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(1)
(2)
(3)
23.2
The first image in the left mirror is 5.00 ft behind the mirror, or 10.0 ft from the position of
the person.
The first image in the right mirror is located 10.0 ft behind the right mirror, but this location
is 25.0 ft from the left mirror. Thus, the second image in the left mirror is 25.0 ft behind the
mirror, or 30.0 ft from the person.
The first image in the left mirror serves as an object for the right mirror. It is located 20 ft in
front of the right mirror and forms an image 20 ft behind that mirror. This image then serves
as an object for, and forms an image in, the left mirror. The distance from this image to the
left mirror is 35.0 ft. The third image in the left mirror is, thus, 35.0 ft behind the mirror, or
40.0 ft from the person.
(See sketch.)
angle PRQ = angle P'RQ
(90 - = 90 - )
(2) angle PQR = angle P'QR
(both 90)
(3) side QR = side QR
Therefore, triangle PQR is congruent to
triangle P'QR (angle-side-angle)
Hence, the distance PQ = QP'
or, the image is as far behind the mirror as
the object is in front of the mirror.
(1)
Obje c t
P'
I m a ge
R
Mirr or
(a)
(b)
(c)
23.4
23.5
23.6
From the sign conventions for convex mirrors, we see that R = -3.00 cm
and f = -1.50 cm. Also, p = 10.0 cm. Thus,
1
1 1
1
1
23.0
q = f - p = -1.50 cm - 10.0 cm = -30.0 cm , and q = -1.30 cm.
q
-1.30 cm
M = - p = - 10.0 cm = +0.130.
R
For a concave mirror, both R and f are positive. Also, f = 2 = 10.0 cm.
1
1 1
The mirror equation gives:
q = f -p ,
pf
p(10.0 cm)
or q = p - f = p - (10.0 cm)
(40.0 cm)(10.0 cm)
(a) If p = 40.0 cm, q = (40.0 cm) - (10 cm) = 13.3 cm,
q
13.3 cm
M = - = - 40.0 cm = -0.333.
p
The image is 13.3 cm in front of the mirror, is real, and inverted.
(20.0 cm)(10.0 cm)
(b) If p = 20.0 cm, q = (20.0 cm) - (10 cm) = 20.0 cm,
q
20.0 cm
M = -p = - 20.0 cm = -1.00.
The image is 20 cm in front of the mirror, is real, and inverted.
(10.0 cm)(10.0 cm)
(c) If p = 10.0 cm, q = (10.0 cm) - (10.0 cm) = ,
No image is formed. The rays are reflected parallel to each other.
(a)
(b)
23.7
23.8
1
1 1
1
1
f = p + q = 1.00 cm - 10.0 cm , or f = 1.11 cm and
q
-10.0 cm
M = - p = - 1.00 cm = +10.0.
R = 2f = 2.22 cm.
1 1 1
1
1
q = f - p = -0.275 m - 10.0 m gives q = - 0.268 m.
q
-0.268
Thus, the image is virtual. M = - p = - 10.0 m = 0.0268
1
Since the image is projected on a screen, it is a real image. Therefore, q is positive. We have: f
1
1
1
1
+21
= p + q = 10.0 cm + 200 cm = 200 cm , and
f = +9.52 cm. Thus, because f is positive, we need a concave mirror.
q
200 cm
M = -p = -10.0 cm = -20.0.
We know that for a convex mirror R and f are negative, and we also are given that M = 1/2. M is
positive because convex mirrors only form erect virtual images of real objects. Therefore, M = q
1
p
1
1 1
1
-2
p = 2 , or q = - 2 . Thus, p = f - q = -20.0 cm - p , which gives: p = 20.0 cm.
The object should be 20.0 cm in front of the mirror.
23.10
Since we have a real object and want a magnified image, the mirror must be concave. (A convex
mirror forms diminished images of all real objects.) Since image is erect, it must be virtual. (All
real images formed by concave mirrors of real objects are inverted.)
Thus, q< 0, f > 0, and p = 10 cm.
h' 4.00 cm
q
M = h = 2.00 cm = + 2.00 = - p ,
Q = - 20.0 cm.
1
1
1
1
1
Thus, f = p + q = 10.0 cm + - 20.0 cm , or f = 20.0 cm, and R = 2f = 40.0 cm.
23.11
1 1
1
1
1
3.0
And, f = p + q = 3.0 cm - 7.5 cm = 15 cm , and f = 5.0 cm.
