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BWh
BWk
BSh
BSk
Csa
Csb
Cwa
Cwb
Cwc
Cfa
Cfb
Cfc
Dsa
Dsb
Dsc
Dsd
Dwa
Dwb
Dwc
Dwd
Dfa
Dfb
Dfc
Dfd
ET
EF
Kppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was
first published by Russian Germanclimatologist Wladimir Kppen in 1884, with several later
modifications by Kppen, notably in 1918 and 1936. Later, German climatologistRudolf
Geiger collaborated with Kppen on changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes
called the KppenGeiger climate classification system.
In the 1960s, the Trewartha climate classification system was considered a modified Kppen system
that addressed some of the deficiencies (mostly that the middle latitude climate zone was too broad)
of the Kppen system.
The system is based on the concept that native vegetation is the best expression of climate. Thus,
climate zone boundaries have been selected with vegetation distribution in mind. It combines
average annual and monthly temperaturesand precipitation, and the seasonality of precipitation.[2]:2001
Contents
[hide]
1Scheme
o
2Ecological significance
3World Map of the KppenGeiger climate classification for the period 19512000
5Other maps
6See also
7References
8External links
o
8.1Climate records
Scheme[edit]
2nd
3rd
Description
Tropical
-Rainforest
-Monsoon
-Savanna
Arid
W
-Desert
-Steppe
h
--Hot
--Cold
Temperate
s
-Dry Summer
-Dry Winter
--Hot Summer
--Warm Summer
--Cold Summer
Cold (Continental)
s
-Dry Summer
-Dry Winter
--Hot Summer
--Warm Summer
--Cold Summer
Polar
T
-Tundra
The Kppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main groups (A, B, C, D, E),
each having several types and subtypes. Each particular climate type is represented by a two- to
four-letter symbol.
Group A: Tropical/megathermal climates:
Steppe climate (Semi-arid) BS: Hot steppe (BSh), Cold steppe (BSk)
Continental subarctic climates with extremely severe winters (Dsd, Dwd, Dfd)
Tropical rainforest climate (Af):[2]:2058 All 12 months have average precipitation of at least
60 mm (2.4 in). These climates usually occur within 510 latitude of theequator. In some
eastern-coast areas, they may extend to as much as 25 away from the equator. This climate is
dominated by the doldrums low-pressure system all year round, so has no natural seasons.
Examples:
Singapore, Singapore
Apia, Samoa
Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year
(e.g., the northwest Pacificcoast of South and Central America, from Ecuador to Costa Rica; see, for
instance, Andagoya, Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is
distinctly wettest (as at Palembang, Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have
more rain (as at Sitiawan, Malaysia).
A few places with this climate are found at the outer edge of the tropics, almost exclusively in the
Southern Hemisphere; one example is Santos, So Paulo, Brazil.
(Note. The term aseasonal refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight
hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in
the tropics, but not as predictable as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature,
but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or ground water. Plant response (e. g.,phenology),
animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting,
hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central
America, the 'rainy season' (and the 'high water season') is called invierno or inverno, though it could
occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season' (and 'low water season') is
called verano or vero, and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter).
Tropical monsoon climate (Am):[2]:208 This type of climate, most common in South America,
results from the monsoon winds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate
has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side
of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm, but more than 1/25 the total annual precipitation.
Examples:
Jakarta, Indonesia[4]
Also, another scenario exists under which some places fit into this category; this is referred to as the
"trade-wind littoral" climate, because easterly winds bring enough precipitation during the "winter"
months to prevent the climate from becoming a tropical wet-and-dry climate. Nassau, Bahamas, is
included among these locations.
Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate (Aw):[2]:20811 These climates have a pronounced
dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm and less than 1/25 of the
total annual precipitation.
Examples:
Caracas, Venezuela
Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Mumbai, India
Bangkok, Thailand
Ko Samui, Thailand
Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the tropical zone, but
occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g., San Marcos, Antioquia, Colombia) also qualifies.
Actually, the Caribbean coast, eastward from the Gulf of Urab on theColombiaPanam border to
the Orinoco River delta, on the Atlantic Ocean (about 4,000 km), have long dry periods (the extreme
is the BSh climate (see below), characterised by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for
instance, in extensive areas in theGuajira, and Coro, western Venezuela, the northernmost
peninsulas in South America, which receive <300 mm total annual precipitation, practically all in two
or three months). This condition extends to the Lesser Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the
circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminishes inland (southward);
at the latitude of the Amazon River which flows eastward, just south of the equatorial line the
climate is Af. East from the Andes, between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are
the Orinoco River's llanos or savannas, from where this climate takes its name.
Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and
longer days. This is the case in parts of Hawaii, northwestern Dominican Republic (Monte Cristi, Villa
Vsquez, Lupern), East Africa (Mombasa, Kenya), and Sri Lanka (Trincomalee), for instance. In
most places that have tropical wet and dry climates, however, the dry season occurs during the time
of lower sun and shorter days because of rain shadow effects during the 'high-sun' part of the year.
Examples:
On occasion, a fourth letter is added to indicate if either the winter or summer is "wetter" than the
other half of the year. To qualify, the wettest month must have at least 60 mm (2.4 in) of average
precipitation if all 12 months are above 18 C (64 F), or 30 mm (1.2 in) if not; plus at least 70% of
the total precipitation must be in the same half of the year as the wettest month but the letter used
indicates when the 'dry' season occurs, not the 'wet' one. This would result in Khartoum, Sudan,
being reckoned as BWhw;Niamey, Niger, as BShw; Alexandria, Egypt, as BWhs; Asbi'ah, Libya,
as BShs; mngovi Province, Mongolia, as BWkw; andXining, Qinghai, China,
as BSkw (BWks and BSks do not exist if 0 C in the coldest month is recognized as the h/kboundary.
