2011-05-019

Brake Noise Identification using Phase Analysis

Claudio G. Fernandes
Hudson Ferreira
Ricardo Martinez
Ford Motor Company

Copyright 2011 SAE International

ABSTRACT
Noise source identification has been a subject well studied in
the past few years. Automobile manufactures along with
specialized supplies have been developed some methods in
this matter. The importance of such subject is quite obvious,
especially in the auto industry: identify potential problems and
point out solutions for NVH.
There are several methods of noise source identification
widely used. Among them, one can mention "Hotspot Search",
which consists of noise intensity measurement, mapping and
ranking the relative contribution of each substructure of one
body. Another method used, one can point out is the STSF
(Spatial Transformation of Sound Fields). It consists of a
measurement over a scan plane using a set of microphone
array. In this way, a 2D sound field can be transformed in a
3D description and source direction can be identified.
However, when noise and vibration source need to be
identified together in a multi-body system, conventional
techniques might not be the best choice. In this scenario, a
signal phase analysis was developed in order to cope with a
low frequency noise identified in a vehicle. The noise
occurrence was measured and identified in terms of frequency.
The measurement setup was described using accelerometers
and microphones installed in the vehicle suspension.

also competitive costly wise in comparison with other

methods, it represents a powerful tool in noise analysis.

INTRODUCTION
Determining where a sound emanates from, one can
dramatically shorten the time it takes an engineer to apply an
effective sound reduction fix. With the advent of accurate high
channel count data acquisition systems, lower cost
measurement quality microphones, and more powerful
mathematical models/tools, new techniques have come about
that can offer insights into sound source location and resolve
problems faster than ever before. However, there is not a
single generic method that applies for all situations and then
be applied generally. One example of this can be explained
using the Beamforming technique. Such a test represents the
most recent addition to the list of techniques. The ability to
map large objects, cover wide frequency ranges (up to 20 kHz
or more), and take snapshots of moving objects all
characterizes beamforming as a very interesting tool. This
method can become, although, not suitable for identification
of source of vibration among small components, for example,
among parts of brake system. One can identify the
surrounding areas of noise, but one can not distinguish the
source among components.

The vibration path was determined using bode diagrams, as

long with the noise source. The delay among signal is easy to
obtain and gives a clear picture of the vibration/noise
phenomena. The condition in which the vibration was excited
was also possible to be identified through the comparison of
bode diagrams during the noise. The method helped to identify
a resonance frequency of the brake caliper coupled with brake
pads, generating a self-excited non-linear phenomenon.
Figure 1: Beamforming example [1]
Phase analysis method has shown to be suitable not only for
noise but also for vibration. As it is simple to be applied and
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Identification of a specific sound heard subjectively is also

difficult task. One major difficulty is a large level of noise in
the measurements. In particular, some component noises
(disturbance) have frequencies in the range of system working
frequencies that cause failure of most automatic identification
procedures. Such a problem is resolved in our approach by
selecting manually the windows in the measurement files that
contain minimal level of disturbances. Another source of
uncertainty is the amount of different body that can contribute
to the sound, especially in terms of resonance. In this way, the
real source can be easily be confused with resonant structures.

RH
Mic

In this work, one describes a special identification experiment

that quantifies the time delays between all important signals,
especially the vibration signals. The experiments consist of
exciting the system at the field usage, and then, once with the
appearance of the noise, its frequency is identified, non-linear
filters are applied to the signal in order to vanish other
frequency bands and time delay between two signals is then
determined by bode diagrams. Comparing delays signal-tosignal, exactly at the resonance frequency, it is possible to
quantify the smallest delay among all acquired data which
tends to be the source of the vibration. In this way, one can
identified the component responsible for the noise generation
in a more precise way, rather than just identified a region of
the noise.

MEASUREMENTS
In order to identify the noise path and its source as well, a
measurement setup was carried out in a noisy vehicle. The
main idea was to gather vibration and noise data and compare
the signals. The measurement setup can be seen in the Figure
2.

