VincentCOREchemnotes08 2

Carlingford High School
HSC Study Group
I.
Yr 12 2008
Written by Vincent Lee
Edit by Jiro Funamoto
Production of Materials
1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the
production of other substances
construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions

as they are encountered
Word equation:
Using words to describe the reaction. For example:
Sodium metal would react with chlorine gas to produce sodium chloride.
OR
Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
Balanced formulae equations:
Describe the reaction with formulas of the reactants where the reactants and products
have the same no. of atoms of the same type.
E.g. 2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2 NaCl (s)
identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of
the fractions from the refining of petroleum

Industrial production of ethane:
Thermal Cracking of heavier fractions of crude oil (e.g. naphtha), [heavier fractions
obtained via the fractional distillation of crude oil - separation of molecule species
based on their boiling point ]
From higher energy (molecular mass) compound to lower energy compound
(molecular mass)
E.g.
Cracking is endothermic (absorbs heat)

Two types of cracking:
Thermal Stream cracking (via steam)
Specifically produce ethylene
=> long-chain hydrocarbons and steam in long pyrolysis coils at
750 - 900C
Catalytic cracking
Cracking with zeolite (catalyst)
A lower temperature can be used
Copyrights reserved by Carlo HSC study group

HSC Study Group
identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond,
is readily transformed into many useful products

Ethene (ethylene) is an unsaturated hydrocarbon - i.e. a hydrocarbon containing less than
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms per molecule. Alkanes on the other hand are
saturated hydrocarbons.
< higher electron density i.e. the probability that you
will find an electron here is
greater (instead of
abundance).
Double bond More reactive than alkanes because of this double bonds higher
electron density - : attracts various highly electronegative elements - Cl, F etc.
Can undergo Addition reactions - i.e. its double bond Opens up and allows atoms
to be added (addition reaction) across it.
Some products of ethylene/ethene include:

- Vinyl chloride (chloro ethene) - via substitution reaction
- Styrene (ethnyl benzene / phenyl ethene) - via substitution reaction
- Polyethylene - via polymerisation
- Anti freeze (ethylene glycol) - via oxidation and hydrolysis
- Ethanol - via hydration
identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are
made
Monomer: Basic units of a polymer (sub unit of a polymer chain)
E.g. Ethene is the monomer of the polymer polyethylene.
Different polymers have different monomers

Some polymers can have more than 1 type of monomer.

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of

this term
Addition polymers: Polymers that are formed by unsaturated monomers with double or
triple bonds, allowing them to open up and allow more monomers to be added into the
polymer No loss of atoms
Addition reaction: The chemical reaction where a small molecule adds across the double
or triple bond in a hydrocarbon.
Polymer: A long chain macro-molecule composed of repeating sub-units called
monomers.
HENCE: An addition polymer is a long chain macromolecule formed via addition
reactions in unsaturated H.C.s, and composed of repeating sub-units called monomers.
E.g.: Polyethene (monomer = ethylene/ethene)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - (monomer = chloro ethene)
Polystyrene (PS) - (monomer = phenyl ethene)
outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a

commercially and industrially important polymer
There are several types of polyethylene that can be produced. Each type differs
from the other by the difference in the physical structure/bonding of each. These structure
differences often arise from the different polymerisation processes. The three major polyethylene
types are
1. Low Density Poly-Ethylene (LDPE)
2. High Density Poly-Ethylene (HDPE)
3. Cross Linked Polyethylene (CLPE)
Low Density Poly-Ethylene (LDPE)
These are produced by adding a peroxide initiator to initiate the polymerisation process.
This is described below ....
Production of polyethylene: (LDPE)
- Initiation: A peroxide radical (R O) attaches to a ethane molecule (monomer),
forming a larger radical
- Propagation: This radical will continue to attach on other monomers and becomes
longer and longer

HSC Study Group
- Termination: This process will end when two of these radical react - either two
activated chains combine to de-activate each other, or an inhibitor is added to
prevent further polymerisation.
##Note: LDPE is a polymer with branching side chains. These are branches and
connections between polymer chains which prevent many crystalline regions from
forming in the polymer. (only 40-55% crystalline regions) As a result, LDPE is soft and
flexible, being used often for plastic bags, cling wrap, squeezable bottles etc.
LDPE: older - ???, higher temperature and pressure
HDPE: newer, Ziegler-Natta process lower temperature and pressure ???
Production of HDPE (High Density Polyethylene)
- We use a Ziegler-Natta surface catalyst, which initiates monomers on its surface (initiate = by
opening a double bond), so new monomers can attach onto the activated monomer units, and
itself become activated too so other monomers can keep polymerising onto activated monomers
to lengthen the polymer chain.
HDPE is an example of a linear polymer, where unlike LDPE, it does not have many side
branching chains. The polymer chains are packed close together and dispersion forces hold them
tightly. This more uniform polymer chain structure leads to the presence of greater (80-95%)
crystalline regions within the polymer, and hence give it greater rigidity and strength. Uses for
HDPE include agricultural pipes, bottles, petrol tanks, buckets etc.
Cross Linked Polyethylene (CLPE) .
Most likely will not need to know this one, however, ...
Cross linked polymer chains have covalent bonds linking adjacent polymer chains, and are thus
very rigid and strong (more than linear polymers like HDPE). CLPE therefore is used for objects
that need toughness, e.g. bottle caps etc.

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

vinyl chloride
styrene
By both their systematic and common names
Common
name
Vinyl chloride
Systematic
name
Chloroethene
Or
Ethenyl chloride
Styrene
Phenylethene
Or
Structure
formula
Polymer
PVC
Polystyrene
Ethenyl benzene
describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in
terms of their properties
Polymer
Properties
Use
Structural
formula

HSC Study Group
Polyvinyl
chloride
(PVC)
Hard
Rigid
Thermoplastic
hydrophobic
actually, by itself it
has quite useless
properties,... e.g.
brittle, degrades in
UV, decomposes at
80C etc
>>However the addition
of various
compounds can
dramatically alter
its properties.
Examples :
Plasticisers : added to
reduce brittleness
and increase
flexibility.
UV Absorber : prevents
UV decomposition.
Flame Retardants :
lowers flammability
of PVC
Heat Stabilisers :
improves heat
resistance.
Polystyrene Crystal Polystyrene
Hard
Rigid
Transparent
Expanded polystyrene:
Light
Heat resistant
Good heat and

sound insulation
properties.
Rubbish Bin
Gardening tools
Flooring
Flexible tubing
Underground
piping (Cl atom
can be broken by
UV light)
Bottle cap
CD cover
tool (e.g. screw
driver) handles
etc.
Foam products
protective
packaging
Hot drink foam
cups
identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the

reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in
bromine water
Bromine water test
1. Prepare a liquid alkane (e.g. Hexane) and its corresponding alkene (1-hexene)color
change easier to be observed
2. Add alkane and alkene into bromine water

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
3. Observer color change of bromine

Results:
Alkene with bromine water
Alkane with bromine water
Color change immediately from brown to colorless

No color change
Conclusion: Alkenes are more reactive than their corresponding alkanes.

2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels
discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently

obtained from the petrochemical industry
Petrochemical industry is obtained from petroleum (crude oil)
As crude oil is a fossil fuel, it is a non-renewable resource and there will be a day
when petroleum will be used up.
This one day is quite near due to the enormous global oil consumption for
petrochemicals and fuels.
Society and individuals are very dependent on these petrochemicals and fuels in their
daily lives and functioning.
So it is necessary to find alternative sources to replace petroleum before it runs out
Or else petrochemical could not be produced and creates a devastating
effect to the society
explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
Condensation polymer: A polymer where it is formed by monomers with different
functional groups on both of their ends.
Also forms small by-products (e.g. water)
A condensation polymer is a polymer (a long chain macromolecule composed of
repeating monomer units) formed by condensation reactions - where a small molecule is
eliminated from the chain at each step.
#####Condensation reactions always lead to the elimination of a small molecule in the
chemical reaction process.
Examples are ...
E.g. PHB (Polyhydroxybutyrate)
PLA (Polylatic acid)
Cellulose (formed with beta-glucose monomers)
Polyester (formed with a diol and a dicarboxylic acid)
describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed

HSC Study Group
When 2 monomers come to meet, the functional group of their meeting ends will react
with each other.
MOST IMPORTANT!!! > and a small molecule, such as water, is eliminated at each step
of the polymerisation process.
This continues until all the monomers react.
describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a

condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass
Cellulose (monomer = -glucose)
##NOTE - be careful ; because there is alpha-glucose as well as -glucose. Always
remember that every second -glucose monomer is inverted, and that -glucose has its
-OH group - up.
Structure:
Aligned in straight line
Inverted every unit
Most plants contain cellulose to make up their physical structure

