Unit 2: Electronic Measurement for

Measuring Basic Parameters

Measurement: The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison between the
quantity to be measured and a defined standard.
The instruments which are used for such measurements are known as measuring instruments.

Necessary Requirements for any Measuring Instrument:

1. With the introduction of the instrument in the ckt, the ckt conditions should not be altered.
Thus the quantity to be measured should not get affected due to the instrument used.
2. The power consumed by the instruments for their operations should be as small as possible.
Classification of Instruments:
1) Indicating Instruments
2) Recording Instruments
3) Integrating Instruments

Indicating Instruments: These Instruments make use of a dial and a pointer for showing or indicating
magnitude of unknown quantity.
Ex: Voltmeter, Ammeter etc.
Recording Instruments: These instruments give continuous record of the given electrical quantity
which is being measured over a specific period.
Ex: Seismograph, X-7 Plotter
Integrating Instruments: These instruments measure the total quantity of the electricity delivered
over a period of time.
Ex: Household Energy Meters
Essential Requirements of an Instrument

In case of measuring instruments the effect of unknown quantity is converted into a mechanical
force which is transmitted into a mechanical force which is transmitted to the pointer which moves
over a calibrated scale. The moving system of such instruments is mounted on a pivoted spindle. For
Satisfactory operations of any indicating instrument, following systems must be present in a system.
a) Deflecting System Producing Deflecting torque field (d)
b) Controlling System producing controlling torque field (c)
c) Damping System producing Damping torque field

Analogue Ammeters and Voltmeters are of same class, as there is no fundamental difference
between the two.
The action of all ammeters and voltmeters are electrostatic type of instruments depends
upon deflecting torque produced by an electric current.
In ammeter, torque is produced by a current here we, measure the current itself.
In voltmeter, torque is produced by a current which is produced by a current which is
proportional to voltage, here we measure voltage
Power loss

So Ammeters should have low electrical resistance so they cause small voltage drop & absorb small
power.
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the ckt whose voltage is to be measured.

So Voltmeters should have high electrical resistance.

So the small current and consume small power.
Types of Instruments
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
2. Moving Iron (AC/DC)
3. Electro-dynamometer(AC/DC)
4. Hotwire (DC/AC)
5. Thermocouple(DC/AC)
6. Induction(AC)
7. Electrostatic(AC/DC)
8. Rectifier(AC/DC)
In those PMMC type can be used only for direct current measurements.
Induction type can be used only for alternating current measurements.
Rest all meters can be used with either direct or alternating currents.

Galvanometer
Galvanometer is an instrument used for finding (detecting) pressure of small currents and voltages in
a circuit (or) for measuring their magnitudes.
Suspension Galvanometer / DArsenoval Type Galvanometer
In Olden days for measuring direct current this was used, this was the advanced version of the
moving coil instrument.
Principle of DArsenoval Instrument
A coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet. According to
the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic field, when it
carries an electric current.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument (PMMC)

This PMMC instrument is the most accurate type for dc measurements.
Working Principle is as the same as DArsenoval Galvanometer the basic difference is in
PMMC the reading instrument is provided with a pointer and scale
In this instrument we have a coil suspended in the magnetic field if a permanent magnet.
The permanent magnet is in the shape if horseshoe; the coil is to be suspended in such a
way that it can rotate freely in magnetic field
When a current flows in the coil electromagnetic torque is developed, this electromagnetic
torque causes the coil to rotate; this electromagnetic torque is counter balanced by
mechanical torque of control springs attached to movable coil.
When electromagnetic torque is equal torque is equal to mechanical torque is equal to
mechanical torque, the angular position of a movable coil is indicated by a pointer against a
fixed reference scale.

Construction of PMMC Instrument

This design offers the largest magnet in a given space and is used when maximum flux in the
air gap is required
Very low power consumption and low current is required for full scale deflection(FSD)
The permanent magnet is in the form of horse shoe with soft iron pole pieces attached to it.
A cylinder of soft iron is placed between the pole pieces and the cylinder
The coil is wound on a light metal frame and is mounted so that it can rotate freely in the air
gap.
The pointer, attached to the coil moves over a graduated scale and indicates the angular
deflection of the coil and therefore the current through the coil.
Two phosphor-bronze conductive springs normally equal in strength, provide the calibrated
force opposing the moving coil torque. Constancy of the spring performance is essential to
maintain the accuracy of instrument. The spring thickness is accurately controlled in
manufactured to avoid permanent set of springs.

Current is conducted to and from the coil by the control springs.

