Aerobic respiration:

Mammals and birds need energy to maintain a constant body temperature. Energy is also
needed for the following life processes:
growth
cell division
muscle contraction
protein synthesis
active transport
nerve impulses
Respiration involves chemical reactions to break down nutrients for energy.
Aerobic Respiration needs oxygen. It is the release of a large amount of energy.
By breaking down food substances
The presence of oxygen
Glucose+Oxygen> Carbon Dioxide+Water
C6H12O+6O2->6CO2+6H2O
Aerobic Respiration happens all the time in animals
Respiration is different to breathing (ventilation)
Aerobic respiration occurs inside mitochondria in cells
Anaerobic respiration:
It does not need oxygen
releases small amount of energy
Happens in cells by the breakdown of food in the absence of oxygen
Anaerobic respiration in muscles
Anaerobic respiration happens in muscles during hard exercise.
Glucose> Lactic acid
C6H12O+6O2->2C3H6O3

Glucose not completely broken down

Very little energy is released
Build up of lactic acid in the muscles during hard exercise
Lactic acid needs to be oxidized to carbon dioxide
This causes oxygen debt- this needs to be repaid after the hard exercise stops

Anaerobic respiration in plants and yeast:

Anaerobic respiration also happens in plant cells.
glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Ethanol is the alcohol found in alcoholic drinks.
In bread making, bubbles of carbon dioxide gas expand the dough, helps the bread rise
Aerobic respiration vs Anaerobic respiration:
Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

Oxygen

Needed

Not needed

Glucose breakdown

Completed

Incomplete

End product(s)

Carbon Dioxide and water

Animal cells: lactic acid,

Plant cells and yeast: Carbon
Dioxide and Ethanol

Energy released

Large amount

Small amount

The respiratory system:

Structures found in the human thorax (respiratory system):

Trachea
Bronchi
Alveoli
Ribs
Intercostal muscles
Pleural membranes
Diaphragm

Ventilation:
The ribs, intercostal muscles and diaphragm-all play a role in ventilation (breathing).
Breathing in:
When you inhale:
1. the intercostal muscles relax and the intercostal muscles contract , pulling the ribcage
upwards and outwards
2. The diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards
3. The lung volume increases and the air pressure increases
4. Air is pushed into the lung
Breathing out:
When you exhale:
1. The external intercostal muscles relax and the internal intercostal muscles contract,
pulling the ribcage downwards and inwards
2. The diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards
3. Lung volume decreases and the air pressure inside decreases
4. Air is pushed out of the lungs
Gas exchange in the lungs:
Exhaled air contains:
Less oxygen
More carbon dioxide
Inhaled air contains:
More oxygen
Less carbon dioxide
Lime water turns milky in the presence of carbon
dioxide.
Gas exchange in the lungs happens in the alveoli.
The features of alveoli include:
Thin walls (one cell thick)
Large surface area
Moist surface
Many blood capillaries

Effects of exercise on breathing:

During exercise muscle cells respire more than they do when the body is at rest.
The rate and depth of breathing increase- this makes sure that more oxygen is absorbed
into the blood and more carbon dioxide is removed.
To investigate the rate of breathing, record the rate of breathing for a few minutes when
the person is at rest. After they do exercise, record their rate of breathing every
minute, until it turns back to normal.
Effects of smoking:
Smoking can cause lung disease, heart disease and cancer
Effects of nicotine:
Very addictive
Stimulant
Increases heart rate for 20 mins
Effects of tar:
Tar is a carcinogen (cancer causing agent)- can happen in the lungs, mouth and trachea
It mutates DNA causing tumors
Emphysema: The smoke damages the walls of the alveoli. The walls break down and
join together. This reduces the surface area of them also reducing the rate of gas
exchange
Tar can also paralyze ciliated cells-(meant to produce mucus so bad substances get
caught)- so they cannot travel up your mouth and get swallowed which means
that the mucus will stay in your airway which increases the chance of infection
(bronchitis).
Carbon Monoxide:
Carbon monoxide, CO, combines with the haemoglobin in red blood cells. This reduces
the ability of the blood to carry oxygen-> increasing risk of coronary heart
disease.
Hemoglobin has a higher affinity to carbon monoxide (it will pick carbon monoxide over
oxygen.
Blood
Blood is a composition of:
Plasma
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
Plasma is a yellow liquid in your blood.