One of the major components of biomass (others being starch etc.)
identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed
to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Cellulose can be fermented into ethanol by yeast. The ethanol can be then converted into
ethene for further production of petrochemicals.
The Physical Process (briefly) is as follows.
1. Bacterial/enzymic breakdown of cellulose into glucose monomers.
2. Anaerobic fermentation of the glucose via yeast into ethanol.
3. Dehydration of ethanol via concentrated sulfuric acid to obtain ethene/ethylene.
4. Ethylene can then under go addition, substitution, polymerisation, hydrolysis, and
various reactions. It is therefore a useful product.
Currently the fermentation of cellulose is not very efficient as it has a low yield.
However, this may be improved by advances in technology and cellulose may be an
important source for petrochemicals.
Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary

sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a
named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific enzyme(s)
used or organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of
the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties
PHB: 3-Polyhydroxybutyrate
Synthetic organism:
Properties:
Alcaligenes Eutrophus
Similar to PP (polypropene)
Biodegradable
Biocompatible
Renewable
Water insoluble
Disadvantage:
Production cost
Low yield
Brittleness
Evaluation: It has a great potential to replace PP as petroleum runs out (& its price
increase) with PHBs yield raised.
Current developments include gene splicing in an attempt to transfer the PHB production
capability of Alcaligenes Eutrophus, to more common bacteria such as Estericia Coli.
3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources
such as plants
describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for
a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
Dehydration of ethanol:
Catalyst: Concentrated sulfuric acid {H2SO4 (aq)}

HSC Study Group
describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of

ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the
catalyst used
Hydration of ethane:
Catalyst: Dilute sulfuric acid {H2SO4 (aq)}

>> Or by passing steam and ethylene over a zeolite surface, impregnated with phosphoric
acid.
describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar
and non-polar substances
Ethanol is used as a solvent for both polar & non-polar substances.
##Remember solubility rules - like dissolves like.

Hence, - polar molecules will dissolve due to interaction with the polar part of the ethanol
molecule, and non-polar substances will dissolve due to interaction with the non-polar section
of the ethanol molecule.
E.g. Iodine is a non-polar substance, and therefore has low solubility in water (which is a polar
substance). However if ethanol is added, then the iodine will dissolve into solution, due to
interaction with the non-polar part of the ethanol molecule.
outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a
renewable resource

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
# Ethanol can be called a renewable resource, because it can be created from sugars and
carbohydrates produced via the process of photosynthesis in green plants.
Ethanol can be used as a fuel as it combusts easily, completely and cleanly.
Use: Car fuel & spirit burner
As ethanol can be produced by plants/crops through fermentation, and plants/crops are
renewable as they can grow in a human acceptable time (1 10 years) to replace the
used one. Hence ethanol is renewable.
describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
Aqueous sugars.
No oxygen is present (anaerobic) - Anaerobic conditions, otherwise the yeast will
respire the glucose, turning it into carbon dioxide and water.
Yeast Enzymes - (protein catalysts) More yeast present
Temperature: 15-37C
No more than 15 % ethanol (alcohol) - the enzymes for fermentation (e.g. yeast) die
at a greater conc. than 15%.
3.7-4.6 pH - to prevent the growth of pathogens
30-50ppm SO2 - to kill bacteria.
summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Fermentation of glucose into ethanol
DO NOT FORGET : to write the [yeast] above the reaction arrow - other wise you will
most likely lose marks.
It is an anaerobic reaction by yeast where there is not enough oxygen present. It breaks
down sugars (including glucose) into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
As starch and cellulose are polymers of glucose, they are used in fermentation to produce
ethanol. However, currently only the fermentation of starch is effective enough to be used
commercially
define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the
value for ethanol from first-hand data
Molar heat of combustion: The amount of heat energy given out in the combustion of 1
mole of that substance/fuel
OR

HSC Study Group
The heat energy released when 1 mole of a substance is burnt in excess oxygen to produce
products in their standard states. (Standard states at SLC- standard
laboratory conditions - 25C, 100kPa.)
Ethanols molar heat of combustion: -1340 kJ/mol
Apparatus:
Method:
1. Weigh the spirit burner
2. Record the temperature of the water on thermometer
3. Light the spirit burner
4. Put out the flame in several minutes time.
5. Record the weight loss in spirit burner after putting out the flame and the
temperature of the water.
6. Apply formula H = -mCT to find enthalpy change (m and C is for water)
7. Find the mole of ethanol used by dividing the weight change by molecular weight
8. Molar heat of combustion= Enthalpy change / mole of ethanol used
Errors:
1. Uneven heating
2. Heat loss
Improvement:
1. Water bath (Resolve uneven heating)
2. Stirring (Resolve uneven heating)
3. Insulation (Minimize heat loss)
#Note: when substituting into the formula [ H = mCT ], you have to be
careful to use the correct units.
The mass is the mass of water in the calorimeter. If you input this mass in
grams into the equation, then you must use the C value of 4.18 J/g/K.
However, if you input the mass in kilograms, you have to use the C value
of 4.18 x 10^3 J/kg/K (this is the one on the chemistry data sheet we get in
the examination).

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Also note that the energy from both ways of calculation input is always
given in JOULES. If the question asks for the answer in KILOJOULES, then
move the decimal, three places back!
assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the

advantages and disadvantages of its use
Advantage
Disadvantage
Ethanol burns more completely than

Use more arable land to grow
most petroleum based fuel as it
crops need to produce ethanol.
contains oxygen within its molecule
Farmlands and rural areas maybe
Less poisonous CO, C emission
converted to grow these crops and
may destroy wild inhabitants.
More environment friendly
Ethanol has a lower molar heat of

Ethanol is a renewable resource
combustion compared to octane (a
where petroleum based fuel is not.
petroleum based fuel.) So it produces
Ethanol is produced from plants and
less energy than octane with the same
crops that can grow in humanno. of molecules.
acceptable time and can be used to
I.e.
Less
energy dense.
produce ethanol again. Formation of
fossil fuel, however, takes millions of
Yield of ethanol production is still

years and it would be impossible to
too
low to satisfy the world need.
catch up the used up rate of these fuel.
Yeast could not live in environment
with alcohol concentration higher
Ethanol is a good solvent, so when
than 15%.
it is used as fuel, it dissolves old
sediments in the fuel tank/engine,.. and
Expensive engine modifications

hence cleans it.
are necessary when using a blend of
ethanol greater than 10% with
conventional petrol.
Assessment: Recently ethanol has been blended with petrol as a car fuel. It has a great
potential as a fuel when the yield of its production increases and the cost of petroleum
increases. However, currently ethanol is not successful as a main fuel.
identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to
C8
Alkanols (homologous series)

HSC Study Group
General formula: CnH2n+1OH

Suffix: anol
Prefix: Same will hydrocarbon naming
process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of
ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current
usage
Currently in Australia, ethanol is blended with petrol in 10% and is commercially known
as E-10. Any higher concentrations of ethanol, however, are discouraged by car
manufactures as they warn engine modifications are needed.
The current usage of ethanol as a fuel is disappointing; however, as petroleum prices
build, this usage will increase certainly.
In many places, the use of ethanol gets Government support, however, it often is never
placed into action, due to the need for expensive engine modifications and the lack of
arable land.
Also such scarce and fertile land is often reserved for making food, rather than to grow
power crops (power crops also need fertile land to grow). The negative impact of the use
of ethanol production is seen in the way the Mexicans food, (made from corn), has
increased in price, due to the fact that the corn producers are shifting their corn crops
toward ethanol production.
4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy
explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer

of electrons
Displacement: Cu2+ (aq) + Zn (s) Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq)
Oxidation: Zn (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e Reduction: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in

solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals
Displacement: A more reactive metal replaces a less reactive metal ion in a solution by
giving its electron to the ion.
Oxidation: More reactive
Reduction: Less reactive
MNEMONIC - [ OILRIG ]
O - xidation
I-s
L - oss (of electrons)

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
R - eduction
I-s
G - ain (of electrons)
>> An OXIDANT oxidises the other species, therefore it itself gets reduced.
>> A REDUCTANT reduces the other, getting reduced itself, (i.e. its
electrons are being used to reduce the other).
account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their

loss or gain of electrons
Oxidation state/number: Determines if a oxidation or reduction occurs
An increase in oxidation state oxidation
A decrease in oxidation state reduction
describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction

reactions
Galvanic cells a cell that generates electricity with an electrochemical reaction
(REDOX)
Oxidation of the more reactive anode (metal electrodes, more reactive metal) donates
electrons to move through a pathway (external circuit) to cathode (less reactive metal),
hence creates a current.
Often, a galvanic cell is composed of two half cells, - the reduction and
oxidation half cells.
outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of

electron flow
E.g.

