Proceedings of the International Symposium on

Sustainable Systems and Technologies, v4 (2016)

Unknown Pollution: Knowledge Gridlock of Environmental Research
in the High-tech Sector
Wen-Ling Tu National Chengchi University, Taiwan, wtu@nccu.edu.tw
Abstract. From the science, technology, and society (STS) perspective, this paper examines
the knowledge gridlock problems of environmental research related to the Taiwan high-tech
clusters. Inspired by STS studies, this research focuses on analyzing the limitation of current
scientific research in detecting the hazardous substances emitted by the electronics industry.
Referring to the different types of unknowns concept proposed by Gross (2007) and the
undone science discussions made by Hess (2007), we paid special attention to the conditions
that restrain the knowledge production of regulatory science. Through reviews of the scientific
reports and interviews with the environmental scientists who had conducted studies on hightech pollutant emissions, this paper tries to map out the limitations of the current knowledge
production system in identifying the risks of hazards and the link of the pollutants detected to the
source of the pollutions.
The results of our study indicate that inadequate environmental regulations have paradoxically
reversed the process to render high-tech pollution studies almost useless. Such studies cannot
truly respond to the health risks or environmental hazard concerns, and the regulatory science
remains in a contradicting state. In other words, monitoring or research conducted according to
regulations cannot satisfy the mission of regulatory science on pollution prevention. This study
points out that the inherent social character of regulatory science as well as the its passive and
closed social embeddedness has restricted the accessibility of the regulatory science findings
to only the few academic labs, the government authorities, and the manufacturers. The
environmental regulation policies promoted by these research findings or surveys are highly
closed and lack social discussion. This undisclosed and conservative nature obstructs the
progress of regulatory science and deprives the community members of their right to know.
The discussions of this paper aim to increase our understanding of undone science and
ignorance in Asian electronics manufacturing sectors. This paper suggests government
organizations and scientific communities to adopt more open and pluralistic approaches to
break through the barriers between scientific research and public participation, and further
overcome the predicaments of environmental information and knowledge production monopoly.

Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technologies (ISSN 2329-9169) is
published annually by the Sustainable Conoscente Network. Jun-Ki Choi and Annick Anctil, co-editors 2016.
ISSSTNetwork@gmail.com.
Copyright 2016 by Wen-Ling Tu Licensed under CC-BY 3.0.
Cite as:
Unknown Pollution: Knowledge Gridlock of Environmental Research in the High-tech Sector Proc. ISSST, Wen-Ling
Tu. Doi information v4 (2016)

Unknown Pollution: Knowledge Gridlock of Environmental Research in the High-tech Sector

Introduction. As more high-tech pollution hazards are being revealed, the chemical related
restriction and control have gained more attention from the international society. For example,
the European Unions Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) has banned six toxic
substances, including lead, mercury, and chromium, in electronic products. However, this type
of in-product and specific toxic substance item regulatory form seemed insufficient to resolve
the emerging risk problems created by high-tech manufacturing. So exactly what are the
environmental and human health impacts from the intensive applications of chemical
compounds and heavy metals by high-tech manufacturing processes? According to Joseph
LaDou (2006), there is a dearth of industrial hygiene, environmental, safety, or occupational
disease related studies; and most of these studies are confined to the United States.
In Taiwan, some studies have identified environmental impacts associated with the IT
production and industrial expansion: including toxics emissions that have resulted in substantial
land, water, and air pollution; massive clusters of land development which further led to
resource use conflict and forced the farmers out of their land; and substantial water demand that
exacerbated water fights in the high-tech development regions (Chang et al, 2004; Tu, 2007; Tu
and Lee, 2008; Tu and Lee, 2009). However, official records indicated that the science parks,
which host most IT manufacturing firms, have outstanding environmental records.
How do we explain the contrast pictures between great records and environmental realities? In
this paper, we follow the two most infamous pollution cases in Taiwan, the oyster heavy metal
contamination controversies in the Hsinchu coastal region which were suspiciously related to
wastewater discharged by the Hsinchu Science Park (HSP) and the Siaoli River pollution case,
to understand the difficulties for high-tech pollution studies to attribute the causes of pollutions.
Is HSP the Major Pollution Contributor? Keya River absorbs wastewaters discharged by the
HSPs high-tech industry (185,000 CMD compared to the rivers own water flow of 106,000
CMD), households, and the traditional industry, and eventually flows into Hsiangshan coastal
wetland. In 1997, a journalist reported on a case of the suspected pollution-induced sex change
of Thais Clavigera (a species of predatory sea snail) in the Hsinchu Hsiangshan coastal region.1
The academia issued a heavy metal contamination warning for the farmed oysters of
Hsiangshan (Chiou, 1999; Wang, 2001). In a paper published by the British journal
Environmental Pollution, Han et al. (2000) alleged that the oysters of the Hsiangshan region
were contaminated by heavy metal. In 2006, the Fisheries Department publicly confirmed that
the 200 hectares of oyster farms along the Hsiangshan region were indeed contaminated by
heavy metal and requested the oyster farmers to abandon their farms and change their
professions.2
To clarify the links between the HSP and the oyster contamination, we review some post-2002
studies related to heavy metal contamination in farmed oysters at several major river outlets
along the Hsiangshan region. For example, Chen (2004: 30) indicated that the concentration
levels for arsenic, copper, nickel, zinc, tungsten, and indium have increased over 3 folds after
the HSP wastewater emission into the Keya River. Among them, copper and tungsten have
increased over 10 times. The results showed that the Hsinchu Science Park has contributed
most of the copper and tungsten pollution at the middle and lower streams of the Keya River.
Hsu et al. (2011: 197) found that tungsten concentrations observed in the Keya River have
reached 300_g/L, up to nearly four orders of magnitude higher than the average river
concentration (0.030.1_g/L) worldwide (p.200). The annual discharge of the dissolved
1
2