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Steering gear box

4

LH
Mic

5
6
7

1 & 6 Brake Calipers

Triax-Accel

The noise problem described in this work starts subjectively,

when a noise could be heard during the test phase of a vehicle.
The main problem is that such a noise appears during an offbrake situation, and right after a vehicle starts to accelerate.
This is a common noise known as brake moan noise, which is
a low frequency tonal noise that can typically appears in the
frequency range of 200 1000 Hz. This noise can rise to high
loudness and is thus very critical regarding customer
complaints. Moan is also sensitive to environmental
conditions, e.g. humidity and temperature. The combination of
driving conditions, environmental conditioning, and sequence
of braking events can be very critical for generating moan.
Subjectively, all elements pointed out to the brakes, but the
sound begins after brakes are released. There was strong
evidence that the noise has its origin at the brake components,
but in which component exactly starts the noise, remains
unclear, as well as how it could take place.

2 & 7 Hubs

3 & 5 Shocks

4 & 8 Steering Gear Box & Steering Wheel

Figure 2: Measurement Schematic

Based on subjective evaluations, the first insight about the

noise was that it was coming from the front axle. In this way,
microphones were placed beside the both wheels. Two internal
microphones were also installed at the driver's and passenger's
ear. Several tri-axial accelerometers were installed in order to
capture the probably vibration which could be the cause of the
noise: left and right brake calipers, both wheel hubs
(knuckles), steering box, both shock absorbers, steering wheel
and seat track.
Then, the vehicle was measured during the noise condition
and several acquisitions were done. Another event also
measured was an impulse excitation at the brake components,
checking the corresponding response of all the sensors. This
last one was carried out in order to acquire data in a more
controlled environment. An example of the measurement
during the noise can be seen in the Figure 3, where two
different runs are plotted. The signal shown corresponds to the
left brake caliper acceleration.

Figure 3: Noise occurrence (caliper acceleration)

As can be noticed, during the noise, the acceleration suddenly
amplifies at big values and then damps out. This is a typical
phenomenon of self-excited behavior, typical of moan/squeal
noise. In the next section, such a phenomenon is explained in
details.
One interesting result measured is shown in the Figure 4.
Despite of the both external microphones, placed near to the
wheel, showed technically the same sound pressure, the brake
calipers acceleration at left and right showed to be
significantly different. By looking just to the sound pressure,
the first insight is that there are two different sources of noise
otherwise there would be difference at the sound levels
captured by the microphones. However, in order to have two
different sources, it means the left and right brakes are
presenting simultaneously the same moan phenomena. That is
in practical terms, very unlikely (contact between pad and disc
at every same time). The left and right calipers accelerations,
although, showed different accelerations, in opposition to the
sound pressure levels. Such a behavior tends to show that the
moan brake phenomenon is taking place indeed just in one
side, but being transmitted to the other one with enough
energy to produce the noise, as another source.
Those results have lead to a more systematic analysis, in
which each signal would be compared each other in order to
find the vibration path and then finding the root cause of the
noise.

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Figure 4: Left/Right wheel microphones and brake calipers

BRAKE MOAN NOISE

Moan can happen either at ambient or cold temperature with
or without high humidity, which is often called cold or
morning squeal/sickness, or at high temperature. The
moisture, dew, or some kind of rusty that has been built up
overnight may have influence on cold moan and also squeal
(higher frequency phenomena). It tends to occur at relatively
low speeds or at deceleration of 0.1g and lower.
Brake moan, in general, is caused by friction-induced, energy
feed-in vibration or often so-called self-excited vibration via
the rotating disc. The brake system that generates noise is in a
state of dynamic instability. The frictional forces interacting
between disc/rotor and pads/shoes are non-conservative that
will couple modes to lead the system become unstable. A
brake system may not become self-excited or lead to
moan/squeal until one or more of the mechanisms needed the
frictional force to perform positive work on the system occur.