The entire moving system is statistically balanced for all deflection positions by three
balance weights
The pointer, springs & pivots are assembled to the coil structure by means of pivot bases
and the entire movable coil element is supported by jewel bearings.
The V-jewel is almost universally used in instrument bearings.
All tough the moving elements of the instruments are designed to have the smallest possible
weight, the extremely minute area of contact between the pivot and the jewel results in
stress on the order of 10kg/mm2.
The scale markings of the basic PMMC instrument are linearly spaced because the torque
(torque is the pointer deflection) is directly proportional to the coil current. The base PMMC
instrument is therefore a linear reading DC Device.

 The power requirements of the DArsenoval requirements of the DArsenoval movement are
surprisingly small; the typical range is from 25W to 200W.
Accuracy of the instrument is generally on the order of 2% to 5% of full scale reading.
If low frequency alternating current is applied to the movable coil, the deflection of the
pointer would be upscale for one half cycle of input waveform and downscale for the next
half cycle.
At power line frequencies(60Hz) and above the pointer could not follow the rapid variations
in direction and would swing slightly around zero mark, seeking the average value of
alternating current(which equal zero)
The PMMC instrument is therefore unsuitable for ac measurements, unless the current is
rectified before application to the coil.

Core Magnet Construction

The magnetic material used here is Alnico
The Alnico magnet has the advantage that it is relatively unaffected by external magnetic
fields. Eliminating the magnetic shunting effects where several meters operating side by side
may affect each others readings.
The need for magnetic shielding, in the form of iron cases is eliminated by core magnet
construction
This type of construction is useful in air craft and aerospace applications, when so many
instruments must be mounted in close proximity to each other.
Due to the elimination of iron and the corresponding weight reduction are of great
advantage in air craft and aerospace instruments.

Torque Equation
Derivation
Let,
L - Length of the coil (m)
D Width of the coil (m)
N Number of Turns in the coil
B Flux density in the air gap (wb/m2)
I Current through the moving coil (A)
K Spring Constant of Suspension (Nm/rad)
Qf - Final Steady State Deflection of Moving Coil (rad)
Force of each side of coil =
Angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the conductor
The field is radial so =90

Force on Each side =

Deflecting Torque

Where N, B, A are constants for a galvanometer

Therefore, Deflecting Torque

(or)

Where, G is the displacement constant of a galvanometer.

The spring control provides a restoring (controlling) torque

Where, K is the spring constant

For final steady deflection

( )
( )

DC Ammeters
Resistor Shunt: (Ammeters Shunt)
The basic movement of a dc ammeter is a PMMC DArsenoval Galvanometer. The coil winding of
basic movement is light and can carry very small currents since the construction of an accurate
instrument with a moving coil to carry currents greater than 100A is impractical as it would require
a heavy weighing and bulky coil.

When heavy current are to be measured, the major part of the current is bypassed through
a load resistance called a shunt. Resistance of the shunt can be found from conventional circuit
analysis:
Rm -> Internal resistance of the movement (i.e. coil)
Rsh -> Resistance of Shunt
Im -> Full scale deflection current of the movement
Ish -> Shunt Current
I -> Full scale current of Ammeter
Since the shunt generator is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drop across shunt and
movement must be same.

Vshunt = Vmovement

Since

The ratio of total current to the current in the movement is called multiplying power of shunt.

The shunt resistance used with DArsenoval Movement consists of coil of resistance wire within the
case of instrument; or it may be external shunt having a very low resistance.
Construction of Shunts

The general requirements of shunts are:

1) The temperature coefficient of resistance if shunt and instrument should be low and should
be nearly as possibly the same
2) The resistance of shunts should not vary with time
3) They should carry the current without excessive temperature rise.
4) Manganin is used as shunt for DC instruments
5) Constantan is used as shunt for AC instruments
Precautions while using Ammeters
1) Always connect ammeters in series with load
2) The polarities must be observed correctly. The opposite polarities deflect the pointer in
opposite direction.
Multi-range Ammeters
The current range of a dc ammeter may be further extended by a number of shunts, selected by
a Range Switch; such a meter is called multi-range ammeter.

The ckt has four shunts Rsh1,Rsh2,Rsh3 which can be put in parallel with the meter movement to
give different current ranges I1,I2,I3,I4.

Multi-range Ammeters are used for ranges from 1 to 50A

When using a multi-range ammeter first use the highest current range, to decrease the
current-range, the decrease the current range until good upscale reading is obtained.

Universal or Ayrton Shunt

The advantage of an Ayrton shunt is that it eliminates the possibility of meter being in the ckt
without a shunt i.e. while the range is being changed there may be a chance that the meter may
be without a shunt resistor; it leads to the damage of meter. So Ayrton Shunt eliminates this
disadvantage. This is gained at the cost of a higher meter resistance.
If the switch is at position (1)
(

If the switch is at position (2)

(

If the switch is at position (3)

(

Values at different sections of resistance are (R1 R2), (R2 R3), R3.