HSC Study Group
define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to

describe galvanic cells
Anode (-)
Cathode (+)
Electrode
Electrolyte
Electrode where oxidation occurs

Electrode where reduction occurs
A conductor which allows the reduction/oxidation to take place on
A solution that provides ions that can be reduced/oxidized and it
completes the circuit
{ General Definition = a substance that releases ions in solution or
when melted, to carry a charge. }
Always remember, in all cells, electrochemical and electrolytic, that the ANODE is
always the site of OXIDATION, and the cathode, of reduction.
ANODE = OXIDATION
CATHODE = REDUCTION

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a

dry cell or lead-acid cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the
following:
- button cell
- fuel cell
- vanadium redox cell
- lithium cell
- liquid junction photovoltaic device (e.g. the Gratzel cell)
in terms of:
- chemistry
- cost and practicality
- impact on society
- environmental impact
Battery
Chemistry
Cost
Practicality
Dry cell
Anode:
Zn Zn2+ + 2eCathode:
Mn(IV) + e- Mn(III)
Cheap
Short life time
Easily disposable
Useful if small I is needed
Impact on Allows portable electrical energy

society
Impact on Low environment impact
environment
Diagram
Mercury button cell

Anode:
Zn + 2OH- ZnO + H2O + 2eCathode:
HgO + H2O + 2e- Hg + 2OHMore expensive
Produce more constant
voltage in most of its life
time
Smaller and lighter
Longer life time
Introduce smaller devices like
hearing aids and calculators
Mercury is poisonous
Disposal causes great concern
solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential
requirement of named electrochemical processes using tables of

standard potentials and half-equations

HSC Study Group
For each half-reaction involves energy supplied to electrons, hence it has a specific
electric potential (emf), which is normally compared to hydrogen in SLC (25C & 1 atm)
conditions.
For example,
Na (s) Na+ (aq) + e- Ep = -(-2.71) V = 2.71 V oxidation opposite direction
Cl2 + 2e- 2ClEp = 1.4 V
Overall Ep: 2.71 + 1.4 = 4.11 V
Note: Ep is not affected by the mole ratio between the reactants; however, it is dependent
on the temperature and pressure, as well as the concentration of the electrolyte.
The reduction potentials are based on SLC (standard laboratory conditions - 25C,
100kPa), and a electrolyte concentration of 1mol/L. If these conditions are different, a
different E potential would be registered.
The smaller emf a half equation has, it is less likely that the reaction would likely to
happen it indicates the reactivity of the substance.
A positive E potential for the whole cell indicates that it will undergo a spontaneous reaction in the
positive direction (the direction the E would be positive).
5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials
distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the

conditions under which a nucleus is unstable
Stable isotopes Do not give out radiation
Radioactive isotopes Give out radiation and often decay
Nucleus is unstable when:
1. There are too much protons or neutrons within the nucleus (i.e. p/n ratio < 1 or
>2)
2. Elements with atomic number larger than 83 (i.e. Have more than 83 protons)
Nuclear stability depends upon the strength of the strong nuclear force
that acts to hold the nucleons together in the nucleus.
The Nucleus is unstable when ...
1. The n-p ratio is either too high or too low.
2. It is too heavy, i.e. Z (atomic no.) > 83 (bismuth)
3. It has too much energy. I.e. it needs to shed some - via radiation.
#NOTE : - all elements with atomic numbers (Z) > 83 (Bismuth) are
radioactive.
- all elements elements higher than Uranium, are synthesized,
i.e. not naturally
occurring.
describe how transuranic elements are produced

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Transuranic elements
Artificial elements (Atomic number > 92)
Production: Bombardment of atoms by accelerated particles (e.g. Neutrons and other
atoms nucleus)
Transuranic elements are created by nuclear reactors (up to around atomic no. 96), then
further heavier elements are synthesized in ion accelerators - via firing accelerated
particles into a target. Ion accelerators allows the firing of heavier ions, e.g. Ca, at a target
nuclei, unlike nuclear reactors which can only act to collide protons and neutrons into
atoms.
describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced
For production of neutron rich radioisotopes (p/n ratio < 1):
Nuclear reactor
During nuclear fission, the neutrons near the central rod can be absorbed by
elements and becomes an isotope with a low p/n ratio
For production of proton rich radioisotopes (p/n ratio > 1.5):
Particle accelerator
High p/n ratio isotopes are produced by bombarding accelerated particles (e.g.
proton, nucleus of other elements) to elements
Types:
1. Linear accelerator
2. Cyclotron
identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect

radiation
Photographic film - a film badge or a thermoluminescent dosimeter.

Geiger counter
Scintillation counter
A cloud chamber
identify one use of a named radioisotope:

in industry
in medicine
Radioisotope for medical use:
Technetium 99m (Tracer & gamma emitter)
Radioisotope for industrial use:
Cobalt 60 (Food irradiation & Beta and Gamma emitter)

HSC Study Group
describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical
radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical
properties
Technetium 99m
Cobalt - 60
Use
Tracer for
chemical /
biological process
Food
irradiation (to
kill surface
bacteria on
veg/fruits/mea
ts, in order to
prolongue
shelf life.)
Thickness Gauge
Properties
Short half life
(6 hours)
Weak emitter
Relatively
long half-life
5.27yrs
Medium
strength
emitter
Reason
Reduces and
minimizes the
damage done to
human body
Could function in a
long period and not
be replaced save
cost
process information from secondary sources to describe recent

discoveries of elements
These new discovered elements are usually produced by bombarding relatively large
nuclei together.
A recent discovered element: Ununhexium (Uuh)
Year discovered: 2001
Atomic number: 116
Process: Calcium nucleus bombarded into curium nucleus
II.
The Acidic Environment
1. Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of some flowers
depends on soil composition
classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral
Acidic substances:
Sour taste
Corrosive
Reacts with base

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Reacts with metal (to form hydrogen gas)

does not react with fats.
Example: lemon juice, vinegar
Basic substances:
Bitter taste
Soapy feel
Corrosive
Reacts with acid
slowly reacts with fats
does not attack metals
Example: soap, drain cleaner, ammonia solution, baking soda
Neutral substances:
Usually tasteless
Not reactive
Example: Deionised water
identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange
and bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic or basic
nature of a material over a range, and that the range is identified by
change in indicator colour
Litmus:
Phenolphthalein:
Methyl Orange:
Bromothymol blue:

HSC Study Group
A change in colour does not necessary indicates a change in acidity

E.g. For phenolphthalein, any substance below pH 8.8 can appear colourless, i.e.
Acidic, neutral, even basic substance can be appeared as colourless.
Indicators - colour change summary

Litmus: Red ~ Blue-purple ~ Blue
Methyl Orange: Red ~ Orange ~ Yellow
Bromothymol Blue: Yellow ~ Green ~ Blue
Phenolphthalein: Colourless ~ Colourless ~ Crimson.
identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the

testing of soil acidity/basicity
Use of indicators:
Testing acidity of pools
pH of pools should be between 6~7
makes use: litmus / bromothymol blue
Testing acidity of soil
Different soil have different pH
Most are acidic
Each type of plant has their own specific range of pH for their survival
It is important to know the acidity of the soil before planting
Method:
1. Get a soil sample
2. Dissolve soil sample in water
3. Put indicator on the solution and measure pH
If soil too acidic Add Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
If soil too basic Add fertilizer
2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere naturally
contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The concentrations of these
acidic oxides have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution
identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the

conditions under which they act as acids
Acidic oxides: Usually oxides of nonmetal
Example: CO2, SO2, SO3, NOx

HSC Study Group
1.
React with water to produce acids:

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq)
SO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2.
Yr 12 2008
H2SO3 (aq)
HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)
React with bases:

SO2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
CO2 (g) + 2KOH (aq) K2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
analyse the position of these nonmetals in the Periodic Table and outline
the relationship between position of elements in the Periodic Table and

acidity/basicity of oxides
define Le Chatelier's principle
Le Chateliers principle:
An equilibrium system will react to a change in a way such that it minimizes the
disturbance.
If a system is in equilibrium and a change is made to disturb this equilibrium, then the
system will react in such a way as to counter-act the change, and eventually a new
equilibrium is formed
identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction
Factors:

HSC Study Group
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pressure (If gas is involved)

Temperature
Catalyst A catalyst never ever affects the equilibrium. It only acts to increase the ease
of reaction, and hence the rate of reaction, by lowering the activation energy.
Concentration of products and reactants, H+
describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various
conditions as an equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le

Chatelier's principle
CO2 (g)
CO2 (aq)
CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

HCO3- (aq)
H = ve
H2CO3 (aq)
H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)
Pressure increase
System wants to decrease in pressure
Favors forward reaction due to Le Chateliers principle of mole ratios
Equilibrium shifts to right
Temperature increases
System wants to decrease in temperature
Favors reverse reaction due to forward reactions exothermic nature
Equilibrium shifts to left
[H+] increases
System wants to decrease [H+]
Favors reverse reaction (Le Chateliers principle)
Equilibrium shifts to left
[CO2 (g)] increases
System wants to decrease [CO2 (g)]
Favors forward reaction
Equilibrium shifts to right
Catalyst
No change in equilibrium position
Reaction rate increases
identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of

nitrogen

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Sulfur Dioxide: 50% = natural ; 50% = human.