China Times, Nov. 26, 1999, 18.

China Times, May 10, 2006, C2.

Wen-Ling Tu

tungsten from this mere 24-kilometer long river was estimated to be 300mg/m3 (80106) m3/yr,
which is equivalent to that of the Yangze River. By cross referencing samples of metals such as
tungsten, silver, and copper used by the semiconductor industry from the different time periods
(before 1992 when the Hsinchu Science Park has not been fully developed, and after 1992) and
by studying spatial distribution of particulate concentrations of the heavy metals measured, this
study have reached the conclusion that the semiconductor industry has a significantly impact on
the marine ecology at the Hsiangshan region, such as the pollution-induced sex change and the
drop in the reproductive rate (underproduction) of marine life.
However, scientific studies have not reached a consistent conclusion regarding the connection
between the heavy metal contamination of oysters and the Hsinchu Science Park industrial
wastewater emission. For example, Wu (2005) speculated that although oysters have been
severely contaminated by copper and arsenic, the main source of the pollution did not come
from the Hsinchu Science Park because water samples collected from the Hsinchu Science
Park wastewater discharge point showed copper and arsenic concentration levels lower than
those collected from the household emission points downstream. Tsai (2007:49) believed that
these heavy metals most likely came from the Hsinchu Science Park and factories at the
Hsiangshan industrial district. One of the experts we interviewed also indicated that farmed
oyster experiments conducted at different river outlets showed that the Sansinggong River that
flows through the Hsiangshan Industrial Zone had contributed more pollution to Hsiangshan
than that of the Keya River (Interview A2, 07-17-2012).
We have summarized only some of the studies, and already these scientific studies have
yielded contradictory views on who is the real contributor of the Hsiangshan oyster
contamination.
Siaoli River Disputes: Unknown Health Impact. Different from the Keya Rivers multi-layer
wastewater pollution problem, Siaoli River has long been classified by the government as one of
the very few rivers having the A grade water quality. At the downstream where the Siaoli River
intersects with the Fongshan River, a tap water intake point has been constructed to provide
drinking water for thirty thousand people of the Hsinpu Township. The Siaoli Rivers main
sources of pollutions are the two optoelectronic plants, AU Optronics Corp. (AUO) and
Chuanghwa Picture Tubes (CPT), which established large-scale facilities and started to operate
their business at the upstream of the river in 2001 (Tu and Lee, 2010). Although the local
environmental protection bureau alleged that Siaolis water quality comply with effluent
standards, reports issued by the Hsinchu Irrigation Association indicated that conductivity,
chloride, sulfate, ammonia, and sodium adsorption rates have all exceeded the irrigation water
quality standards (Hsinchu Irrigation Association, 2008). The scientific report completed by
Tsinghua University in 2007 also specified that fluoride and phosphate ions (byproducts from
the wafer cleaning, photoresist, and etching processes) as well as indium and tungsten ions
(from the LCD display transparent electrode grinding and single-wafer cleaning procedures)
were detected in the soil at the downstream of the discharge point.3
Although evidence of the optoelectronic wastewater pollution in Siaoli River is clear, questions
such as what are the specific pollutants, what are the correlations between factory emissions
and the pollution, what are the impacts to the environment and health, and whether the current
environmental regulations can fully enforce the standards remain quite controversial. After the

This scientific report (the Longtan Sanhe Village Farmland Effluent Path Soil Sediment Sampling Survey Report,
2007) is unpublished.