DC Voltmeter
Multiple Resistors

The addition of a series resistor or multiplier

converts the basic DArsenoval movement into a dc
voltmeter. The multiplier limits the current through
the movement so as not to exceed the value of full
scale deflection current (Ifsd).A DC Voltmeter
measures the potential difference between the 2
points in a dc ckt and is therefore connected across a
source of emf or a circuit component. The meter
terminals are generally marked positive or
negative. Since the polarity must be observed.

The value of a multiplier required to extend the voltage range is calculated from :

Voltage across motor

(

This multiplier is usually mounted inside the case of the voltmeter for moderate ranges up to
500v
For Higher ranges, the multiplier may be mounted separately outside the case.

Multi-range DC Voltmeter
In a multi-range DC Voltmeter different full-scale voltage ranges may be obtained by the use of
individual multiplier resistors or by potential divider arrangement.
Individual Multipliers

We can obtain different voltage ranges by connecting

different values of multiplier resistors in series with
the meter.
The no. of resistors is equal to the number of ranges
required

Potential Divider Arrangement

Another multi-range voltmeter is the potential divider arrangement, in which the connections are
made at the junctions of the resistances
in series to obtain

(
(

)
(

(
)

 The system has the advantage that all multipliers except the first have standard
resistance values and can be obtained numerically in precision tolerances.

Multi-range Voltmeters are very effective for moderate range voltages.

For higher range voltages it is often desirable to use external resistances in
connection with a given voltmeter.

AC Voltmeters using Rectifiers

Electronic AC Voltmeters are basically identical to DC Voltmeters the only difference is that the ac
input voltage must be rectified before it can be applied to the DC meter ckt.
In some cases, rectification takes place before amplification in which a simple diode rectifier
preceeds the amplifier and meter.

Fig (a) AC input signal is first rectified and then applied to a DC Amplifier and meter
movement.
Fig (b) The AC input signal is first amplified then applied to a full wave rectifier in the meter
ckt.
This approach generally requires an AC amplifier with high open loop gain and large
amounts of negative feedback to overcome the non-linearity of rectifier diodes.

 AC Voltmeters are usually average responding type with the meter scale calibrated in terms
of RMS value of a sine wave.

Series Connected Diode, providing

half-wave rectification for an
average reading voltmeter.

0. 5

Four diode connected as bridge,

providing full-wave rectification for
an average reading voltmeter.

0.9

Shunt Connected Diode used in peak

reading voltmeter

In this circuit the rectifier diode charges the small capacitor to peak of the applied input
voltage and therefore meter will indicate peak voltage.
After the rectification the average value of the voltage is developed across the resistor R
and applied to the meter.
Peak responding, the basic diff between the peak responding voltmeters is the use of
storage capacitors with the rectifying diode. The capacitor charges through the diode to the
peak value of applied voltage & the meter ckt then responds to the capacitors voltage.
The RMS value of voltage wave is related to average value by form factor


( )
0. 0
0.

The average responding value of the voltmeter has a scale marking corresponding to the
RMS value of the applied sinusoidal input waveform.

True RMS Responding Voltmeter

Complex waveforms are most accurately measured with an RMS responding
voltmeter. This instrument produces a meter indication by sensing waveform
heating power, which is proportional to the square of the RMS value of voltage.
This heating power can be measured by feeding an amplified version of the input
waveform to the heater element of the thermocouple whose output is then
proportional to E2rms
One difficulty with this technique is that the thermocouple is non-linear in its
behaviour.
This difficulty is overcome in some instruments by placing two thermocouple in the
same thermal environment.
The non-linear effect of the
thermocouple in the input
circuit(the measuring
thermocouple) is cancelled by
the similar non-linear effects
of thermocouple in the
feedback circuit(the balancing
thermocouple)
The 2 thermocouples form a part of a bridge in the input circuit of a DC amplifier.

 The unknown ac voltage is amplified and applied and applied to the heating element
of the measuring thermocouple
The application of heat produces an output voltage that upsets the balance of the
bridge
The DC amplifier amplifies the unbalanced voltage, this voltage feedback to the
heating element of the balancing thermocouple, which heats the thermocouple so
that the bridge is balanced again, i.e. the outputs of both the thermocouples are the
same.
At this instant the AC current in the input thermocouple is equal to the DC current in
the heating element of the feedback thermocouple.
This DC current is therefore directly proportional to the effective or RMS value of the
input voltage, and is indicated by the meter in the output circuit of DC amplifier.