23.12
Realize that the nearer image (q = -10.0 cm) occurs when using the convex side of the hubcap.
Applying the mirror equation to both cases gives:
|R|
(concave side: f = 2 , q = - 30.0 cm):
1
1
2
2
1
1
(1 )
p + q = |R| , or |R| = p + -30.0
|R|
(convex side: f = - 2 , q = -10.0 cm):
1
1
2
2
1 1
(2)
p + q = - |R| , or |R| = -p - -10.0
2
1
1
(a) Equating equations (1) and (2) gives: p = 10.0 + 30.0 ,
or p = +15.0 cm.
Thus, his face is 15.0 cm in front of the hubcap.
(b) Using the above result (p = 15 cm) in equation (1) gives:
2
1
2
1
1
|R| = 60.0 cm.
|R| = 15.0 + -30.0 , or |R| = 30.0 cm , and
The radius of the hubcap is 60.0 cm
23.13
We know that R and f are positive for a concave mirror. Also, since a concave mirror only forms
magnified, erect images when the image is virtual, we know that q is negative.
q
Thus, M = 2, and M = - p = 2.0,
or q = -2.0(25 cm) = -50 cm.
1 1
1
1
1
1
Thus, f = p + q = 25 cm + -50 cm = 50 cm , and f = 50 cm.
23.14
R
A convex mirror has R and f negative. Thus, f = 2 = -5.00 cm. For a virtual image, q is negative.
q
1
p
Therefore, M = - p = 3 , and q = -3 .
23.15
1
1
1
1
1
f = p + q = 1.52 m + 0.180 m , or
p = 10.0 cm.
Now, to get an erect image which is twice the size of the object, we need:
q
M = - p = +2.00, so
q = -2.00p.
1
1
1
1
1
1
f
Thus,
+
=
becomes
= , or p = 2 .
p
q
f
p 2p
f
16.1 cm
Thus, p =
= 8.05 cm is the required object distance.
2
23.16
For a concave mirror, R and f are positive. Also, for an erect image M is positive. Therefore,
q
= -p = 4, or q = -4p.
1 1
1
1
1
1
3
40.0 cm = p - 4p = 4p , giving p = 30.0 cm.
f = p + q becomes:
23.17
For a convex mirror, R and f are negative. Since we have a real object, the image will be virtual
q
1
p
and erect. Thus, q is negative and the magnification is positive. M = -p = 2 , and q = -2
= - 5.00 cm.
1 1
1
1
1
1
Thus, f = p + q = 10.0 cm + -5.00 cm = - 10.0 cm , and
f = -10.0 cm.
But,
R = 2f. Therefore, the radius of curvature is R = -20.0 cm.
23.18 We know that R and f are positive for a concave mirror, and we are given that p = 30.0 cm, and M = 4.00. (M < 0 since the only magnified real images formed by a concave mirror of real objects are
q
inverted images.) Hence, M = - = -4.00, or q = 4p.
p
Since p = 30.0 cm,
q = 120 cm.
1 1
1
1
1
5
Thus, f = p + q = 30.0 cm + 120 cm = 120 cm , giving f = 24.0 cm,
and R = 2f = 48.0 cm.
23.19
(a)
(b)
23.20
23.21
In this case, both the object and the image are real. To form a real image of a real object, a
concave mirror must be used.
q
We are given q = + 5.0 m, and M = - p = - 5.0 (a concave mirror forms inverted real images,
hence the negative sign on the value of the magnification.) Therefore, q = 5p, and since we
know that
q = 5.0 m, we find that p = 1.0 m as the distance the object must be from the mirror.
We are given that q = -35.0 cm. The negative sign arises because we have a virtual image on the
same side of the boundary as is the object.
n1
1.50
p = - n q = -1.00 (-35.0 cm) = 52.5 cm. The benzene is 52.5 cm deep.
2
n2
1
q = - n p =-1.309 (50.0 cm) = -38.2 cm. Thus, the virtual image of the dust speck is 38.2 cm
1
(a)
n2
3
For a plane refracting surface, we have: q = - n p = -4 p.
1
23.23
We have R = -4.0 cm (center of curvature is on side light is coming from), and p = 4.0 cm. Thus,
n1
n2
n2 - n1
+
=
becomes:
p
q
R
1.5
1
1.0 - 1.5
This gives q = -4.0 cm. Note that the location of the
4.0 cm + q = -4.0 cm .
virtual image is at the same position as the object.
h'
h'
(1.5)(-4 cm)
n1 q
M = h = -n p gives: 2.5 mm = - (1.0)(4 cm) = 1.5, or h' = 3.8 mm.