Natural: bacterial decomposition releases H2S(g) which forms sulfur dioxide.
Human: Electrical generation, metal smelters, fuel combustion, all with sulfur impurities.
Nitrogen Oxides: 86% = from engines of motor vehicles.
Natural: Lightning strikes can provide high temperatures for nitrogen to react with oxygen.
Human: Internal combustion engines (of motor vehicles) produce NOx, as nitrogen and oxygen
combine at high temperatures within the engine.
#NOTE NOx = collective formula to describe both NO (nitric oxide) and NO 2 (nitrogen
dioxide).
describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release
sulfur dioxide and chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen
For SO2:
Refining of sulfide ore and burning of impure coal
S (s) in coal/ore + O2 (g) SO2 (aq)
E.g. smelting of copper sulfide :
CuS(s) + O2(g) > Cu(s) + SO2(g)
For NOx:
Lighting and car engines:
N2 (g) + 2O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)
OR
N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g)
2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)

HSC Study Group
assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric
concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen

Evidence for:
More erosion of lime stone building in the world
More acid rain occurring
More lakes with low pH
4000 deaths in London, 1952, due to acidic smogs.
Evidence against:
The concentrations of NO2 & SO2 are not constant as they are occasionally removed
from the atmosphere through acid rain.
Winds can blow these oxides to other places, making measurements of these oxides
in the air in accurate.
Assessment: The increase in atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
does not have sufficient scientific evidence.
calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in
reactions, and calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes,
in reactions involving gases at 0C and 100kPa or 25C and 100kPa
STP: [0C & 100 kPa] (Standard temperature and pressure)
1 mole of occupies 22.71 L
RTP: [25C & 100 kPa] (Room temperature and pressure) or SLC standard Laboratory conditions, (whichever is okay).
1 mole of gas occupies 24.79 L
Once you get the number of moles that will react, calculate the volume of gas
released by using and rearranging the formula n
=
v
VM
explain the formation and effects of acid rain

Acid Rain: Rain with pH < 5
Formed by excessive acidic gases dissolving into rain droplets

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Increase the rains acidity

E.g.
SO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l)
H2SO3 (aq)
HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)
Effects:
Destroy old building, scriptures and statues
made from limestone (CaCO3), which can react with acid
acidity in soil Some plantation may die
acidity in lakes, rivers and other water bodies
Disrupt life cycle of marine organisms that are sensitive to pH
(e.g. Tropical fish)
Harm organisms
Effects of Acid Rain: (Some above maybe repeated)
Marble Erosion - e.g. of old cities and historical sculptures. This is due to the CaCO3 of the marble
reacting with sulfuric acid, to form CaSO4, which, when wet, forms a porous and crumbly material
called gypsum. This crumbly CaSO4 can degrade, or can trap atmospheric soot, leading to the
blackening of the statue.
Steel Erosion - The steel is chemically weathered by sulfuric acid, weakening it.
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) > FeSO4(s) + H2(g)
Forest Degradation: Acid rain takes away the waxy coating on the leaves of trees, and leads to the
browning of the leaves.
Acid rain also removes mineral nutrients (e.g. K, Ca, Mg etc.) from the soil, and hence strains forest
life .
Acidic soil inhibits seedling growth.
Heavy Metal Pollution of the River: an acidic river can leach and dissolve heavy metals from the river
bed, and hence make the river toxic with heavy metal ions.
Acidic water shifts the carbonic acid equilibrium, decreasing the amount of CO2 in solution. This puts
a strain of photosynthetic organisms which rely on dissolved CO2 for photosynthesis.
Fish eggs can not survive below pH 5.5, and fish can not survive below pH5, as they can not extract
enough calcium ions to maintain their exoskeletons.
3. Acids occur in many foods drinks and even within our stomachs
define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in

water
Acid is a proton donor (i.e. Donates a proton/hydrogen ion)
From Bronsted Lowrys theory
Ionisation of acids in water
Molecule turning into ions
E.g. HCl

HSC Study Group
identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2- hydroxypropane1,2,3- tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric acid
Acetic acid: (ethanoic acid)
CH3COOH
monoprotic
Citric acid: (2-hydroxypropane 1,2,3 tricarboxylic acid)

C3H4OH(COOH)3
Triprotic
Hydrochloric acid: (HCl)
monoprotic

HSC Study Group
Sulfuric acid: (H2SO4)
Yr 12 2008
diprotic
describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases

pH gives a measure of acidity or basicity of a substance
Acid: pH < 7
Base: pH > 7
describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms
strong, weak, concentrated and dilute
Strong and weak describe the degree of ionisation
Dilute and concentrated describe the concentration.
Strong acids (an acid that fully dissociates/ionises in water) are always
strong, but it can be concentrated or dilute. (e.g. NaOH, HCl etc.)

HSC Study Group
Similarly weak acids (an acid that incompletely dissociates into ions in
solution) are always weak, but you may have a concentrated or dilute weak
acid.
identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a
ten-fold change in [H+]
A change in pH of 1:
1 = - log10([H+])
-1 = log10([H+])
[H+] = 10-1
I.e. 10 fold change in [H+]
compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic

and hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree of ionization of
their molecules
Strength of acids (in same concentration)
Hydrochloric acid > Citric acid > Acetic acid
Strength
Degree of ionisation
I.e. Degree of ionisation: (How well it ionizes in solution)

Hydrochloric acid (100%) > Citric acid (~9%) > Acetic acid (~5%)
#Note: HCl and CH3COOH, are both monoprotic acids, however, citric acid is
triprotic. Hence it can potentially donate 3 x more hydrogen ions than each of the
other two acid species. However, it is a weak acid, so it does not dissociate
completely, thus much of its H+ ions are left attached to the dissolved molecule.
describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of an
equilibrium between the intact molecule and its ions

Strong acid Degree of ionisation is high
When it dissolves, the intact molecule fully ionizes into ions.

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
E.g. HCl and H2SO4

HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
H2SO4 (l) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)
Note: Strong acid usually refer on its first ionisation (First proton donation)
Weak acid Degree of ionisation is low
When it dissolves, the intact molecules ionize partially.
E.g. H2CO3
H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
The
H3O+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
(equilibrium sign) usually indicates its a weak acid
4. Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been used
and studied for hundreds of years. Over time, the definitions of acid and base
have been refined
outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those

of:
Lavoisier
Davy
Arrhenius
Lavoisier: Earliest (Around French revolution)

Suggests that acids contain oxygen (eg.H2SO4)
Wrong but starts to cause chemists to investigate on acids
Could not explain why metal oxides where basic / not acidic.
Davy: Around early 19th century

Suggests that acids contain replaceable hydrogen that could be replaced by
metals
Could not explain why substances such as methane (CH4) where not acidic.
Arrhenius: Around late 19th century

Suggests that acids dissolves in water and form hydrogen ion (H +) or more
correctly hydronium ion (H3O+)
I.e. HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
He explained the process of acid-base neutralisation as the reaction that occurs
when hydrogen combines with hydroxide ions.
He could not, however, explain why not all salts were neutral,
His theory could not also explain why not metallic oxides (with no hydroxide
ions that can dissociate), could neutralise acids (i.e. were basic).
outline the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

HSC Study Group
Bronsted Lowry theory (1923)

Note: Two different people who didnt work together!!
Acids are proton donors
Bases are proton acceptors
Proton in this case refers to a hydrogen ion which has lost its electron.
describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a
base and its conjugate acid

For an acid, its conjugate base is the specie after it donates its proton (H +)
HCl H+ + ClCl- is the conjugate base of HCl. (it is called the base as the conjugate base is able to
accept a proton, and hence act as a B-L acid.)
For a base, its conjugate acid is the specie after it gains a proton (H +)
OH- + H+ H2O
H2O is the conjugate acid of OH-. (called an acid because the conjugate acid can donate
its proton to act as a B-L acid.)
identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and
explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature
Acidic salt
NH4Cl
Formed by: Strong acid + weak

base
Example
Why?
Basic salt
NaCH3COO
MgF2
Strong base + weak
acid
The acidic ions in the

The basic ion in salt
salt reacts with water in reacts with water in
solution to produce H+ solution to produce
OH+
+
NH4 + H2O H3O +
CH3COO- + H2O
NH3
OH- + CH3COOH
Neutral salt
NH4CH3COO
NaCl
Strong base + strong
acid
OR
Weak base + weak acid
Either ions are too
weak to ionize water
OR
The hydroxide ion and
the hydrogen ion
neutralized
n(OH-) = n(H+)
identify conjugate acid/base pairs
Conjugate acid / base

E.g. HCl/Cl- CH3COOH/CH3COO-
NH4+/NH3

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe
their behaviour in acidic and basic solutions

Amphiprotic substance is any substance that can either donate or accept a proton.
E.g. HCO3- (bicarbonate ion is amphiprotic)
Reaction with acid:
HCO3- (aq) + H+ (aq) H2CO3 (aq)
HCO3- acts as a base
Reaction with base:
HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq) CO32- (aq) + H2O (l)
HCO3- acts as an acid
Other examples are: HSO4-, HPO42-, and H2O
identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic
Neutralisation A reaction between acid and base where a salt is produced
I.e. Exothermic
As energy released of breaking bonds > energy absorbed by forming bonds.
A neutralisation reaction always involves the following equation.
H+ + OH- >
H2O
H = -ve
Therefore this is the exothermic proton transfer reaction, in neutralisation.
describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation
of standard solutions
Washing
Equipment
Method