Unknown Pollution: Knowledge Gridlock of Environmental Research in the High-tech Sector

EPA detected levels of rare heavy metals in the wells along the Siaoli River, it simply revised
the drinking water and optoelectronic wastewater control standards by adding indium, gallium,
molybdenum in the list of controlled substances and enforcing restrictions on levels of total toxic
organics (TTO) and the degree of acute organism toxicity (TUa) for the optoelectronics industry.
However, the new standard control levels are far above those detected in the water that the
revisions may have only served to render the control mechanisms ineffective and to eventually
end further toxics related discussions and investigations.4
In the discussions above, we observed the difficulty to clearly link the pollutions detected to the
source of the pollutions. Different researchers have different theories on the sources of
contaminations. The clarification of pollution source still remains at the debate phase, which
makes high-tech pollution oversight by civil groups even more difficult. Despite the numerous
pollution related studies, it is still difficult to successfully prove exactly what pollutions are
caused by the high-tech industry based on the scientific evidence. An environmental related
dispute resolution is nowhere in sight.
Research Questions and Theoretical Approach. Why are we still helpless with only limited
knowledge about high-tech electronic pollution problems? The Science, technology, and society
(STS) research that have emphasized on scientific knowledge construction processes to
understand scientific uncertainty, risk regulations, as well as standard setting (Jasanoff, 1990;
Wynne, 2007; Corburn, 2005) seemed to provide partial answers. This social constructivism
approach is particularly concerned about the interwoven relationship between the scientific
technology knowledge production processes and the social factors. How science is positioned in
the social power structure may affect research results. Some studies indicated that it would be
difficult for scientific evidences produced based on lab experiments and a large number of
samples not to be affected by funding. Those who oppose the regulations often use the
manufacturing uncertainty and junk science strategies to delay or eliminate regulatory
actions, which stress the impossibility of using science to confirm the causality relationships
between the industrial hazards and the health risks (Michaels and Monforton, 2005; Michaels,
2008).
The STS perspectives have deconstructed the myths of scientific neutrality, challenged the
general concept that science must isolate the external factors in order to create reliable
knowledge, and raised the questions regarding to the political roles of the experts in the
traditional decision-making process. The STS perspectives have thus advocated the inclusion of
knowledge from the general public and opened up the black box of scientific knowledge and
policy strategies (Wynne, 1992; Fischer, 2009). These perspectives helped us to understand
that scientific knowledge production and methodologies are fraught with politics, influenced by
the social context, and not as objective and neutral as claimed. However, such analysis appears
incomplete in terms of understanding the high-tech environmental knowledge production status.
To comprehend the knowledge production operation of the environmental regulatory science on
the high-tech industry, we cannot ignore the political economics and social environment that
support the high-tech industry, and the scientific agenda setting problems under this
environment.
Some studies have observed large-scale scientific research trends, and noted that the overall
direction of scientific research agendas tended to conform to the wills of special interests. Pielke
(2007) indicated that the preset model where scientific studies drive social benefits has become

Lihpao Daily, Aug. 25, 2010. Available at http://www.lihpao.com/?action-viewnews-itemid-99150