The brake moan/squeal generation mechanisms are very

complex in nature, which involve multiple research disciplines
including nonlinear dynamics, contact mechanics and
tribology.
Both moan and squeal mechanisms are categorized into
excitation or triggering sources, system characteristics
including modal coupling and mode lock-in, and sound
radiation processes, which it is the case of this work.
Moreover, the excitation mechanism is related to stick-slip
induced frictional force variations. The cause for the stick-slip
is primarily due to the difference between the static and
kinetic/dynamic coefficients of friction, the so-called Stribeck
effect. It is noted that this difference may vary with time,
depending on the operating conditions such as due to changes
in contact areas, temperature variations, sliding speed
fluctuations, and/or other conditions.
The most classic example that describes stick-slip is to assume
the brake pad as a rigid body that rests on a rotating disc
(rotor) with a constant speed to greatly simplify the problem.
This can be modeled as a mass resting on a translating belt,
with the mass connecting to a linear spring at a fixed end,
simulating the fixed end of a brake caliper system. Initially,
the spring force is smaller than the static friction force so that
the mass moves together with the rotating belt. As the
deformation of the spring increases the spring force increases
to a value that equals or is larger than the static friction force,
the mass starts to slide (relative to the belt). As the mass
slides, the motion is now governed by the dynamic friction
force (which is smaller than the static friction force), and the
deformation of the spring and the spring force decrease. This
causes the mass to gradually cease sliding, and the above cycle
repeats to generate the stick-slip/slide phenomenon. Another
example is to model the pad excited by a sinusoidal force.
Figure 5 shows the schematic description of the simulation.
The velocity of the pad and the excitation force are plotted in
Figure 6, in which slip/slide and stick regimes in the velocity
are observed due to variations in the friction coefficient.

Figure 5: Simplified brake model [2].

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Figure 6: Velocity x time for the simplified model in the

Figure 5 [2].
The main effect of such a mechanism is the nature of the
excitation force combined with a way to amplify the vibration
through a low dissipative system. In other words, in the brake
system, if any of the components (such as pads or rotor) has a
natural frequency coupled one each other, such stick-slip
phenomenon causes constant excitation to this structural
system, which, by the way, has an inherent low dissipative
form. The result is an amplified movement causing secondary
effects, such as noise. The Figure 7 shows the amplification in
terms of acceleration and its corresponding sound pressure
effect (noise).

Figure 7: Caliper Acceleration and sound pressure at a noise

occurence

ANALYSIS
As it has been said, the approach in order to identify the noise
path is through the phase analysis of the signal. One effective
manner to do so is with the help of the Bode diagrams. A
Bode diagram helps to analyze how the output, or feedback (in
control theory), follows the command (or input) by showing
the relationship between them and the frequency of excitation,
as well as the phase between the two signals.
Typically, the Bode diagram is presented on a log-log graph,
so that a wide range of frequencies and amplitude levels can
be plotted. The amplitude of the gain diagram is usually
expressed in decibels, where each 20 decibels increment
represents a factor of x10 in amplitude ratio, and the amplitude
for the phase diagram is usually expressed in degrees.
Firstly, one needs to identify the frequency of the phenomenon
or even its range of frequency, if the noise is a widely spread
over the spectrum. As it has been shown in the Figure 4
(microphones sound pressure over the frequency) and in the
Figure 8, one can notice that the noise occurs in just one
specific range, around 515Hz. This value is important as the
bode diagram will be plotted around such a frequency.

Figure 9: Bode diagram with Left/Right external

microphones.
The Figure 9 shows two different runs in two graphs. One plot
represents the gain magnitude (top graphic) and the other one
is the phase in degrees (bottom graphic) for a range of
frequency near to the resonance previously identified. One can
observe zero average gain (confirming the same level of sound
pressure) and an average delay of around 43 deg, which at this
frequency would mean a 0.23ms of delay of the right
microphone in comparison with the left one. Therefore,
despite of the same level of sound pressure, the sound at the
left side is taking place first.
Looking to the Figure 10 one can see the bode diagram for left
(input) and right (output) brake calipers accelerations for two
runs. The level of gain is around -15dB, showing an
attenuation from the left to the right, and an average of 19 deg
of delay, which means around 0.11ms for the resonance
frequency of 515 Hz. Thus the right caliper vibration also
happens later than the left one and such delay is lower than the
one observed between the two microphones.