HSC Study Group
Pipette
Conical flask
Use distilled water to rinse first

Hold horizontally and roll gently
Then use 5 mL of the solution used and rinse it again
To prevent any effect on the aliquots concentration if
there is contaminant
Use distilled water to rinse first
Turning the burette upside down for a few times
Then use 5 mL of the solution that will be used and rinse it again
To prevent any effect on the aliquots concentration if
there is contaminant
Use distilled water to wash
Volumetric
flask
Use distilled water to wash
Burette
Preparing standard
Choose a solid acid/base that is stable in the air (e.g. Na 2CO3)
NaOH is not suitable hydrophilic and reacts with CO2 in the air
HCl is not suitable Exists as gas and volatile which causes concentration
to change
Weigh accurately a known amount of that solid in a beaker
Add small amounts of distilled water in the beaker to dissolve all the solids
Pour into the volumetric flask with the aid of a filter
Fill the volumetric flask with distilled water until the meniscus reaches the
calibration mark
Titration
Retrieve 25 mL of the standard solution with the pipette
Move the aliquot to the conical flask and add 3 4 drops of the suitable indicator
Indicator used must have its color range within the endpoints of the titration
Tip: Use a small amount of both unknown and standard solution to determine the
color of its indicator would appear
Fill the burette with the unknown solution
Record the marking

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Yr 12 2008
Start to switch the burette & let the unknown transfer to the conical flask
Shake/swirl the conical flask to even out the solution wyes should be focused
on the solution color under the white tile
Stop immediately if the colour of the indicator changes. It should have a
intermediate colour between the acid and base
Record the marking
Repeat the titration 2 3 times
Tip: As the first time is a rough trial, we can make use of that in the first proper
trial E.g. if the rough trial titre is 25 mL, the next titration can make use of this
and fill up to 24 mL. Then find the endpoint drop by drop
Errors
Parallax error
Eye level should be maintained
Bubbles within the burette
Drops hung in the burette are knocked down
Bubbles within pipette (too near the surface of water
Endpoints missed

HSC Study Group
qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific

example in a natural system
Buffer is a conjugate acid/base pair with both species in same concentration. Usually
either:
1. Weak acid with its conjugate base (H2CO3/HCO3-)
2. Weak base with its conjugate acid (NH3/NH4+)
It can resist changes in pH when a small amounts of acid/base is added
Example: Human blood (H2CO3/HCO3-)
Acidosis Blood pH < 7.4
Alkalosis Blood pH > 7.5
H2CO3 (aq)
H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
If acid is added
Favours the reverse reaction
Equilibrium shifts to the left
Less [H+] increase in pH
If base is added
OH- reacts with H+
Favours the forward reaction
Equilibrium shifts to the right

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Higher [H+] decrease in pH

analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of
neutralisation reactions as a safety measure or to minimise damage in

accidents or chemical spills
Chemical accidents:
If acid or base spilt on human skin
Wash with distilled water for 20 minutes
Dont use acid/base (even weak ones) to neutralize the spill on skin
May do further damage
If acid or base spills on the ground
For acid use weak base (e.g. Na2CO3)
For base use weak acid (e.g. Acetic acid)
A good process to remember when a large sale acid or base spill has occurred is:
1. Soak up the acid or base with sand and vermiculite, and transport it to another area where
neutralization can be performed.
2. Dilute the acid or base spill (e.g. on the road) by adding water.
3. Then neutralize the spill with sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3).
Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) is good for acid base neutralizations, as the hydrogen carbonate
is amphiprotic. I.e. it can act as both a B-L acid and a B-L base. Hence it can be used in both acid and
base spills.
It is also a solid, and hence can be stored easily. Being solid also make it easier to handle.
5. Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be performed in the
laboratory
describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid
functional groups in carbon compounds

Functional groups center of reactivity
Alkanol Functional group: Hydroxyl group (-OH)
Alkanoic acid Functional group: Carboxylic acid group (- COOH)

HSC Study Group
identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by
reactions of straight-chained alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straightchained primary alkanols from C1 to C8
Alkanoic acid
Homologous series: Cn-1H2n-1COOH
Suffix: -anoic acid
Alkanol
Homologous series: CnH2n+1OH
Suffix: -anol
explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by
straight-chained alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary alkanol

structures
Both alkanoic acid and alkanol have higher melting points and boiling points than
similar molecular mass alkanes.
This is because:
Alkanol and alkanoic acid are polar
hydrogen bonding as their intermolecular force
Comparatively
BP & MP of alkanoic acid > alkanols
Alkanoic acid is more polar than its corresponding alkanol

It has more than 1 place for hydrogen bonding to be formed
Alkanol only has one part to form hydrogen bonding (the hydroxyl group, OH)

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol
and describe, using equations, examples of esterification
Esters can be produced through esterification

Esterification
A reaction between a carboxylic acid (in our case, this is an alkanoic
acid) and an alcohol (in our case, an alkanol)
Acid + Alcohol
ester + water
Alkanol + Alkanoic Acid > Alkylalkanoate + Water

E.g. Methanol and methanoic acid
OR

HSC Study Group
describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis

Catalyst: Concentrated sulfuric acid
Reason:
1. Sulfuric acid is hydrophilic (absorbs H2O) i.e. It acts as a dehydrating agent
2. As water (product) reduces, the equilibrium favours the forward reaction to
produce more products
3. Equilibrium shifts to right (More products are formed)
4. Increases the reaction rate
Sulfuric acts as a catalyst. #Note : a catalyst never increases the yield of a
reaction. It never changes the position of equilibrium, but only acts to reach
equilibrium at a faster rate.
However, sulfuric acid (as seen in Vincents notes) also plays another role.
Sulfuric acid is a dehydrating agent. When water is taken from the reaction,
the equilibrium will shift to the right (products) as water is a product of the
reaction. This is due to Le Chateliers Principle. Therefore the sulfuric acid
has two roles, to increase the reaction rate, so we reach equilibrium faster,
and to increase the yield of the product (ester). But you must make it clear
that being a catalyst does not increase the product yield, being a
dehydrating agent does.
explain the need for refluxing during esterification
Reasons:
1. To speed up the reaction

HSC Study Group
2.
3.
Yr 12 2008
No dangerous build up of pressure

Prevent loss of volatile products and reactants
Refluxing : is the process of heating a mixture of liquids in a flask with an attached

condenser, in order to prevent the loss of volatile reactants or products.
This is so the esterification process, which usually takes a very long time, (e.g.
hours, days), can reach equilibrium, and hence the point of maximum ester yield,
faster. Faster, without the loss of volatile reactants or products.
If the esterification process is not sped up, the cost of creating esters in industry
would be prohibitive, as time is money in industry.
outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of esters

Occurrences:
Natural plants and flowers perfume (Freshly cut grass smell)
E.g. Methyl salicylate, methyl pentanoate
Productions:
Ethyl ethanoate nail polish/remover
Methyl pentanoate sedative
Uses:
Food flavoring (Banana flavor from milk shake

Solvent (organic)
Perfume (channel No. 5 / C.K.)
Lubricant : they have ideal properties for lubricants. They have low viscosity
even at low temperatures, as well as clean high temperature operation.
Esters are polar molecules, and hence have dipole-dipole interactions, which make
them less volatile (will not evaporate easily). Also, since they are polar, they
get attracted to the metal surface, and form a film that requires more energy to
penetrate.
They are also good solvents, and hence dissolve the degradation products,
maintaining lubricating properties.
Plasticiser: Phthalate esters are added to hard and brittle plastics to make them
more flexible.

HSC Study Group
III. Chemical Monitoring and Management

1. Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the reactants and
products of reactions and managing reaction conditions
outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or
enterprise, identifying the branch of chemistry undertaken by the
chemist and explaining a chemical principle that the chemist uses
Industry: Sydney Water collaboration marks
Name: George Smith
Branch: Environmental chemist (analytical)
Role: Monitor the water quality of catchment areas, investigates factors such as:
Total dissolved solids
Turbidity
Dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand
pH
Hardness
Heavy metal concentration
Chemical principle used:
Titration
Making use of indicators that changes colour as the pH alters
The chemist can determine the concentration of ions in the water sample
Can measure:
DO (Winklers method)
pH
Hardness (with EDTA)
identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and
analyse data
Chemists need to cooperate and collaborate to:
ensure a efficient, safe and environmental-friendly chemical process
create more creative ideas to a solve a problem
Saves money cost and time
Teamwork satisfaction
Often, each chemist has their specialty and expertise, and hence their own
knowledge to contribute.
Chemical occupations have become very specialised, and the specific job must be
performed by a chemist who knows what they are doing, and the implications of
the results.
Sharing ideas and discussing reduces the risk of errors, and allows the coordinations of the total process.
describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where
reactants form different products under different conditions and thus
would need monitoring

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Chemical reactions may produce different products under different conditions, even with
the same reactants.
E.g. For the combustion of methane:
1. with sufficient oxygen:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (aq) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
2. with insufficient oxygen:
CH4 (g) + O2 (aq) CO (g) + 2H2O (g)
3.
{complete combustion}
with even less oxygen:

CH4 (g) + O2 (aq) C (s) + 2H2O (g)
CO and C are poisonous and polluting.