Wen-Ling Tu

unchallenged. Under global competition, the political decision makers tend to support studies
that focus on the short-term, small-scale, and foreseeable benefits. Hess (2007) found that
under the fast pace of globalization, scientific autonomy is deeply influenced by the logic of
capital funding. He developed the undone science concept and discussed the subject of
systematic knowledge nonproduction by the science academia community. While the
environmental sustainability related studies are critical, they produced limited results. Frickel et
al. (2010) further define undone science as areas of research identified by social movements
or civil society organizations as having potentially broad social benefit, but are left unfunded,
incomplete, or generally ignored (p.445).
The concept of undone science helps us to more keenly observe the role of the institutional
factors in the shaping of scientific research, but it does not clarify its specific connotations or
showcase its operational definitions. In this regard, Gross (2007) proposed a direction of
thinking in terms of unknowns. He distinguished four categories of knowledge. (1) Ignorance:
all fields of knowledge inevitably face knowledge limitations in a certain area, which increase
with every state of new knowledge; (2) non-knowledge: knowledge about what is not known but
taken into account for future planning; (3) negative knowledge: considered as unimportant or
even dangerous, such unknowns are caused by the suppression of knowledge production
despite knowing that the knowledge does exist; and (4) extended knowledge: establish a
method to research with non-knowledge and enter the process of gaining knowledge (p.751).
Referring to the different types of unknowns concept proposed by Gross (2007) and the
undone science discussions made by Hess (2007), I would like to further ask: why has
regulatory science long ignored the high-tech pollution problems, and how does the current
institutional process influence the production of high-tech pollution related knowledge?
Investigative Method. Inspired by STS studies, this research focuses on analyzing the
limitation of current scientific research in detecting the hazardous substances emitted by the
electronics industry. We paid special attention to the conditions that restrain the knowledge
production and the social characteristics of regulatory science. We examined the science park
pollution problem related reports and interviewed scientists who had conducted studies on hightech pollutant emissions. By conducting the field observation and interviews, we explored the
limitations of the current knowledge production system in identifying the risks of hazards and
understand the social characteristics of regulatory science on the industrial toxics. The social
implication of problem invisibility is further elaborated. We started from understanding the hightech environmental knowledge production process, and discussed the possible directions of
resolution in the conclusion.
Results and Discussion. In this study, I contended that the scientific community has a very
limited ability to provide scientific evidence of attribution related to high-tech pollutions. The
following discussions pinpoint the major limitations for the pollution research related to the hightech manufacturing industry.
Regulations and Funding Opportunities Confine Science Doing It is noteworthy that high-tech
pollution are often faced with the dilemma of being unrecognized under the current regulations
or national standards. Advances of regulations are far behind the rapid change of the industrial
production, and the environmental standards have often failed to acknowledge pollution. A
researcher addresses that the legal compliance cannot ensure risk free of wastewater
discharge: just because everything conforms with regulation at the time does not mean their
emissions contain no harmful substances (Interview A4, 09-13-2012).

Unknown Pollution: Knowledge Gridlock of Environmental Research in the High-tech Sector

Based on our analysis of interview data, regulatory science highly depends on the regulations,
which indirectly draw the boundary that limits the academias mobility to investigate high-tech
pollution. One scholar claimed: if there is no legal regulation, then there is no violation. As long
as there is no legal regulation, no officials would take the matter seriouslyTherefore, no
regulation equates no action (Interview A1, 04-26-2012). This scholar believed that academic
studies are still more focused on the official issues.
Moreover, the features of the research that tended to rely on the legally regulated items can
impact the accessibility of not only budget but also information. In Taiwan, the funding resources
for regulatory science often accompany research projects contracted by the government or firms.
Regardless whether the subject involved are manufacturers or governments, studies must
comply with regulations in order to have legitimacy, and be able to obtain research funds and
insider information.
Nevertheless, the research funders often try to restrict the scientists from disclosing the
research outcomes. If the funding came from manufacturers, they would explicitly tell
researchers that no research results can be published domestically or internationally (Interview
A4, 09-13-2012). The manufacturers often ask the researcher to sign confidentiality contracts to
ensure that the researcher cannot mention the companys name and some details (Interview
A4, 09-13-2012). This also drives the fear of the researchers who do not want to get mired into
political debates: People are afraid that the data would be referenced or abused by someone
else Out of 100 statistics, one may contain some uncertainties, and such uncertainties may
be amplified by others(Interview A2, 07-17-2012).
What if the funding came from a public department? One expert told us that: If the funding
came from the EPA or the EPD, then you may disclose research findings upon their approval
(Interview A1, 04-26-2012). In other words, the price of the trade-off to obtain the research
budgets is often undisclosed. The limited funding sources create the situation where the
manufacturers, the government, and the researchers who knew the truth are unwilling to publish
the data and research findings; and thereby set regulatory science into a closed and introverted
state. This forces the various high-tech environmental improvement endeavors and discussions
to remain in a closed community. The conditions of knowledge production for regulatory science
forces a researcher to choose whether to extend his/her own knowledge by accepting the
undisclosed trade-off or to stay in a knowing there is a problem but cannot confirm it (nonknowledge) state by rejecting the confidential requirements.
Trade Secret and Incomplete information/ Knowledge. As mentioned, our interview data
indicated that the manufacturers commissioned project is often a critical opportunity for
scientists to understand the pollution problems of various manufacturing processes and can
help to make up the causal chain between the back-end sampling and the front-end production
process. However, in reality, things are not so easy. Very few scientists can master the source
of chemicals and their application procedures. A scientist told us, unless you know the
production personnel well, know what substances they use, and have a strong chemical
background, you would not be able to know what the chemical reactions and derivatives of the
substances would create. The production personnel only knew that the interactions of
substances A and B would create a desirable product C..., However, what will be created is
not only product C, there are also byproducts D, E, and F. They do not know what D,
E, and F are and do not care. Their stance is that they would do what they are regulated to
do, and nothing more (Interview A4, 09-13-2012).