Figure 8: PSD spectrum of microphone and caliper

vibration during the noise.
Such an observation confirms the problem being related to a
resonance problem in a low dissipative system. Thus, the first
bode diagram can be built and the most obvious is the one
with left external microphone as input and the right external as
output (Figure 9).

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behavior of the delay curve observed in the Figure 11 for the

brakes on configuration. Otherwise, the steering box shows a
delay in comparison with the caliper. In other words, for the
steering box to be in phase with the caliper, a contact between
pads and disc is required, confirming the moan noise
phenomena and a caliper resonance. The Figure 14 shows the
noise path identified through these analysis.

Figure 10: Bode diagram with Left/Right caliper

acceleration.
The Figure 11 shows a bode diagram for left and right calipers
vibration and steering box acceleration. The left caliper as
input and right caliper output is the same as the Figure 11 and
it was plotted just for a reference (magenta). The steering box
as input and right caliper vibration as output (red curve), one
can see a slight higher delay than the previous relation.
Moreover, the most noticeable result is the amplification from
the steering box to the right caliper, probably confirming a
resonance effect at a brake component (most likely the caliper
itself). A curious result is the steering box signal has been
shown to be almost in phase with the left caliper. Such a
behavior tends to show a different path of the vibration
between the left caliper and the steering box than the intuitive
path (from the left caliper to the steering box). In other words,
the vibration can be, probably, being generated in another part,
in the brake disc, for example, and then being transmitted to
the caliper and steering box simultaneously.

Figure 11: Bode diagram for left/right calipers and steering

box.

In order to confirm this insight, the vehicle brake disc was

then excited with an instrumented hummer and the same bode
analysis was carried out. The main idea of the impulse
excitation is to cover the resonance frequency of 515Hz in a
more controlled environment and especially the ability to
change the condition of the systems: brakes on and off.
The Figure 12 one can see the bode diagram built based on a
hammer excitation between left caliper and left knuckle (hub)
with brakes on (blue) and brakes off (red). Both graphs show
attenuation from the caliper to the knuckle, confirming a
resonance of the caliper but also show a change of the delay
for these two brake conditions. The knuckle in normally
delayed to the caliper, but when there exists a contact between
the brake pads and the disc, the knuckle shows up in advance
to the caliper. In order to check this assumption, the same was
done to the caliper and steering box, as done in the Figure 11.
The Figure 13 shows the bode diagram for the impulse
excitation, for brakes on and off. One can see also the same
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Figure 12: Bode diagram for left caliper and knuckle (hub).

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
Once with the noise path identified as well as the main root
cause (caliper + pads motion coupled), such a brake noise can
be caught in measurements using an appropriate analysis. If,
somehow, the coupling can be measured in any configuration,
the likelihood of having noise is higher. Thus one can created
an identification method for the noise occurrence based on
normal modes.

Figure 13: Bode diagram for left caliper and steering box.

Left
Disc

Left
Knuckle

One way to do so is by using transfer functions diagrams. One

can measure it using an impact hammer sensor, which
measured the impact force added to any system, and acquiring
acceleration signals on each body of the brake systems:
caliper, disc and pads. The instrumentation setup can be seen
in the Figure 16.

Left
Caliper
Steering

Right
Knuckle

Right
Caliper

Figure 14: Vibration path identified.

After a modal analysis measurement carried out at the brake

system components, a brake caliper normal mode coupled
with brake pads was identified at around 520Hz, confirming
the noise path identified and also the moan noise effect. Figure
15 shows a snapshot of the caliper eigenmode.

Figure 16: Bode Transfer function setup measurements

The Figures 17 and 18 illustrate two transfer functions, with

the input force at the caliper and at the pads respectively, in a
noisy vehicle. It is visible a peak of gain around 520Hz in the
both cases and it is also possible to verify the same response
gain of caliper (blue) and pads (red). Such a behavior also
tends to confirm the coupling between these two bodies,
possible being the cause of the noise.
The disc simple does not show high amplification gains, at
least up to 1000Hz. The transfer function with pad excitation
one can see a peak of the disc gain at around 1400Hz, which
can be a tendency of brake squeal.