Component

Function(s)

Plasma

Transporting carbon dioxide, digested

food, urea, hormones and heat

Red blood cells

Transporting oxygen

White blood cells

Ingesting pathogens and producing

antibodies

Platelets

Involved in blood clotting

Red blood cells

Red blood cells transport oxygen for aerobic respiration. They absorb oxygen in the
lungs, pass through thin capillaries and release the oxygen to the respiring cells.
Adaptions of red blood cells:
They contain hemoglobin- a red protein that combines with oxygen
They have no nucleus- so they can contain more hemoglobin
They are small and flexible so that they can fit through capillaries
They have a biconcave shape- to maximize their surface area for oxygen absorption
Adaptations for efficient diffusion of oxygen:
Thin cell membranes (short diffusion pathway)
Biconcave shape for a larger SA:VOL ratio.
Adaptations for efficient transport of oxygen:
They have no nucleus so they can carry more hemoglobin
The oxygen combines with the hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin

Transport Systems
A simple unicellular organism can rely on diffusion to move substances into and out of
the cell because its SA:VOL ratio is high, so nutrients and other substances can
quickly pass through the membrane and around its body.
A complex multicellular organism cannot rely on diffusion to move substances in and out
of it because they have a small SA:VOL ratio, so instead they rely on transport
systems.

Immune System
Lymphocytes:
-They produce soluble proteins called antibodies
Antibodies:
They attach to antigens-(they are substances found on the surface of cells, including
bacteria and other pathogens.)
Different antibodies attach to different antigens.
This way the body can recognize foreign antigens.
Antibodies neutralize toxins produced by pathogens which then allows the phagocytes
to engulf and digest the bacteria/pathogens.
Phagocytes:
They are part of the bodies immune system but they do not produce antibodies. Instead
they ingest/engulf and destroy pathogens such as bacteria.
This is what happens:
1. The phagocyte surrounds the bacteria then it engulfs it, enclosing it.
2. Enzymes are then secreted to destroy the bacteria.

This process of ingesting the pathogen is called phagocytosis.

Vaccination
People can be immune to a pathogen through vaccination. Different vaccines are needed
for different pathogens.
Vaccination involves putting a small amount of a dead form of a pathogen into the bod.
Vaccines can contain:
Live pathogens treated to make them harmless
Harmless fragments of a pathogen
Toxins produced by pathogens
Dead pathogens

These all contain antigens.

When antigens are injected into the body, they stimulate lymphocytes to produce
antibodies that can recognise the pathogen.
Some lymphocytes develop into memory cells. If the vaccinated person later becomes
infected with the same pathogen the immune system is prepared, and the
required lymphocytes are able to reproduce quickly and destroy it.

Blood Clotting
If the skin is cut, the wound must be closed to prevent blood loss and the entry of
pathogens. The formation of a scab is just that.
Blood contains tiny cells fragments called platelets. These platelets are involved in
blood clotting in blood and scab forming.
Forming a scab:
When the skin is wounded platelets are able to:
Release chemicals that cause soluble fibrinogen proteins to form a mesh of insoluble
fibrin fibers across the wound.
Stick together to form clumps that get stuck in the fibrin mesh
Red blood cells also get stuck in the fibrin mesh, forming a clot. This then develops into
a scab, which protects the wound as it heals.
Circulatory system
Consists of:
A system of tubes (arteries, capillaries and veins)
A pump (the heart)
Valves to prevent the back flow of blood
General structure:

Arteries and veins:

Arteries carry blood away from the heart towards an organ, while veins carry blood from
an organ towards the heart.
Organ

Towards organ

Away from organ

Lung

Pulmonary artery

Pulmonary vein

Liver

Hepatic artery

Hepatic vein

Kidney

Renal artery

Renal vein

Double circulation:
The human circulatory system is a double circulatory system. It has two separate circuits
and blood passes through the heart twice:
The pulmonary circuit is between the heart and the lungs
The systemic circuit is between the heart and the other organs

Blood vessels:
Arteries:
Carry blood away from the heart (always oxygenated apart from the pulmonary
artery which goes from the heart to the lungs)
They have thick muscular walls to withstand high blood pressure
Have a small lumen
Contain high blood pressure
Veins:
Carry blood to the heart (always deoxygenated except the pulmonary vein which
goes from the lungs to the heart).
Have thin walls
Have a large lumen
Contain low blood pressure
Have valves to prevent the back-flow of blood
Capillaries:
Found in muscles and lungs
One cell thick
Very low blood pressure
Where gas exchange takes place

The heart
The heart is a muscular organ used to pump blood. The right side pumps blood to the
lungs and the left side to the rest of the body.
The left side has thicker walls because it needs to put the blood under higher pressure
than the right side.

Effects of exercise and adrenaline:

During exercise the muscle cells need more energy than usual. They therefore need to
respire more and need more oxygen and glucose and as a result produce more
waste carbon dioxide.
:To meet this demand, the heart
Contracts more often-the heart rate increases
Contracts more powerfully-the stroke volume increases, pumping a greater volume of
blood in each beat.

Adrenaline:

The hormone adrenaline is secreted when we are afraid, stressed or angry. It also causes
the heart rate and stroke volume to increase, preparing us to fight or flight