communicate effectively in English has become one of the main goals in European Language
Teaching. The Council of Europe (1998), in response to the need for international co-operation and
professional mobility among European countries, has recently published a document, Modern
languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference, in
which the acquisition of communicative and pragmatic competence in a second language is
emphasised. Both contributed strongly to the development of the communicative classroom,
increasing the emphasis on teaching the spoken and written language.
Similarly, the Spanish Educational System states (B.O.E. 2002) that there is a need for learning a
foreign language in order to communicate with other European countries, and a need for
emphasizing the role of a foreign language which gets relevance as a multilingual and multicultural
identity. Within scientific, technological, business and administrative contexts, getting a proficiency
level in a foreign language implies educational and professional reasons which justify the presence
of foreign languages in the curricula at different educational levels (i.e. Technical University,
Technical College, Graduate School).
It means to have access to other cultures and customs as well as to foster interpersonal relationships
which help individuals develop a due respect towards other countries, their native speakers and their
culture. This sociocultural framework allows learners to better understand their own language, and
therefore, their own culture. The European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish
Educational System within the framework of the Educational Reform, establishes a common
reference framework for the teaching of foreign languages, and claims for a progressive
development of communicative competence in a specific language. Students, then, are intended to
be able to carry out several communication tasks with specific communicative goals within specific
contexts. For our purposes, the learning of how to write and speak in scientific, technological,
business and administrative contexts is provided within the framework of social interaction,
personal, professional or educational fields.
Therefore, in order to develop the above mentioned communication tasks in our present educational
system, a communicative competence theory includes the following subcompetences. Firstly, the
linguistic competence (semantic, morphosyntactic and phonological). Secondly, the discourse
competence (language functions, speech acts, and conversations). Thirdly, the sociolinguistic
competence (social conventions, routines and formulaic speech, communicative intentions, and
registers among others). Fourthly, the strategic competence will be included as a subcompetence of
communicative competence within this educational framework. So far, students will make use of
this competence in a natural and systematic way in order to achieve the effectiveness of
communication through the different communication skills, thus, productive (oral and written
communication), receptive (oral and written comprehension within verbal and non-verbal codes),
and interactional.
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Although students recognize the importance of developing communicative skills in the target
language, they often have a passive attitude towards speaking in the classroom. Students generally
have fewer problems in taking short turns, since they are required to give minimal responses to
participate in a conversation with the teacher or classmates based on simple exchanges. They tend
to be reluctant, however, to expose themselves in the classroom, making it very difficult to get them
to speak at any length. The main concern derives from the problem of how to actually get learners
use (by speakin g and writing) English for Science, Technology, Business and Economics in a
meaningful way in the classroom.
But how? In class, we can do composition, technical writing ans science report sections. Thus
teaching skills are mainly based on a knowledge-building method used in discussing the reading
material (reading for gist or details, reading comprehension error checking), grammar (grammatical
structures, grammar exercises and error checking, brainstorming team discussion), vocabulary
(reviews, vocabulary buiding exercise and error checking); and listening through listening
comprehension exercises and error checking.
6. CONCLUSION.
This study has presented some of the most important aspects of writing and speaking in the world of
science, technology, business and administration, in other words, the kind of writing that scientists,
doctors, computer specialists, goverment officials, engineers, and other such people do as a part of
their regular work. To learn how to write effectively for the world of work, we have examined
common types of texts (EST and EBE) in terms of main types, main textual features and structure
and some techniques for producing professional business letters so as to learn how to write a
resume, informational abstracts and technical or science reports.
Moreover, to produce this type of discourse, students are expected to handle specific discourse,
syntax and structural devices. Thus discourse is the formal treatment of a subject in speech or
writing. Syntax is the application of words or phrases in developing sciences, and structural
structures are methods of organizing ideas and concepts in speech and writing.
There are hidden influences at work beneath the textual surface: these may be sociocultural, inter
and intratextual, or ecological. Our students are expected to discover these, and wherever necessary
apply them in further examination. The main aims that our currently educational system focuses on
are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate the study of cultural themes, as our students must be aware of
their current social reality within the European framework.
We may observe that dealing with EST and EBE texts is not just a linguistic matter to be developed
in the classroom setting; on the contrary, defending our personal point of view about a current issue
enables us to carry out everyday performances which prove essential in our current society, for
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instance, when writing formal and informal letters, complaints, advertising issues, conversation in
shops (seller-customer), and so on.
The role of EST and EBE texts in present society is emphasized by the increasing necessity of
learning a foreign language as we are now members of the European Community, and as such, we
need to communicate with other countries at oral and written levels by means of phone
conversations, business meetings, sales and writing business letters. Written patterns are given an
important role when language learners face the monumental task of acquiring not only new
vocabulary, syntactic patterns, and phonology, but also discourse competence, sociolinguistic
competence, strategic competence, and interactional competence.
To sum up, we may say that language is where culture impinges on form and where second
language speakers find their confidence threatened through the diversity of registers and text types,
in particular, scientific, technological, business and administrative texts that make up the first
language speakers day to day interaction. Language represents the deepest manifestation of a
culture, and peoples values systems, including those taken over from the group of which they are
part, play a substantial role in the way they use not only their first language but also subsequently
acquired ones.
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