2
n1
n2
n2 - n1
23.24 We use: p + q = R
.
1
1.50
0.50
(a) 20.0 cm + q = 8.0 cm
1
1.50
0.50
(b) 8.00 cm + q = 8.00 cm
1
1.50
0.50
(c) 4.00 cm + q = 8.00 cm
1
1.50
0.50
(d) 2.00 cm + q = 8.00 cm
23.25
23.26
gives
q = 120 cm.
gives
q = -24.0 cm.
gives
q = -8.00 cm.
gives
q = -3.43 cm.
n1
n2
n2 - n1
+
=
. But the object is at infinity, and q = 2R, so
p
q
R
n2
n2 - 1.00
, which gives: n2 = 2.00
2R =
R
n1
n2 n2 - n1
+
to find the apparent depth of the top and the bottom of the glass plate
p
q = R
first, then subtract to find the apparent thickness. Note that for a plane surface, R = , so we have:
n2
q = -n p.
1
First consider the bottom of the plate as the object and locate the image formed by refraction at the
glass-water boundary. Here, p = 8.00 cm,
1.333
n1 = 1.66, and n2 = 1.333, so q1b = - 1.66 (8.00 cm) = - 6.42 cm.
Use
Now use this image as the object for refraction at the water-air boundary. In this case, p = 12.0 cm
1.00
+ 6.42 cm = 18.42 cm, n1 = 1.333, and n2 = 1.0. Thus, q2b = - 1.333(18.42 cm) = -13.8 cm.
The bottom of the plate appears to be 13.8 cm below the water surface.
Now, locate the image formed of the top of the plate by refraction at the water-air boundary. Here
p = 12.0 cm, n1 = 1.333, and n2 = 1.00, so
1.00
q2t = - 1.333(12.0 cm) = -9.00 cm below the water surface and the apparent thickness of the
plate is:
t = q2b - q2t = 13.8 cm - 9.00 cm = 4.80 cm.
23.27
23.28
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
25.0 cm = 0.58R1 - 1.80 cm ,
23.29
(a)
23.30
(b)
(c)
23.31
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
23.32
1
1
1
p + q =f .
1
1 1
1
1
1
q = 40.0 cm.
q = f - p = 20.0 cm - 40.0 cm = 40.0 cm , or
q
40.0
M = - p = -40.0 = -1.00. (real, inverted, and 40.0 cm past the lens)
1
1 1
1
1
q = infinity.
q = f - p = 20.0 cm - 20.0 cm = 0, giving
No image is formed. (parallel rays emerge from the lens)
1
1 1
1
1
1
q = f - p = 20.0 cm - 10.0 cm = -20.0 cm , or q = -20.0 cm.
q
-20.0
M = -p = - 10.0 = 2.00. (erect, virtual, and 20.0 cm in front of lens)
1
1
1
1
1
(c)
q
-10.0 cm 1
M = -p = - 20.0 cm = 2
The image is virtual, erect, and 10 cm in front of the lens.
1
1 1
1
1
3
q = f - p = -20.0 cm - 10.0 cm = -20.0 cm , or q = -6.67 cm.
q
-6.67 cm
M = -p = - 10.0 cm = 0.667.
The image is virtual, erect, and 6.67 cm in front of the lens.
q
1
1 1
23.33 We want |M| = 1. Using M = - , and
+ = , we have:
p
q f
p
1
1
1
1
p - Mp = f , or p = f 1 - M .
1
(a) converging lens: p = (12.00 cm)1 - M .
If M = + 1,
p=0
(object against lens).
If M = -1,
p = 24.0 cm
1
(b) diverging lens: p = (-12.00 cm)1 - M .
If M = + 1,
p=0
(object against lens).
If M = -1,
p = -24.0 cm.
Note that in both cases, M approaches +1.00 only in the limit as p approaches zero. Note
also that in part (b), the object must be virtual to obtain M = -1.00.
23.34
We want M = + 2.00, so
1
1 1
p + q = f becomes:
23.35
q
M = -p = 2.00, or
q = -2.00 p.
1
1
1
p + -2.00p = + 15.0 cm , giving
p =+ 7.50 cm.