[citation needed]
) If the standards for neither w nor s are met, no fourth letter is added.
warmest month averaging below 22 C, but with at least four months averaging above 10 C,
while c means three or fewer months with mean temperatures above 10 C.
The order of these two letters is sometimes reversed, especially by climatologists in the United
States.[which?]
C climates (or mesothermal) are broken down into two types: 1) A dry-summer or Mediterranean
climate and a temperate climate:
Examples:
Under the KppenGeiger classification, dry-summer (Csb) extends to additional areas not typically
associated with a typical Mediterranean climate, such as much of the Pacific Northwest, much of
southern Chile, parts of west-central Argentina,areas of northern Spain and Portugal as well as
areas in the Atlantic coast of Morocco.[1] Many of these areas would be oceanic (Cfb), except drysummer patterns meet Kppen's Cs minimum thresholds. Additional highland areas in the subtropics
also meet Csrequirements, although they, too, are not normally associated with Mediterranean
climates.
Warm temperate (Cfa, Cwa):[2]:2236 These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and
eastern sides of continents, from 26 to 45 latitude. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean
climates, warm temperate climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm
and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in
Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season. The flow out of the subtropical highs and
the summer monsoon creates a southern flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to
the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent but short-lived
summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly temperate climates like the southern
United States or southern China and Japan. East Asia has the world's best developed
subtropical monsoons, and the classic dry winter/wet summer is characteristic of the region.
Examples:
Maritime temperate climates or Oceanic climates (Cfb, Cfc, Cwb, Cwc):[2]:2269 Cfb climates
usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents between the
latitudes of 45 and 60; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean
climates, although in Australia and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately
poleward of temperate climates, and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this
climate occurs in coastal areas up to 63N in Norway. These climates are dominated all year
round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are cool due
to cool ocean currents, but winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually
very cloudy. Cfb climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and
tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rain forest if not for the
altitude. These climates are called "highlands".
Examples:
Temperate highland tropical climate with dry winters (Cwb, Cwc) is a type of climate
characteristic of the highlands inside the tropics
of Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Madagascar, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa, but it is also found
in central Argentina, outside the tropics. Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be
very rainy. In the tropics, the rainy season is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry
winters by subtropical high pressure.
Examples:
Maritime subarctic climates or subpolar oceanic climates (Cfc):[2] These climates occur
poleward of the maritime temperate climates, and are confined either to narrow coastal strips on
the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to
islands off such coasts.
Examples:
Reykjavk, Iceland[12]
Examples:
Balmaceda, Chile
These climates have an average temperature above 10 C (50 F) in their warmest months, and a
coldest month average below 3 C (or 0 C in some versions, as noted previously). These usually
occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, normally north of 40N. In the
Southern Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the
middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 4060S, existing only in some
highland locations.
Group D climates are subdivided as:
Lettering
The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern w indicates dry winters (driest winter month
average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation; one variation
also requires that the driest winter month have less than 30 mm average precipitation), s indicates
dry summers (driest summer month less than 30 mm average precipitation and less than one-third
wettest winter month precipitation) and fmeans significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above
mentioned set of conditions fulfilled).
The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat and (for c and d) winter cold aindicates
warmest month average temperature above 22 C (72 F) with at least four months averaging above
10 C, b indicates warmest month averaging below 22 C, but with at least four months averaging
above 10 C, c indicates warmest month averaging below 22 C and with three or fewer months with
mean temperatures above 10 C, but coldest month averaging above 38 C, and d indicates
warmest month averaging below 22 C, three or fewer months averaging above 10 C, and coldest
month averaging below 38 C.
Scheme
Hot summer continental climates (Dfa, Dwa, Dsa):[2]:2312 Dfa climates usually occur in the
high 40 and low 50 latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of
>22 C/72 F. In Europe, these climates tend to be much drier than in North America. In eastern
Asia, Dwa climates extend further south due to the influence of the Siberian high pressure
system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because
of monsoon circulation. Dsa exists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer
Mediterranean (Csa) climates.
Examples:
Dsa exists only at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa)
climates.
Examples include:
Mu, Turkey
Saqqez, Iran
Kuh-rang, Iran
Examples:
Dsb arises from the same scenario as Dsa, but at even higher altitudes or latitudes, and
chiefly in North America, since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in
Eurasia.
Examples include:
Sivas, Turkey
Continental subarctic climates with extremely severe winters (Dfd, Dwd, Dsd):[2] Places
with this climate have the temperature in their coldest month lower than 38 C. These climates
occur only in eastern Siberia. The names of some of the places with this climate have become
veritable synonyms for extreme, severe winter cold.
Tundra climate (ET):[2]:2357 Warmest month has an average temperature between 0 and
10 C. These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land
masses, and on nearby islands. ET climates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic
Convergence, and at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line.
Ice cap climate (EF):[2]:237 All twelve months have average temperatures below 0 C (32 F).
This climate is dominant in Antarctica and inner Greenland, but also occurs at extremely high
altitudes on mountains, above even tundra.
Examples:
Vostok Station, Antarctica (EF), location of the lowest air temperature ever
recorded on Earth.
Ecological significance[edit]
The Kppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and
vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by
temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions
identified by the Kppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map
geographic distribution of long term climate and associated ecosystem conditions. [13]
Over the recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify
changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time.[14] The most important ecological
significance of the Kppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation
type based on the climatic data and vice versa.[15]
In 2015, a pair of Chinese scholars published analysis of climate classifications between 1950 and
2010, finding that more than 5% of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder
classifications to drier and hotter classifications. [16]
the US, locations in the Midwest like Ohio and Iowa which have long, severe winter climates where
plants are completely dormant, were classed into the same climate zone as Louisiana or northern
Florida which have mild winters and a green winter landscape.