Figure 15: Caliper and Pad eigenmode at around 520Hz

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Figure 17: Transfer function for caliper excitation (noisy

vehicle)

Figure 19: Transfer function for caliper excitation (quite

vehicle)

Figure 18: Transfer function for pad excitation (noisy

vehicle)

Figure 20: Transfer function for pad excitation (quite

vehicle)

Measuring also a vehicle free of noise and plotting the transfer

(Figures 19 and 20) it is possible to identify the difference at
transfer function values between a noisy and a normal vehicle.
Therefore targets can be establish through those plot in order
to early identify vehicle with potential to show such a noise.
Looking at the Figure 19 one can observe also a peak around
500Hz, likewise the previous case. However the pad and
caliper responses are not fully coupled and with a gain much
lower (around 4.0 in comparison with 50.0 in the previous
case). In other words, given an input at the caliper, the noise
vehicle response in the caliper and pad is expected to be
amplified by the factor around 50. In the other hand, from the
vehicle free of noise is expected a response only 4.0 times
amplified at the pad and 2.0 times at the caliper.
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In the Figure 20 there is no peak identified in the near of

500Hz. Thus no amplification is expected around such a
frequency and then noise should not take place.
Although it has been shown the ability to measure the
potentiality of a vehicle make noise though the transfer
function plot, such graph represents just one life condition of
the vehicle brake system. As the brake pads, for example,
wear out by its usage, the transfer function can change as long
as its behavior. The Figure 21 and 22 shows the same vehicle
of the Figures 19 and 20, however after some mileage of
usage. What can be seen is that some coupling was observed
in the frequency of the noise identified between caliper and
pads, but with smaller amplified factor for caliper excitation.
The gain for the pad excitation has shown to be higher, but not
fully coupled with caliper. Such a vehicle, at the test
condition, was presenting an intermittent brake noise.

In this work a moan noise brake problem was identified

though a phase signals analysis. Such a method quantifies the
time delays between all important signals, especially the
vibration ones, and then one can map a noise path for the
entire multi-body system. By usage of bode diagrams, not only
the delays are obtained but also the gains signal-to-signal.
Knowing the amplification/attenuation from all signals it was
possible to presume resonant phenomena which have
improved its understanding.
It was identified a resonant mode of the caliper coupled with
brake pads that once excited, by the contact between pad and
disc, causes a vibration that amplifies the contact and
generates the sound, in a so called self-excited vibration,
typical of moan/squeal phenomenon.

Figure 21: Transfer function for caliper excitation (quite

vehicle after usage)

Although being a very specific and isolated analysis, transfer

function plots showed to be a very useful tool for identifying
the potentiality of brake noise in a vehicle.

REFERENCES
1.

2.

Marroquin, Marc. "A Comparison of Seven Different

Noise Identification Techniques", SAE Paper 2003-011690, 2003}
Chen, Frank, "Disc Squeal Reduction and Prevention
Design Guide", Ford Internal Report, 2004

CONTACT INFORMATION
CLAUDIO GOMES FERNANDES - Email:
cferna52@ford.com
HUDSON TADEU FERREIRA - Email: hferre11@ford.com
RICARDO MARTINEZ - Email: rmart128@ford.com
Figure 22: Transfer function for pad excitation (quite
vehicle after usage)
Another interesting feature observed in the Figure 22 is the
disc gain peak at around 1400Hz. Such a peak could be
observed in the previous Figures, but in smaller values. In the
Figure 22 the amplication gain is around 40 and can be a
potential characteristic of squeal in the vehicle.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS
Noise identification is always a challenging subject. There
exist some methods well established and validated. However
there is no general method that works to a given problem.
Each technique has advantages and limitations, so it is
important to understand these to ensure that the proper
technique is chosen for the test to be carried out.
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