We must first realize that we are looking at an erect, magnified, virtual image. Thus, we have a
real object located inside the focal point of a converging lens. Thus,
p > 0, q < 0, and f > 0.
q
1
1 1
+ =
p
q f
pf
distance to get q = p - f . In this case, f = 10.0 cm and the object distance
can vary from a minimum of p = 10.2 cm to a maximum of p = 11.0 cm.
(11.0 cm)(10.0 cm)
When p = 11.0 cm, q = 11.0 cm - 10.0 cm = 110 cm. When p = 10.2 cm,
(10.2 cm)(10.0 cm)
q = 10.2 cm - 10.0 cm = 510 cm. Thus, the screen should be between
1.10 m and 5.10 m from the lens.
23.37
Given f = - 40.0 cm, and q = 30.0 cm. But for a real object, a diverging lens can only form
virtual images (q< 0). Therefore, q = - 30.0 cm.
1
1 1
1 1
p = f - q = -40.0 cm - -30.0 cm , and p = 120 cm.
The object should be 120 cm in front of lens.
q
-30.0 cm
1
M = -p = - 120 cm = + 4 .
p = 10 f.
1
1 1
- p = f - 10f , and
10
1
q = 9 f, or, the image is distance of 9 f outside the
23.39
For a virtual image, the image distance is negative and the magnification is positive (assuming a
real object).
q 1
p
Thus, M = - p = 3 , and
q=-3 .
1
1
1
1 3 1
So, p + q = f becomes p - p = f , or p = -2f.
23.40
23.41
1
1 1
1
1
p = 8.82 cm.
p = f - q = 12.5 cm - -30.0 cm , and
q
-30.0 cm
M = -p , = - 8.82 cm = +3.40 (image is erect since M > 0).
23.42
Let us consider the first lens. We find the image position and magnification as:
1
1
1
1
1
1
q1 = f1 - p1 = 15.0 cm - 30.0 cm = 30.0 cm , or q1 = 30.0 cm.
q1
30.0 cm
M1 = -p = -30.0 cm = -1.00.
1
Now consider the second lens. The image produced by the first lens becomes the object for this
second lens. Thus,
1
p2 = 40.0 cm - q1 = 40.0 cm - 30.0 cm = 10.0 cm. The thin lens equation then gives: q =
2
1
1
1
1
1
f2 - p2 = 15.0 cm - 10.0 cm = -30.0 cm , or q2 = -30.0 cm.
q2
-30.0 cm
M2 = -p = - 10.0 cm = 3.00.
2
The overall magnification M is: M = (M1)(M2) = (-1.00)(3.00) = -3.00.
23.43
1
The image formed by the diverging lens is the object for the converging lens. Thus, p2 = 30.0 cm q1 = 30.0 cm - (-10.0 cm) = 40.0 cm.
Also, since the emerging rays are parallel, q2 = .
1
1
1
For the converging lens: 40.0 cm + =
, gives fC = + 40.0 cm.
fC
1
1
1
1
1
1
23.44 Consider the first lens.: q = f - p = 25 cm - 20 cm = -100 cm , so
1
1
1
q1
-100
cm
and M1 = -p = - 20 cm = +5.
1
The object position for the second lens is: p2 = 125 cm. Thus,
1
1
1
1
1
q2 = f2 - p2 = -10 cm - 125 cm , and q2 = -9.3 cm.
q1 = -100 cm,
(a)
1
1
1
p + 12.9 - p = 2.44
which yields:
-p2 + 12.9p = 31.48.
This has solutions:
p = 9.63 cm, or p= 3.27 cm, and both solutions are valid.
23.46
(b)
(a)
The distance from the object to the lens is p, so the image distance is q = 5.00 m - p. Thus,
1
1 1
p + q = f becomes:
1
1
1
p + 5.00 m - p = 0.800 m . This reduces to a quadratic equation:
p2 - 5.00p + 4.00 = 0, which yields p = 4.00 m, or p = 1.00 m.
Thus, there are two possible object distances, both corresponding to real objects.
1.00
1
For p = 4.00 m:
q = 5.00 m - 4.00 m = 1.00 m, and M = - 4.00 = - 4 .
4.00
For p = 1.00 m:
q = 5.00 m - 1.00 m = 4.00 m, and M = - 1.00 = -4.00.
Both images are real and inverted, but the magnifications are different, with one being 4
times the size of the object and the other one-fourth the size of the object.
(b)
23.47
23.48
1
1
1
1
1
Treating the first lens: q = f - p = 8.00 cm - 4.00 cm ,
1
1
1
or q1 = -8.0 cm.
