Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Review
Application of
bioplastics for food
packaging
Nanou Peelmana,b,
Peter Ragaerta,b,*,
Bruno De Meulenaerb,
Dimitri Adonsc, Roos Peetersc,
Ludwig Cardond,e,
Filip Van Impef and
Frank Devliegherea
a
This review provides state of the art information on the performance of bioplastics materials, focusing on food packaging. It
gives an overview of the main materials used for producing
biobased films, their limitations, solutions thereof, possible applications and a state of the art on bioplastics already used as a
food packaging material.
Furthermore an inventory on bioplastics was made in the
context of a research project. Important characteristics
regarding packaging material are summarized in an extended
table, which shows a big variety (e.g. permeability, tensile
properties), suggesting a wide range of food products can be
packed in biobased polymer films.
Introduction
Food packaging is becoming increasingly important in the
food industry, where advances in functionality such as convenience and portioning are gaining more attention.
Furthermore, there is also an increased awareness on sustainability, which can in general be achieved on different
levels. On the level of raw materials, use of recycled materials or use of renewable resources are two strategies to
reduce CO2 emissions and the dependency on fossil resources. The production process is another level where adjustments, e.g. toward a more energy-efficient process, can
be made. A final level where efforts can be done to increase
sustainability is waste management. Next to reuse and recycling of used materials, production of packaging which is
biodegradable and/or compostable contributes to reducing
the municipal solid waste problem. Biodegradable polymers are polymers that are capable of undergoing decomposition into CO2, CH4, H2O, inorganic compounds or
biomass through predominantly the enzymatic action of microorganisms. Some of these polymers can also be compostable, which means decomposition takes place in a
compost site at a rate consistent with known compostable
materials (Siracusa, Rocculi, Romani, & Dalla Rosa,
2008; Song, Murphy, Narayan, & Davies, 2009).
In the last decade, there has been an increased interest from
the food, packaging and distribution industry toward the development and application of bioplastics for food packaging.
According to the European Bioplastics organization,
bioplastics can be defined as plastics based on renewable
resources (biobased) or as plastics which are biodegradable
and/or compostable. Recently the attention in the packaging industry regarding the use of bioplastics has been
Nomenclature
AA
CA
CMC
DCL
HDPE
HP
HPMC
LBG
LDPE
MAP
MFC
MMT
MWNT
OMMT
OPLA
OTR
PCL
PE
PEF
PEO
PET
PHA
PHB
PHBV
PHV
PIP
PLA
PP
PS
PVA
PVC
PVdC
RH
SCL
SPI
SWNT
TPS
TPZ
WPI
WVP
WVTR
ascorbic acid
cellulose acetate
carboxymethyl cellulose
double-coated laminates
high-density polyethylene
high pressure
hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose
locust bean gum
low-density polyethylene
modified atmosphere packaging
microfibrillar cellulose
montmorillonite
multi-walled nanotubes
organically modified montmorillonite
oriented PLA
oxygen transmission rate
polycaprolactone
polyethylene
polyethylene furanoate
polyethylene oxide
polyethyleneterephthalate
polyhydroxyalkanoate
polyhydroxybutyrate
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate)
polyhydroxyvalerate
poly-cis-1,4-isoprene
polylactide
polypropylene
polystyrene
polyvinylacetate
polyvinylchloride
polyvinylidene chloride
relative humidity
single-coated laminates
soy protein isolate
single-wall nanotubes
thermoplastic starch
thermoplastic zein
whey protein isolate
water vapor permeability
water vapor transmission rate
129
130
Cellulose
Cellulose is the most widely spread natural polymer and
is derived by a delignification from wood pulp or cotton
linters. It is a biodegradable polysaccharide which can be
dissolved in a mixture of sodium hydroxide and carbon disulphide to obtain cellulose xanthate and then recast into an
acid solution (sulfuric acid) to make a cellophane film.