Reactions must be monitored to ensure enough oxygen is supplied to prevent incomplete
combustion (2 & 3)
2. Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and management to
maximize production
identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia
Ammonia has a wide variety of application in industry, these include:

Production of nitric acid (HNO3)
Important industrial material (catalyst)
Production of fertilizers
Production of explosives (e.g. TNT)
Production of medicine/pharmachemicals
Refrigerant (mostly banned)
identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases,
nitrogen and hydrogen
Ammonia can be produced by reacting nitrogen and hydrogen.

HSC Study Group
3H2(g) + N2(g) <=> 2NH3(g)

describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that
will reach equilibrium
The reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gas does not go to completion, it reaches
equilibrium instead.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
2NH3 (g)
At normal room temperatures (RTP), the equilibrium lies well to the left (N 2 & H2) side.
identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic
The reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen is exothermic (i.e. Gives out heat)
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
2NH3 (g)
H < 0
This is because more bonds are formed than ones that are broken (refer to the diagram on
top)
explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures
The rate of reaction is increased by higher temperature because:
According to particle (kinetic) theory, as temperature increase, the (kinetic) energy
these particles each possesses will increase
As they move quicker (higher K.E.), the chance that these particles collide with
each other increases and react.
I.e. Collision frequency increase

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Also, as these particles contain more energy, the chance that they have enough
energy to overcome the energy barrier (activation energy) and react, increases. I.e.
greater frequency of SUCCESSFUL COLLISIONS.
Reaction rate increases.
explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at

higher temperatures using Le Chateliers principle
Haber process:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
2NH3 (g)
H < 0
Due to the forward reactions exothermic nature, if the temperature is high, according to
La Chateliers principle, the reaction favours the reverse reaction, which is endothermic,
and the equilibrium will shift towards the left (reactants) side.
There will be a low yield of ammonia
explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act
involving reaction energy, reaction rate and equilibrium
1.
If the temperature is too high:

Reaction rate will be fast
However, yield of ammonia is low (Due to forward reactions exothermic
nature & La Chatiliers principle)
2.
If the temperature is too low:

Yield of ammonia is high
Reaction rate is too slow
Both options will make the production of ammonia economically prohibitive.

A compromised condition for temperature must be used to archive an economic yield in
a satisfactory rate.
explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature
required and identify the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process
Catalysts used Haber process: Iron/Iron oxide (Fe/Fe 2O3) - (usually finely ground)
Catalysts are substances that can change the reaction rate (usually increase) of a
specific reaction and they are not consumed by that chemical reaction
A high reaction temperature also increases the reaction rate, however for Haber
process; this produces a low yield of ammonia (Due to Le Chateliers principle).
Hence a moderate temperature must be used
The catalyst can be used to ensure a greater reaction rate so a lower reaction
temperature can be used to produce a higher yield of ammonia.

HSC Study Group
analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the

Haber process
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
2NH3 (g)
If the pressure increase in the system, according to Le Chateliers principle, the

system tries to decrease the pressure
The forward reaction is favoured due to Le Chateliers principle of mole ratios, as 4
moles of reactants are converted to 2 moles of products.
More ammonia is produced (higher yield)
explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process
is crucial and discuss the monitoring required
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
2NH3 (g)
The monitoring of Haber process is important as it ensures an efficient reaction with

satisfactory yield. This is because:
The temperature must be monitored as it has an effect on both the reaction rate &
yield. The reaction rate increases as the reaction temperature increases.
However, due to the forward reactions exothermic nature and Le
Chateliers principle, the equilibrium favours the reverse endothermic
reaction and pushed towards the reactants side. I.e. A low yield of
ammonia.
Hence a compromised condition of the temperature is applied
(~400C)
Pressure is also monitored as a high pressure favours the forward reaction, which
converts four moles of reactants into two moles of products. This is a consequence
of La Chateliers principle of mole ratio.
However, if the pressure is too high, the process will be dangerous. So a too high pressure
can not be used.
And also a higher pressure reaction needs expensive high pressure reaction vessels.
Catalyst is monitored since it increases the rate of reaction and allows a lower
temperature to be used for the process.
Also prevents catalyst poisoning
And ensure the surface area of catalyst remain large
Therefore it is a balancing act between Kinetic and temperature factors, and

pressure and economic factors.
gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the

conditions under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of
ammonia and evaluate its significance at that time in world history

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Before Haber develops the synthetic process of ammonia in Germany 1907,

Germanys main supply of ammonia is by shipping from South America (Chile)
However, near the 1900s, this supply from sea is cut off by Britain to prevent
Germany from preparing explosives (As ammonia can be made into explosives)
Germany is in a desperate position and Haber, who is a patriotic German, determines
to find the method to synthesise ammonia to support his country
In 1907, he successfully created ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen gas
Significance: Important!
Reason:
Ammonia is used to produce nitric acid, a important industrial acid
Also used to produce fertilizers for agricultural purposes thus it has resulted in
better health for many people, as crops are healthier & contain more nutrients.
Used to produce explosives in war thus it increased the length of the war,
which in our eyes, may be bad.
EVALUATION (very very very important) - give a judgement of value.
E.g. = The Haber process, although prolonging WWI due to the ability to create explosives, it
has however, lead to better human health via greater access to fertilisers, and hence healthier
crops. This also helped people in devastated countries after the war, to regain a healthier
lifestyle faster. Even now, the synthesis of ammonia is still very vital in our society, (for a
healthy society), and hence the industrial synthesis of ammonia was an advantage, and it has
thus been very significant for the world to become what we know it as today.
(#Note: the evaluation can be much shorter - evaluate its significance).
3. Manufactured products, including food, drugs and household chemicals,
are analysed to determine or ensure their chemical composition
deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests
Tests include:
Flame tests (Cations only)
Spray the solution to the flame and observe any color change OR
Put a pad stick, with salt on one end, the flame and notice any colour
change.
Colorimetry (Cations only)

Pass a beam of light (with known intensity) through a colored solution
The light received by the detector with its intensity measured

HSC Study Group
By comparing the difference in intensity, the absorbance of light can be

found and the concentration of the ion in solution can be determined
Precipitation
By adding known ions into the sample and observing if any precipitate
forms, the ions of the sample are determined from solubility rules.
Why flame tests & colorimetry can not be applied to anions?

Some cations emission spectrum is within the visible range, which human
eyes can detect
However most anions emission spectrum is outside the visible range, which
naked eyes cannot detect.
Hence other instruments must be used to examine emission from anions
Cations
Barium ion
(Ba2+)
Calcium ion
(Ca2+)
Lead ion (Pb2+)
Flame tests
Yes. Apple green
color.
Yes. Bricked red
color.
No.
Colourimetry
No. Most barium
solution is colorless
No. Most calcium
solution is color less
No.
Copper ion
(Cu2+)
Iron (II) ion
(Fe2+)
Iron (III) ion
(Fe3+)
Yes. Blue-Green
color
No
Yes. CuSO4 (aq) is a

blue solution
No.
No
No.
Anions
Precipitation
Precipitates with SO42& CO32- [& phosphate]
Precipitates with SO42& CO32- & FPrecipitates with SO42& Cl- & F- (yellow)
Precipitates with OH(blue)
Precipitates with OH(green brown)
Precipitates with OH(brown)
Method

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Phosphate ion
(PO43-)
+ excess H+ & + Ba2+/Ca2+ No precipitate

(PO43- + H+ HPO42-)
Sulfate ion
(SO42-)
Carbonate ion
(CO32-)
+ Ba2+/Ca2+ precipitate (white)
Chloride ion (Cl-)
+ HNO3 (aq) & bubbles forms (CO2) Limewater test

(H+/H3O+)
CO32- + 2H+ H2O + CO2
+ Ag+ precipitate (white)
+ Pb2+ precipitate (white)
#NOTE: For further info on the prac, please look at the Chemistry First-Hand
investigation notes.
describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting

concentrations of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on
scientific understanding of the effects of trace elements
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a qualitative analysis for low concentrations
Apparatus:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cathode lamp emits a specific set of wavelengths that can be absorbed by that metal
(& its ion)
The sample solution/solid is vaporized by the heater
The ions/atoms can absorb a specific set of wavelengths, this is known as its
absorption spectrum
Using the prism, the passed beam is separated into different wavelengths, which its
intensity can be detected by the detector.
By comparing the absorption spectrum of a certain metals with the detectors result,
scientists can identify what metal ions are present in the sample
By comparing this intensity with the initial intensity of the beam, scientists can
calculate the ions concentration.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is important because:

It enables scientists to investigate much lower concentration and lead to discoveries
of trace elements (elements in very small concentration) in various resources
This allows them to study these elements and understand their benefits to the society
and individuals

HSC Study Group
Essential Trace elements are elements needed by living organisms in very small
amounts, for the proper functioning of physiological processes.
Before, without a more accurate method such as AAS, we did not know about these
essential trace elements. AAS has allowed us to track (for example in a patient) the
trace element that is deficient, and hence register the appropriate medication or diet.
identify data, plan, select equipment and perform firsthand
investigations to measure the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and

explain the chemistry involved
analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above
investigation and to propose solutions to problems encountered in the
procedure
Gravimetric analysis
Collect a sample of fertilizers and measure its mass
Dissolve it into a known volume of water (e.g. 100 mL) & filter
Add excess BaCl2 (aq) into the sample
The barium ion forms a precipitate with the sulfate ion:
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) BaSO4 (s)
Decant, filter, evaporate then weigh the precipitates mass
Reliability:
Not all fertilizers dissolves
Warm and Stir

Normal filter papers cannot filter BaSO4 (s) too small particles
Use finer filter papers OR
Use double filter paper OR
Refilter
Barium ion can form precipitate with other contents with the fertilizers (e.g. PO43-)
Too small negligible
Barium ion can react with CO32- in the water to form insoluble salt BaCO3 (s)
Heat the sample near boiling point of water

Individual experiment
Repeat in groups & take average of the reaction

Not all BaSO4 (s) has precipitated
Ensure BaCl2 is in excess
Stirring
Decanting cause loss of particles
Take care
Do not decant till the end filter

#Note: for all practicals, please look at the first-hand investigation notes.

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
4. Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the structure
of the atmosphere. Chemists monitor these changes so that further damage
can be limited
describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere:
78% N2 (g)
21% O2 (g)
~0.2% Ag (g)
Remaining: CO2 (g), H2O (g), CH4 (g) etc.
Troposphere: 0 ~ 15km. - Decrease in temperature with altitude, as we move increase our

altitude from the warm sunlit surface of earth.
Stratosphere: 15 ~ 50km. - Increase in temperature with altitude, as the top of the
stratosphere absorbs much UV radiation - heating it.
Mesosphere: 50 ~ 85km - Decrease in temperature with altitude, - there are very few
molecules to absorb the incoming radiation, and hence it is colder.
Thermosphere: 85 ~ 600km - Increase in temperature with altitude, - although there are
even fewer molecules, the few molecules act to absorb the very high energy radiation (e.g. Xrays and gamma rays, from space).
identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their
sources
Pollutants
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Oxides of nitrogen (NyOx)
Source
Roasting of sulfide ores (in metal extraction)
Burning of impure coal
Car engines
Industries

HSC Study Group
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) &

Halons
Hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Ozone
Propellants
Fire extinguishers
Refrigerant
Old car engines
Cracking of hydrocarbon
Old car engines
Incomplete combustion
Engines/motors
Industrial disinfectant
describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere

UV radiation shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant
In stratosphere, ozone acts as a shield from harmful UV radiation (UVC & UVB)
This is because it absorbs these UV light to breakdown:
2O3 (g) + UV light 3O2 (g)
Hence, it acts to shield us from the radiation, which could potentially lead to
cell mutations etc.
However in troposphere, ozone may be produced in photochemical smog due to the build
up of nitrogen oxides and irritate human respiratory system. Ozone is very dangerous as it
is a very strong oxidant, and can even oxidised living tissue.
It is considered as a pollutant here.
describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond
Coordinate covalent bond:
symbol: ( --- )
A type of covalent bond where only one atom shares its electron.
> A co-ordinate covalent bond is when one molecule of the two
reacting species provides BOTH electrons in the shared electron pair.
I.e. the other species just does not contribute an electron to the pair.
Once formed, it cannot be distinguished from normal covalent bonds!!
demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis
electron dot structures
Example: the formation of ammonium ion

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O 2 and O3 and account
for them on the basis of molecular structure and bonding

Molecular structure of oxygen (O2)
Molecular structure of ozone (O3):
I.e. slightly polar.
Lewis-electron dot structure of OZONE >

(from Andrew Harveys Chemistry Notes)
Properties\Allotropes:
Oxygen
Boiling point & melting Lower
point
Linear structure
Dispersion force as main
intermolecular force
Lower BP and MP
Density
Less dense
Weak dispersion force
holding the molecules
together
Less attracted to each other
Occupies more volume
Ozone
Higher
Bent structure
Stronger dipole-dipole
attraction as main
Higher BP & MP
Denser
Strong dipole-dipole
attraction as main
More attracted to each
other
occupies less volume

HSC Study Group
Reactivity
Less.
Contains double bond
Higher
Contains coordinate
covalent bond
Much weaker
easily broken
Reacts more easily
compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen
free radical
Free radicals:
Reactive species that contain one/more lone pair(s) of electron
Oxygen free radical = oxygen atom
Structure:
Also expressed as [O] (g)
Oxygen molecule: O2 (g)

Properties\Allotrope Oxygen
Reactivity
Relatively stable
Ozone
Quite reactive
Oxygen reactivity
Very unstable
Exists in a very
short period of time
identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the
atmosphere
Sources:
Refrigerant } CFC
Propellant } CFC
Fire extinguisher } Halon
identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and
optical) of haloalkanes up to eight carbon atoms
Isomers: Compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formula
For example:

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
#Note there is often a question on naming of carbon compounds. The naming of haloalkanes is
a little different to naming alkanes and alkenes.
Naming haloalkanes, from - Geoffrey Thickets - Jacaranda Chemistry HSC Course 2
1. The halogen functional groups are named using prefixes placed in front of the alkane: (e.g.
iodo for I, fluoro for F etc.)
2. Count the no. of carbon atoms in the longest unbranched carbon chain. This is the stem name
of the alkane
3. Number the chain from the end that produces the lowest set of locants (numbering positions)
for all the functional groups that are along the stem alkane.
4. In naming the alkane, the functional groups are named alphabetically using the locants to
designate positions. In this case disregard the prefixes of di- tri- tetra- etc, in this alphabetical
ordering (this is the difference with the alkane/alkene naming system in which you have to
consider the number prefixes in the alphabetical ordering as well.)
5. If the previous rules lead to more than one possible name for the haloalkane, then the correct
name is the one in which the functional group cited first as a prefix, has the lowest assigned
locant number.
discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the
effectiveness of steps taken to alleviate these problems
Problems:
1. Greenhouse effect enhanced
CFCs are powerful greenhouse gas
contributes to greenhouse effect significantly
2. Deplete ozone layer
CFCs are relatively stable compound in the troposphere
Not washed by rainwater

HSC Study Group
Does not react with O2 (g)

Slowly diffuse to stratosphere
In stratosphere, strong UV radiation breaks the C-Cl bond (weaker
compared to C-F bond)
E.g. CF3Cl
CF3Cl (g) + UV light CF3(g) + Cl(g)
This produces a chlorine radical (Cl), which react with ozone
O3 (g) + Cl (g) ClO (g) + O2 (g)
ClO (g) + O (g) O2 (g) + Cl (g)
As the chlorine radical is regenerated, it can repeat the above processes
again
chain reaction
depletes a large amount of ozone in the stratosphere
Steps to alleviate the problem

Stop further release of CFCs
I.e. Ban the use of CFCs & Halons
This is achieved by:
1. International protocol (e.g. Montreal protocol) that limits/ban the use of CFC
2. Find alternatives for CFCs
Assessment:
These steps are very effective in preventing releases of CFCs as most countries have
ceased the use of CFC. However, due to large amount of CFC previously released to the
atmosphere, the effect of these steps has to be seen until a long time.
analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric
ozone concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how
this information was obtained
Method: TOMs (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrophotometer)
Units for ozone concentration: Dobson Units (DU)
Makes use of a satellite to observe the ozone layer
Through passing beams through the atmosphere.
present information from secondary sources to identify alternative
chemicals used to replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their

use as a replacement for CFCs
Alternatives:
HCFC (hydrochlorofluorocarbons)
First alternatives developed and used
Higher reactivity can be eliminated in troposphere
However not very effective
If HCFCs reach to the ozone layer

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Still produces chlorine radical & depletes ozone layer
HFC (hydrofluorocarbons)
Developed because HCFC cannot solve the problem entirely
Contains no chlorine atom
Does not produce chlorine radical
No effect on ozone
Very effective but more expensive than CFCs
HFCs are 12000 times more effective than CO2 in the greenhouse effect.
Hence they are bad!!.
5. Human activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical monitoring and

management assists in providing safe water for human use and to protect
the habitats of other organisms
identify
-
that water quality can be determined by considering:

concentrations of common ions
total dissolved solids
hardness
turbidity
acidity
dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand
Concentrations of common ions

These ions include:
Na+, K+, Fe3+ AAS
Cl- Precipitate with AgNO3
SO42- Precipitate with Barium ion
NO3- Brown ring test
They are commonly present in water and its concentration affects the taste,
nutrient and other properties of water
If there is high concentration of these common ions, it can indicate the water is
too salty to be consumed by human or plantation
Total dissolved solids