1
1
1
1
1
Thus, p2 = 14.0 cm, and q = f - p = -16.0 cm - 14.0 cm , or q2 = -7.47 cm
2
2
2
q1
q2
M1 = - p = 2.00, and M2 = - p = 0.533, and M = M1M2 = 1.07.
1
2
Thus, if the object is 1.00 cm in height, the erect (M > 0), virtual image
(q2 < 0) is 1.07 cm tall.
(a)
10
q1
q2
40.26 cm
-19.0 cm
M1 = - p = - 13.3 cm = - 3.03, and M2 = - p = - 9.74 cm = 1.95.
1
2
Thus,
Moverall = M1M2 = -5.91.
The overall magnification is less than 0, so the final image is inverted. Also, the final image
is virtual (before final lens).
The final image will be on the film, so let us start with the second lens.
If d = 5.00 cm, then the lenses are 7.00 cm apart and q2 = 5.00 cm.
1
1
1
1
1
p2 = f2 - q2 = 13.3 cm - 5.00 cm , so p2 = -8.01 cm.
Thus, q1 = 7.00 cm + 8.01 cm = 15.01 cm.
1
1
1
1
1
Then, p = f - q = 15.0 cm - 15.01 cm , and p1 = 225 m (max dist).
1
1
1
Similarly, if d = 10.0 cm, the lenses are 2.00 cm apart and q2 = 10 cm.
1
1
1
1
1
=
= 13.3 cm - 10.0 cm , giving p2 = -40.3 cm.
p2
f2 q2
Thus, q1 = 2.00 cm + 40.3 cm = 42.3 cm, so
1
1
1
1
1
p1 = f1 - q1 = 15.0 cm - 42.3 cm , and p1 = 0.232 m (min dist).
11
23.52
1 1
1
1
1
1
For the first lens, f = p + q becomes: -6.0 cm = 12 cm + q , giving q1= - 4.0 cm.
1
When we require that q2 approach infinity, we see that p2 must be the focal length of the second
lens. In this case:
p2 = d - (-4.0 cm). Therefore, d + 4.0 cm = f2 = 12 cm, and d = 8.0 cm.
1
1
1
1
1
q1 = f1 - p1 = 10.0 cm - 12.5 cm ,
giving q1 = 50.0 cm. (to left of mirror)
This serves as a virtual object for the lens,
so p2 = 25.0 cm - q1 = -25.0 cm.
1
1
1
1
1
q2 = f2 - p2 = -16.7 cm - - 25.0 cm , or q2 = -50.3 cm. (to right of lens) Thus, the final
image is located 25.3 cm to right of mirror.
q1
q2
50.0 cm
-50.3 cm
M1 = - p = - 12.5 cm = - 4.00, M2 = - p = --25.0 cm = - 2.01,
1
2
and
M = M1M2 = 8.05.
Thus, the final image is virtual, erect, 8.05 times the size of object, and 25.3 cm to right of the
mirror.
23.55
1
2
q3
160 cm
M3 = - p = - 160 cm = -1.00,
and
M = M1M2M3 = -0.800.
3
Since M < 0, the final image is inverted relative to the original object.
23.56
(a)
12
(b)
(c)
23.57
1
1
1
1
1
1
q1 = f1 - p1 = 20.0 cm - 40.0 cm = 40 cm , so q1 = 40.0 cm, and
q1
40.0 cm
M1 = - = -40.0 cm = -1.00.
p1
For the second lens, p2 = 10.0 cm. Thus,
1
1
1
1
1
q2 = f2 - p2 = 5.00 cm - 10.0 cm , and q2 = 10.0 cm (to right of 2nd lens)
q2
10.0 cm
M2 = -p = -10.0 cm = -1.00.
2
The overall magnification M is:
M = (M1)(M2) = (-1.00)(-1.00) = +1.00.
Thus, the final image is real (q2 > 0), erect, and the same size (2.00 cm) as the object.
With the two lenses in contact, the effective focal length is calculated using
1
1
1
1
1
feff = f1 + f2 = 20.0 cm + 5.00 cm yielding feff = 4.00 cm
1
1 1
1
1
The final image is then located by: q = f
- p = 4.00 cm - 5.00 cm
eff
which gives q = 20.0 cm.
n1
n2
n2 - n1
We use p + q = R
1
1.50
1.50 - 1
At the first surface, we have: 1.00 cm + q
= 2.00 cm ,orq1 = -2.00 cm.