Wen-Ling Tu

The interviewee stated that there are numerous new and previously unknown pollutants in the
water, but due to trade secret and patent constraints, even if you can get a look on the material
list and emission data, you may not be able to see their correlation to pollution. A researcher
told us: the high-tech manufacturers would not tell you what substances they use. Even if they
do tell you, the information would be considered a trade secret (Interview A4, 09-13-2012).
One expert discussed the similar information concealment trick he had experiences through
several years of the Hsinchu Science Park environmental oversight process: trade secret
means that they generally would not publically disclose the type of rare metal they used for the
production process. The problem arises when the environment is being polluted by this rare
metal, yet you cannot know what this rare metal isEven if you can detect this rare metal (in
wastewater or air), you may not know where it came from (Interview B4, 06-21-2012).
Therefore, it is extremely difficult to determine what types of pollutants to test for.
To conduct regulatory science for the emerging pollutants, a researcher needs to know what
substances are used by the high-tech industry before determining what risks these substances
pose in order to decide whether to invest the limited resources into the research. The
researcher admits that such risk information is mostly based on international research or
regulatory data. Taiwans government does not produce or integrate this kind of information.
Studies are often stymied by insufficient environmental background and production process
information.
From the above discussion, we see the multiplicity of information concealments based on
information availability, unknown risks of emerging substances, trade secrets, lack of knowledge
for the front-end production process, lack of data integration research, and publishing limits.
These obstructions hinder our ability to have a comprehensive understanding of the high-tech
pollution problems. These concealments often made it difficult for related studies to filter out the
pollution hot spots. More than one researcher mentioned the plight of incomplete information
and having to depend on luck to explore the problems.
Conclusion. The above discussions have indicated that whether a researcher is unable to
conduct a study or had conducted the study but must restrict information disclosure, the various
pollution risks would no doubt remain unknown for the communities (nescience). The researcher
also needs to decide whether to continue to remain at the knowing that there is a problem but
cannot confirm it (non-knowledge) state; or to use his/her own study to extend knowledge
(extended knowledge) but remain silent to the outside world or even safeguard the taboo
knowledge (negative knowledge).
The environmental regulation policies promoted by the research findings or surveys are highly
closed and lack social discussion. It then makes an arbitrary restriction of information that can
be used to develop environmental knowledge. This undisclosed and conservative nature also
obstructs the progress of regulatory science and deprives the community members of their right
to know.
To effectively resolve the knowledge gridlock of high-tech pollution, we believe that regulatory
science must be fully connected to the local society. Active interactions with the civil society and
including the initiatives of the civil society into research agendas may improve information
disclosure as well as enhance the quality and accountability of regulatory science. Recognizing
the environmental feelings, doubts, and concerns of the people may possibly provide mutual
guidance, assistance, and progress to scientific studies. Therefore, it is important for the
government organizations and scientific communities to adopt more open and pluralistic
approaches to break through the barriers between scientific research and public participation,

Unknown Pollution: Knowledge Gridlock of Environmental Research in the High-tech Sector

and further overcome the predicaments of environmental information and knowledge production
monopoly.
Acknowledgements. This project is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Taiwan (104-2628-S-004-001-MY3). The author is thankful to Chun-Yi Ho for his efforts in data
collection and organization for the draft of this paper.
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