Alternatively, cellulose derivatives can be produced by
derivatization of cellulose from the solvated state, via esterification or etherification of hydroxyl groups. Especially
these cellulose derivatives were the subject of recent
research. Cellulose esters like cellulose (di)acetate and cellulose (tri)acetate need addition of additives to produce
thermoplastic materials. Most of them can be processed
by injection molding or extrusion. Cellulose ethers like hydroxypropyl cellulose and methyl cellulose are watersoluble, except for ethyl cellulose and benzyl cellulose.
Ethyl cellulose can be used for extrusion, laminating or
molding after addition of plasticizers or other polymers.
Most of these derivatives show excellent film-forming
properties, but are too expensive for bulk use (Cyras
et al., 2009; Liu, 2006; Petersen et al., 1999; Shen,
Haufe, & Patel, 2009; Weber, 2000; Zepnik, Kesselring,
Kopitzky, & Michels, 2010).
Other materials
The main advantages and disadvantages of some other
raw materials are listed in Table 1.
Main limitations
The use of bioplastics as food packaging materials is
subjected to different limitations, restricting at this moment
their use. Besides a higher price level compared to conventional plastics, the concerns on availability as well as on the
use of land to produce bioplastics, there are major limitations on the functionality.
Brittleness, thermal instability, low melt strength, difficult heat sealability, high water vapor and oxygen permeability restrict the use of PLA films for many food
packaging applications (Cabedo, Feijoo, Villanueva,
Lagaron, & Gimenez, 2006; Jamshidian et al., 2010;
Mensitieri et al., 2011; Rhim, Hong, & Ha, 2009).
Because of the hydrophilic nature of starch and cellulose, packaging materials based on these materials have a
low water vapor barrier, which causes a limited long-term
stability and poor mechanical properties (sensitive to moisture content). Other drawbacks are bad processability, brittleness and vulnerability to degradation (Cyras et al., 2009;
Gaspar, Benko, Dogossy, Reczey, & Czigany, 2005; Joshi,
2008; Liu, 2006; Muller, Laurindo, & Yamashita, 2011;
Shen et al., 2009; Yu, Dean, & Li, 2006).
Brittleness (due to high glass transition and melting temperatures), stiffness, poor impact resistance and thermal
instability are finally also factors limiting the application
of PHA/PHB films as food packaging (Cyras et al., 2009;
Liu, 2006; Modi, 2010; Yu et al., 2006).
This has resulted in increasing research on improving
the functionality of bioplastics, which is described in the
next paragraph.
Improving the properties of bioplastics
A large amount of studies have investigated different
strategies to improve the properties of bioplastics. Specifically in terms of increasing barrier capacities toward
Table 1. Raw materials, their origin and their advantages and disadvantages.
Raw material
Origin
Advantages
Disadvantages
Reference
Zein
Ghanbarzadeh et al.
(2006),
Sozer and Kokini (2009)
Chitosan
Derivative of chitin
Soy protein
isolate
(SPI)
Whey protein
isolate
Waste stream of
cheese industry
(Wheat) Gluten
derived films
- Low cost
- Good oxygen barrier
- Good film-forming properties
131
modifications, a good interaction between the polymer matrix (continuous phase) and the nanofiller (discontinuous
phase) is desired (Lagaron & Lopez-Rubio, 2011).
Incorporation of the filler into the polymer matrix can be
achieved using in situ polymerization (dissolution of the
nanoparticles in the monomer solution before polymerization), solvent intercalation (use of a solvent to enhance
the affinity between the nanoparticles and the matrix) and
melt intercalation (addition of the nanoparticles during
extrusion) (Chivrac et al., 2009; Shen, Simon, & Cheng,
2002).
Among the different nanoparticles which could be used
to reinforce a biopolymer, nanoclays have attracted most
attention. These nanoclays, like montmorillonite, belong
to the family of phyllosilicates and have a structure based
on the pyrophillite structure Si4Al2O10(OH)2. They are aggregates of stacked, ultrafine layered particles (tactoids).
The thickness of one layer (or platelet) is in the order of
1 nm. Depending on the interaction between the continuous and the discontinuous phase, different polymereclay
interactions occur: tactoid, intercalated and exfoliated.