1
Thus, the image is formed 2.00 cm to the left of the surface, a distance of
16 cm from the second surface. This image becomes the object for the second surface (hence, p2 =
+ 16.0 cm).
n1
n2
n2 - n1
We again use, p + q = R
:
1.50
1
1.00 - 1.50
q2 = 32.0 cm.
16.0 cm + q2 = -4.00 cm , or
The final image is a real image 32.0 cm to the right of the second surface.
23.58
First locate the image of the coins formed by the upper mirror:
1
1
1
1
1
1
p1 + q1 = f gives: 7.5 cm + q1 = 7.5 cm , so q1 = , or the reflected rays are
parallel as they leave this mirror.
Now, locate the final image, realizing that parallel rays are reflected toward the lower mirror by the
upper mirror (thus. p2 = ).
1
1
1
1
1
1
p2 + q2 = f , gives + q2 = 7.5 cm , and q2 = 7.5 cm.
Thus, the final image is located at the center of the upper mirror, is real, and is erect (having
undergone two inversionsone due to each mirror). It is also the same size as the object.
23.59
(a)
(b)
1
1 1
R 1.00 m
Using p + q = f we make the following table, with f = 2 = 2
= 0.500 m
Between p = 3.00 m and p = 0.50 m above the mirror,
p=3m
q = 0.6 m
the ball's image is real and moves from + 0.60 m to +
p = 0.5 m
q = +/-
infinity. Between 0.50 m and contact with the mirror,
p=0
q=0
the ball's image is virtual and moves from - infinity to
0. (Note the "jump" of image location as the ball passes through the focal point of the
mirror.)
For the ball and its image to coincide, the image must be real with
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(a)
(b)
23.61
(a)
(b)
(c)
23.62
1
1 1
The lensmakers equation, f = (n - 1) R - R , becomes:
1 2
1
1
1
With the given radii of curvature, the lens maker's equation becomes:
1 n1 1
1 n1 -2 + 1
n1 - 1
f = n2 - 1 -3.0 m - -6.0 m = n2 - 1 6.0 m = n2 - 16.0 m ,
1
1 n1
or
(1)
f = 6.0 m 1 - n2 .
(a) When n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1, the focal length of the lens is:
14
(b)
(c)
(d)
23.63
1
1
f = 6.0 m (-0.5 m) , or f = -12.0 m, so the thin lens equation gives
1
1
1
10.0 m + q = -12 m , which yields: q = -5.50 m, or
the image is 5.50 m to left of the lens.
When n1 = 1.5, and n2 = 1.333, the above yields:
f = -48.0 m, and q = -8.30 m, or 8.30 m to left of lens.
When n1 = 1.5, and n2 = 2.0, the above yields:
f = 24 m, and q = -17 m, or 17 m to left of lens.
As shown in equation (1), the focal length will be positive if
1 - n1 > 0, or n1 < 1, meaning n < n . That is; the surrounding material should
n2
1
2
n2
1 1
1
fq
q
We solve f = p + q for p to find: p = (q - f) and we use M = - p .
f(4f)
4f
(a) For q = 4f: p = (4f - f) = 3 .
f(- 3f)
3f
(b) For q = - 3f:
p = (-3f - f) = 4 .
4f
- 3f
(c) For case (a),
M = - 4f = - 3.00, and for case (b),M = - 3f = 4.00
3
4
ANSWERS TO CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
2. Because of refraction, the fish appears to be at a depth that is less than its actual depth.
Therefore, the person should aim below the image of the fish to hit it.
4. Chromatic aberration is produced when light passes through a material, as it does when
passing through the glass of a lens. A mirror, silvered on its front surface never has light
passing through it, so this aberration cannot occur. This is only one of many reasons why
large telescopes use mirrors rather than lenses for their optical elements.
6. Make the mirror an efficient reflector (shiny); use a parabolic shaped mirror so that it
reflects all rays to the image point, even those far from the axis; most important, use a
large-diameter mirror in order to collect more solar power.
8. A convex mirror is being used. Since a demagnified image is produced, the driver may
think the small truck bearing down on him is far away; thus, the warning. This kind of
mirror is used so that a large area behind the car can be seen.
10. All objects beneath the stream appear to be closer to the surface than they really are
because of refraction. Thus, the pebbles on the bottom of the stream appear to be close to
the surface of a shallow stream.
12. An effect similar to a mirage is produced except the "mirage" is seen hovering in the
air. Ghost lighthouses in the sky have been seen over bodies of water by this effect.
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