Also commonly known as salinity, it measures the total amount of dissolved
substance in the water sample
This is done by precipitating the water sample then evaporate till dryness and
weigh the solid remained
A high TDS shows the soil is too salty and is not suitable for irrigation or
drinking low quality
Hardness
Hardness is contributed by the concentrations of Mg 2+ & Ca2+
If water is too hard, it is undesirable for human drinking, make soap ineffective
and form scales in kettles
However it can be still used for irrigation:
Measurement:

HSC Study Group
Qualitatively: Degree of lather in soap

Quantitatively: Titrate with EDTA
Turbidity
The ability to see through water A measure of the suspension in water
More turbid Less clear usually contaminated
Determination:
Depth of water that is enough to prevent the cross on the bottom of a
cylinder being visible, or by using a secchi disk
Use a nephelometer, (units in NTU - nephelometric turbidity units), where
light is shone on a volume of water, and a detector detects how much light
is scattered at 90 to the incident rays by the water. The greater the
scattering, the more turbid (cloudy).
Acidity
The pH of the solution gives a clear indication if the water is
contaminated/polluted
It is indication from the concentration of H+/H3O+ in water
pH too high/low
water sample is polluted
Must be treated
Measurement:
pH meter
indicators
Dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand

DO Dissolved oxygen Amount of oxygen of oxygen dissolved in water
Essential to aquatic organism
A high DO Good quality
Measurement:
Oxygen sensor
Winklers method (titration with I-, Mn4+)
Colorimetry
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand

A measure of amount of oxygen used in the respiration of aerobic bacteria
A high BOD Bad quality
Aquatic organisms that require large amount of oxygen suffocate & die.
Measurement:

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Measure DO of a standard water sample immediately (with Winklers

titration)
Seal the sample and leave it in the dark for 5 days
Remeasure the DO of the sample (with Winklers method)
BOD = DOinitial - DOfinal
identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in
solution in natural bodies of water such as rivers and oceans

Factors:
Pathway of river in the landscape
Dissolve different ion (erosion)
Rainwater pH
High acidity in river leaches soil more efficiently
Human pollution
Land clearing
Agriculture (fertilizers)
Soil degradation
Rubbish dumping (e.g. batteries contain Pb2+)
Effluents
Raw/treated sewage
Stormwater
Heavy metal ions
Flooding and heavy rain - temporary decrease in ion concentration as the water is
diluted
Rate of evaporation - high evaporation increases the ion concentration
Aquatic organism - use of Ca2+ and CO32- ions in solution.
describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and
sanitise mass water supplies

1. Screening
- a mesh blocks filter large objects out
2.
Aeration
- Pumping air into water
- Allow more oxygen to dissolve in water
- encourage break down of organic matter through respiration of aerobic
bacteria
- oxidises metal ions in the solution
3.
Flocculation
- Add Fe(OH)3 & Al(OH)3 into the water
- These compound attract the small suspension into bigger pieces called flocs
4.
Sedimentation

HSC Study Group
The flocs are sedimented and the water supplied is passed to filtration
5.
Filtration
- Uses clean sand or coal filter
- Filters out the remaining suspensions in the supply
6.
Santisation/disinfection (via chlorination)

- Cl2 (g) are passed through the sample to kill bacteria still existing in the water
- These chlorine gas are recycled and reused
- Ozone (O3) can also be used more expensive
7. Post treatment (for Sydney)

- addition of fluorine, (Fluoridation) to harden tooth enamel and prevent tooth decay.
Assessment:
The current purification and sanitization of water supplies is cost-effective as it
can remove 90% of pollutants (non-soluble) in the supply in a reasonable
amount of time.
However, some bacteria, such as Guardia, may survive in the water and can be
harmful to our health. Some suggest ozone sterilization/membrane filter
raise the cost significantly.
describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters
and explain how they purify contaminated water
Microscopic membrane filters:
Use filters with microscopic pores and filter out almost any pollutant larger than pore size
(e.g. even dissolved heavy metal ions)

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
##Note: there are different types of filters with
different looks - use the one that you are familiar with.
Types:
Type
Filter Pore Size
Removes
Micro filtration
100 -1000nm (i.e. 0.1

to 1 m {micrometre})
fine silt, microbes, a

few viruses
Ultra filtration
50 - 5nm
All microbes and

viruses
+ colour is improved
Nano filtration
5 - 0.5nm
All organic molecules

and viruses
Reverse Osmosis
1 - 0.1nm
Removes all solutes

including ions.
Advantage:
Fast (relatively) if you use many microscopic membrane filters together, with a
high surface area, and with external pressure applied.
Completely remove most pollutants (including dissolved ions)
The filter can be cleaned and reused easily by back flowing
gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of
the tests used to:
identify heavy metal pollution of water
monitor possible eutrophication of waterways
Heavy metal pollution

Factories release waste water that contain heavy metal ions

HSC Study Group
Tests:
Some of these heavy metal ions are beneficial in trace amounts however they
are poisonous in high concentration
Some are even poisonous in trace amounts. For example, Pb2+ & Hg+
By investigating the heavy metal ion concentration, the pollution of water can
be determined if a high concentration of these metals is present
Pb2+
Hg+
AAS (Flame)
Precipitation with Na2S (aq)
AAS (Dithizones method)
Precipitation with Na2S (aq)
Eutrophication
The enrichment of nutrients in water
Causes a excess growth of aquatic plants & algae
The respiration and decay of these organisms depletes a large amount of
dissolved oxygen but prevents photosynthesis
Nutrients: NO3- & PO43 NO3- Brown Ring test
PO43- Precipitation (molybdate test)
Tests:
By examining the N:P ratio (nitrogen to phosphorus) in the water way
If the ratio is lower than 10 : 1 , it indicates there is a possible eutrophication in
the waterway
Usually combined with BOD and DO tests to ensure
gather, process and present information on the features of the local

town water supply in terms of:
- catchment area
- possible sources of contamination in this catchment
- chemical tests available to determine levels and types of
contaminants
- physical and chemical processes used to purify water
- chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence
of these additives
Catchment area:
The surrounding environment of water that are stored for domestic use

HSC Study Group
Yr 12 2008
Local catchment: Warragamba Dam
Possible sources of contamination in this catchment:
Effluents
Storm water
Human waste (rubbish)

Chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants:
Schools are provided with a set of equipment called streamwatch to measure water
quality.
Methods are similar to the tests previously mentioned (Refer to above dot points)
Physical and chemical processes used to purify water:
Same as previously mentioned (Refer to above dot points)
Usually primary and secondary treatment is used 90% of bacteria/pollutant is

removed
Chemical additives in water and the reasons for the presence of these additives:
Chemical additives: fluoride (F-)
Reason:
- Improve dental health
- Prevent/slows tooth decay
Bibliography:
Definitions and reference from:
Thickett, G., (2006). Chemistry 2: HSC course.
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd. ; Qld, Australia.
Board of Studies, HSC Chemistry Syllabus Document.

Available
http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/syllabus2000_listc.html
at:
Harvey A. (2007). HSC CHEMISTRY Syllabus Notes 2007, First Edition
Copyright: Andrew Harvey, 2007; Available at: andrew.harvey4.googlepages.com

HSC Study Group
Irwin, D., Farrelly, R., Vitlin, D., Garnett, P. - (2006). Chemistry Contexts 2, Second Edition, HSC
Pearson Education Australia ; Melbourne, Australia
and thank you very much to the teachers.

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Carlingford High School

HSC Study Group

Edit by Jiro Funamoto

construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions

the fractions from the refining of petroleum

Cracking is endothermic (absorbs heat)

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Carlingford High School

is readily transformed into many useful products

Some products of ethylene/ethene include:

Different polymers have different monomers

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Carlingford High School

Edit by Jiro Funamoto

identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of

outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a

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Carlingford High School

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Carlingford High School

Edit by Jiro Funamoto

identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

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Carlingford High School

Polystyrene Crystal Polystyrene

Good heat and

identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the

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Carlingford High School

Edit by Jiro Funamoto

3. Observer color change of bromine

Color change immediately from brown to colorless

Conclusion: Alkenes are more reactive than their corresponding alkanes.

discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently

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Carlingford High School

This continues until all the monomers react.

describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a

Most plants contain cellulose to make up their physical structure

to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material

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Carlingford High School

Edit by Jiro Funamoto

Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary

Catalyst: Concentrated sulfuric acid {H2SO4 (aq)}

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Carlingford High School

describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of

Catalyst: Dilute sulfuric acid {H2SO4 (aq)}

##Remember solubility rules - like dissolves like.

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Carlingford High School

Edit by Jiro Funamoto

summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Carlingford High School

Carlingford High School

Edit by Jiro Funamoto

assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the

Ethanol burns more completely than

Ethanol has a lower molar heat of

Yield of ethanol production is still

Expensive engine modifications