When the affinity between the clay and the polymer is
rather low, the clay interlayer does not expand and the
clay tactoid structures remain as such in the polymer matrix. In this way, no true nanocomposite is formed. When
the affinity between the clay and the polymer is moderate,
medium expansion of the clay interlayer occurs. The polymer can partly penetrate the clay interlayer, leading to an
intercalated structure, which is still a layered structure.
When the affinity between the clay and the polymer is
high, the layered structure of the clay is lost and an exfoliated structure is formed by dispersion of the clay into the
polymer matrix (Arora & Padua, 2010; Chivrac et al.,
2009).
Since a high surface-to-volume ratio has the greatest effect on the properties of the polymer, the exfoliated structure is the ultimate goal. A good dispersion is affected by
the hydrophobic/hydrophilic character of the polymer and
the clay. Different chemical modification to make the surface of the nanoclay more hydrophobic, such as cationic
exchange, use of ionomers, block copolymers adsorption
and organosilane grafting, are sometimes necessary to
improve intercalation/exfoliation into the polymer matrix.
Also modification of the polymer and/or adding compatibilizing agents can lead to a more homogenous dispersion
(Arora & Padua, 2010; Chivrac et al., 2009; Silvestre,
Duraccio, & Cimmino, 2011).
Effect of the use of nanoparticles on material
properties. Incorporation of nanoparticles is an excellent
way to improve the performance of biobased films. From
the examples discussed below it can be concluded that
almost all the shortcomings, which limit the use of biobased plastics as food packaging, can be overcome by
making use of this technique. However, an important
possible drawback is, at least partly, the reported negative
132
133
134
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) blended with PHA had a positive effect on barrier properties and hydrolytic and UV stability of the starch-based film and diminished processing
temperature resulting in less starch degradation (Shen
et al., 2009). Blends of TPS with natural rubber appeared
to be less brittle than TPS alone (Yu et al., 2006). Addition
of locust bean gum (LBG) improved the tensile strength,
but lowered the elongation of starch-based films. However,
elongation significantly improved after gamma irradiation.
Also the WVP improved with increasing irradiation dose
(Kim, Jo, Park, & Byun, 2008). Blending agar with starch
had a positive effect on the microstructure of the starch
film. WVP and mechanical properties were enhanced (Wu,
Geng, Chang, Yu, & Ma, 2009). Fama, Gerschenson, and
Goyanes (2009) stated that blending starch with wheat
bran reduced the WVP of the film and improved the mechanical properties with increasing wheat bran fiber content.
Chemical/physical modification
Another way to improve the performance of bioplastics
is by chemical and/or physical modification. Modification
can have a positive effect on mechanical properties and water vapor permeability of materials as such, but modification can also be a tool to enhance compatibility between
two polymers. For the latter, mostly starch has been modified to improve their hydrophobicity, making them more
compatible with hydrophobic materials.
WVP of starch films decreased after addition of citric
acid. A 10% (w/w) citric acid content showed the greatest
reduction. This can be explained by the multi carboxyl structure of citric acid. These groups can interact with the hydroxyl groups of the starch, which results in a reduction of
available OH groups. Furthermore, strong hydrogen bounds
can be formed, preventing retrogradation and recrystallization. Mechanical properties can also be improved, because
citric acid can serve as a cross-linking agent
(Ghanbarzadeh et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2008; Thiebaud
et al., 1997). Oxygen permeability and hydrophobicity of
microfibrillar cellulose (MFC) films can be improved by
acetylation with acetic anhydride. Film thicknesses between
42 and 47 mm lead to oxygen permeability values required
for
modified
atmosphere
packaging
application
(Rodionova, Lenes, Eriksen, & Gregersen, 2011).
Flexible and water resistant starch films can be made by
heating gelatinized starch in an anhydrous suspension with
lithium chloride in the presence of an organic solvent (Fang
et al., 2005).
Chemical modification by cross-linking cellulose acetate
with tri-sodium tri-meta phosphate led to materials with
improved mechanical properties (higher tensile strength),
lower water up take and slower degradation kinetics. This
can be explained by the cross-linking of some of the hydroxyl groups that were present in the cellulose acetate
blend (Demirg
oz et al., 2000).
Incorporation of starch modified by epichlorohydrin in
comparison with native starch in an LLDPE film resulted
harvest packaging of blueberries. In contrast to the conventional PET container, an equilibrium modified atmosphere
could be developed inside the PLA containers. This increased
the shelf life of the blueberries. Sensory evaluations showed
that consumers preferred blueberries packed in PLA containers for one or two weeks over the blueberries packed in
conventional containers. Haugaard, Weber, Danielsen, and
Bertelsen (2002) reported that PLA packaging (thermoformed cups, Autobar, France) is suitable for storage of fresh,
unpasteurized orange juice at 4 C for 14 days. Color
changes, ascorbic acid (AA) degradation and limonene
scalping were most effectively prevented by PLA when
compared to PS and HDPE.
Starch
Research on starch-based films has shown that they could
be suitable alternatives to conventional plastics for different
food products. Cannarsi, Baiano, Marino, Sinigaglia, and Del
Nobile (2005) demonstrated that two biodegradable films
based on starch (1 blend of starch and polyester and 1 blend
of 3 biodegradable/biobased polyesters, Novamont, Italy)
could be used to replace PVC films to pack fresh cut beef
steaks. Furthermore, Ifezue (2009) found Mater-Bi (blend
of starch with biodegradable synthetic polymers like PCL
or PVOH) to be superior to perforated LDPE, PLA and Ecoflex to pack whole fresh celery, especially regarding mechanical performance. Also Kantola and Helen (2001) stated that
the quality of tomatoes packed in PLA-coated cardboard
covered with a perforated Mater-Bi bag remained as good
as when packed in LDPE (low-density polyethylene) bags
during 3 weeks.
PHA/PHB
Replacement of conventional films by PHA/PHB based
films could be possible according to several investigations.
Levkane, Muizniece-Brasava, and Dukalska (2008) investigated the effect of pasteurization on a meat salad packed in
conventional (PE, PP) and biobased packaging (PLA, PHB)
and found that PHB films could be successfully used to
pack this type of food. Haugaard, Danielsen, and
Bertelsen (2003) found that orange juice simulant and dressing packed in PHB resulted in the same quality changes
compared to HDPE, which means commercial juices and
other acidic beverages and dressings or other fatty foods
could possibly be packed in PHB. Furthermore, Bucci,
Tavares, and Sell (2005) stated that PP can be replaced
by PHB for packaging of fat rich products (mayonnaise,
margarine and cream cheese) according to physical,
Biopolymer
Company
Reference
KLM
Mosburger (Japan)
McDonalds
Biota, noble, .
Jager (2010)
Sudesh and Iwata (2008)
Haugaard et al. (2003)
Sudesh and Iwata (2008)
Asda (retailer)
PLA bags
Weston, 2010
PLA jars
Snyders of Hanover,
PepsiCos Frito-lay
Stonyfield (Danone)
PLA
PLA
PLA
PLA
PLA
McCain
Mont Blanc Primeurs
Biorigin
Asda (retailer)
Delhaize (retailer)
Delhaize (retailer)
Delhaize (retailer)
Starch-based
Milk chocolates
Cornstarch trays
Organic tomatoes
Corn-based packaging
Cadbury Schweppes
food group, Marks & Spencer
Iper supermarkets (Italy),
Coop Italia
Highlights in Bioplastics,
website European bioplastics
Highlights in Bioplastics,
website European bioplastics
Wal-Mart
Boulder Canyon
Birkel
Qualitystreet, Thornton
PLA
Coffee and tea
Beverages
Fresh salads
Carbonated water, fresh
juices, dairy drinks, .
Freshly cut fruits, whole
fruits, vegetables, bakery
goods, salads
Organic pretzels, potato chips
Yoghurt
Frozen fries
Organic fruit and vegetables
Pasta
Herbs
Prepared sandwiches,
pasta salads
Bread
Organic poultry
Cellulose
Kiwi
Potato chips
Organic pasta
Sweets
films (Bio-Flex)
packaging
packaging
packaging
bowls, packaging
135
136
Natureflex N913
(cellulose-based)
Natureflex N931
(cellulose-based)
Ecoflex Ecovio/
Ecovio/Ecoflex
Ecovio
Metallized PLA
Cellophane/
Metal
layer/PLA
Paper/AlOx/PLA
Bioska 504
(multilayer PLA)
Natureflex/PLA
Cellophane/PLA
PHB/Ecoflex
Xylophane A
(coated on paper)
Xylophane B
(coated on paper)
PLA tray
Shape
Permeability
(tr [ transparant) O a (cc/m2 d)
2
n-tr [ non
23 C e 75% RH
transparant)
H2Oa (g/m2 d)
38 C e 90% RH
Thicknessa
(mm)
Seal conditionsb
Modulus Ec (Mpa)
( C)
kN/m2 (s)
t
MD
TD
MD
TD
9.9
10.1
55
100e170
69
0.5 >3000
>1500
22
70
3.4
5.0
44
120e170
69
0.5 >3000
>1500
20
44
815.0
216.4
55
70e85
400
8.1 2.0
294.0 27.0
316.8 43.3
25.4
9.1
2.3
9.7
20
46
70e80
105
411
420
5.9 0.3
45.5 9.5
45.7
617.6
6.0
275.1
91
34
120
60
600
414
1
2394.8 163.7 1276.9 113.1 6.1 0.4
1,6 921.3 38.7
924.7 94.6
185.3 9.3
9.4 0.5
169.7 59.9
Flex.
Flex.
Flex.
Flex.
11.01
10.5
142.1
3.7
11.3
13.8
80.6
24.3
60e75
60e80
70e80
170*
415
420
410
/f
1.6
1.6
1.6
/
942.4
534.2
146.7
593.7
6.0
23.9
170*
46.8
3.8
60
100
87
100
(coating 9)
100
(coating 9)
200e300
film
film
film
film
(tr)
(tr)
(tr)
(n-tr)
718.9 12.6
571.5 35.8
109.4 7.1
/
30.8 3.8
43.6 4.7
701.2 60.4
8.3 0.4
99.7 10.0
99.5 5.5
721.6 30.0
/
618.6 12.1
8.0 0.1
25.4
24.5
27.0
14.5
Film
Natureflex N913
(cellulose-based)
Natureflex N931
(cellulose-based)
Ecoflex Ecovio/Ecovio/
Ecoflex Ecovio
Metallised PLA
Cellophane/M/PLA
Paper/AlOx/PLA
Bioska 504 (multilayer PLA)
Natureflex/PLA
Cellophane/PLA
PHB/Ecoflex
Xylophane A (coated
on paper)
Xylophane B (coated
on paper)
PLA tray
a
b
c
d
e
f
Print-ability Used
Food approved
(1935/2004)
Biobased
(Vincotte)e
Origin
Provider
MD
TD
Cooling
Freezer
Pasteurization
125
70
YES
OK
NO
NO
YES
**
Non-food
80
45
YES
OK
OK
NT
YES
****
Non-food
Bastin-Pack nv,
Be_Natural
Be_Natural
23.1 0.2
19.9 0.9
YES
OK
OK
NT
YES
**
Non-food corn
BPI Formipac
YES
/
YES
YES
/
/
/
OK
NT
NT
OK
NT
NT
NT
OK
NT
NT
OK
NT
NT
NT
NO
NT
NO
NO
NT
NT
NT
****
****
****
****
***
***
****
corn
Non-food corn
corn
Non-food corn
Non-food corn
corn cereals
Vitra
Be_Natural
Be_Natural
Be_Natural
Segers&Balcaen
Segers&Balcaen
Roychem BVBA
****
Non-food
Xylophane
66.4
98.8
79.0
23.9
56.2
54.5
25.5
7.8
1.7
1.7
0.6
1.2
1.4
1.8
86.7
71.1
54.7
20.5
34.0
35.2
21.0
6.2
4.9
3
2.4
1.1
0.7
1.1
32.4 1.0
NO
NO
NO
YES
/
YES
YES
/
/
Food contact
safe
NT
34.3 0.5
NO
NO
NO
NT
****
Non-food
Xylophane
HoGent
Film
137
138
139
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