Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

CHAPTER 3

OPERATING CYCLE OF
EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The operating cycle of earthmoving machines basically affect the
machines productivity and accordingly the project time plan.
Productivity mainly depends upon the following factors:
Machine loading capacity
Soil friability
Worker efficiency
Operating cycle time period
In the following these factors will be explained.

3.2 EARTHMOVING MACHINE LOADING CAPACITY

The loading capacity of earthmoving machine is calculated as the total
soil volume that can be charged in its loading box, Fig.3.1. this can be
estimated as follows:
LC = BV + RSV

Where:
LC = loading capacity or heap capacity
BV = machine loading box volume
RSV = additional volume of the soil reposed over the box plane
The angle of reposed soil is in general considered to be as 45 0. However,
some types of soil such as sand may get angles of repose less than 45
degrees, this depends on their angle of internal friction when being in dry
loose state.

SRV

450
BV

Fig.3.1 Heap (loading) capacity of machine.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

3.3 SOIL FRIABILTY

Soil volume in its original site (natural state) in the terrain is always less
than its volume after being cut and transported (displaced). The
difference in volumes before and after soil cutting depends on:
Soil type
Moisture content
Soil cohesion
In general, the coarse granular soils and gravel get considerably smaller
friable volume after being cut than rocks, and the moist cohesive soils get
a little bigger friable volume than their volume when being dry.
When calculating the actual machine productivity, the degree of soil
friability should be considered through a correction friability factor
(CFF). This is calculated as:
CFF = soil volume before cutting (SVBC) / soil volume after cutting
(SVAC)
Table 3.1 presents the correction factor of soil friability for some soil
types.
Table 3.1
Soil

CFF

Dry clay
Moist clay
Silt
Dry Sand
Moist Sand
Mixed Sand and gravel
Stones and Rocks

0.85
0.8
0.83
0.89
0.88
0.9
0.74

Weight of one meter cube

of soil, ton
1.4
1.8
1.6
1.95
2.15
1.85
2.3

When the cut soil is to be transported by trailers or transport vehicles and

they vertically loaded by using loaders, the soil friable volume become

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

bigger. Accordingly, another correction factor, in addition to the CFF,

has to be used.
The total friability factor is TCFF is thus calculated as:
TCFF = CFF .VLF

Where:
VLF = vertical loading factor
= 0.9
for sand
= 0.7
for clay

3.4 MACHINE OPERATOR EFFICIENCY

Regarding the difficult work conditions in fields and work-sites, the
machine is not actually working every minute in each hour, this means
that there is a certain portion of time wasted. The actual work hour is
therefore less than sixty minutes.
The actual time of machine operation depends mainly on the operator
efficiency, the type and work characteristics.
In general, the actual work hour is calculated according to the Time
Correction Factor (TCF) given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2
Machine type

Actual work time TCF

One hour, min.

Tracked
Wheeled

50
45

0.83
0.75

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

3.5 MACHINE OPERATING CYCLE

3.5.1 Phases of Machine Operating Cycle
The machine productivity depends for a specific earthmoving machine on
the phases of the operating cycle.
For example, the scraper machine has to carry out the following work
phases in one operating cycle:

Filling the bowl

Displacing the soil to the evacuation site
Discharging the soil
Return to the work site

Some of these phases require time variable from cycle to another such as
the displacing and return phases. Some other operations such as filing the
bowl and discharging the soil take fixed time period.
Therefore, the time for one operating cycle is calculated as:
Operating cycle time = Fixed time + variable time
3.5.2 Machine Productivity per Hour
The machine operating cycle stands as an important factor in determining
its productivity per hour which is different from its productivity or
capacity.
Machine productivity per hour depends on:
Machine capacity (Loading Capacity LC, m3)
Soil Friability (Correction Factor of soil Friability CFF)
Type of soil loading operation (Vertical Loading correction Factor
VLF)
Actual work time (Time Correction Factor TCF)

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

3.6 RESISTANCE TO THE EARTHMOVING

EQUIPMENT MOTION
During their motion with a relatively low speed, the earthmoving
equipment has to overcome the following road resistance forces:

Rolling or motion resistance

Grade resistance
Inertia resistance

The air resistance or drag is negligible due to the low speed of motion.
The motion resistance is generated as a result of soil compaction and
bulldozing that occurs during motion.
The rolling resistance coefficient varies according to the soil type and
traction mechanism from 0.02 up to 0.16 or even more.
Table 3.3 shows average values of the rolling resistance coefficient on
various types of soil.
Table 3.3 Average values of the rolling resistance coefficient.
Soil or ground

Rolling resistance coefficient

Tyre
Track

Concrete
Compact clay & gravel
Compact clay
Low dense clay
Loose sand & gravel
Loose sand

0.02
0.03
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.16

0.2
0.04
0.05
0.07

Grade resistance depends on the weight of equipment and the grade

angle. Grade angle is usually calculated in percentage.
Inertia resistance depends on the mass of equipment, the engaged gear
ratio, and the motion acceleration.
The total resistance is calculated as:
Rtot = W cos f + W sin + W a /g
Where:
W = weight of the equipment

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

= coefficient of rolling resistance

= angle of grade
= acceleration
= coefficient related to rotating masses inertia
= 1 + (0.055 + 0.22 it2) Wmax / Wactual
it = total gear ratio

3.7 TRACTION COEFFICIENT

The earthmoving equipment productivity is basically dependent on the
traction between its tyres or tracks and the soil. If the traction forces
available at the traction elements of the machine is not enough to
withstand the soil cutting and motion resistance forces the slip will
increase and bogging in may occur.
Table 3.5 gives average values of the traction coefficient which is defined
as the ratio between the traction force multiplied by the weight on the
driven traction elements. This is written as:
= Ft / Wadh
where:
Wadh = weight on the driven traction elements
Ft = traction force
Table 3.5
Soil or road

Traction coefficient
Tyres
Tracks

Concrete
Compact gravel
Compact clay & gravel
Compact clay
Low dense clay
Loose sand & Gravel
Loose sand

0.90
0.60
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.25
0.15

0.45
0.70
0.70
0.75
0.70
0.35
0.30

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

3.8 AVERAGE SPEED OF EARTHMOVING MACHINES

The operating speeds of wheeled earthmoving equipment may differ than
that found in the specification manuals; this is due to the ground surface
roughness and resistance. Such machine usually operate at average speeds
that are lower those found in the catalogues.
The average speeds of operation may be calculated by using a certain
Speed Correction Factor SCF whose values are found in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6.
Distance of
Loading, m

Operating conditions
heavy
medium

< 150
150-300
300-450
450-600
600-900
>900

0.32-0.46
0.46-0.57
0.57-0.65
0.65-0.71
0.71-0.75
0.750.79

0.46-0.57
0.57-0.65
0.65-0.71
0.71-0.75
0.75-0.79
0.79-0.83

good

0.57-0.65
0.65-0.71
0.71-0.75
0.75-0.79
0.79-0.83
0.83-0.87

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

3.9 CALCULATION OF EQUIPMENT PRODUCTIVITY

3.9.1 Productivity of Scrapers
The productivity of a scraper is defined as:
Productivity = Cycle load x Number of cycles per hour
It is important to firstly determine the cycle load as the scraper weight has
effect on haul speeds, after that it should be remembered that scrapers
work in teams assisted by one or more pusher tractors.
a) Work data:
Scraper data is usually given as:
Type of material to be worked out.
Manufacturers` specifications.
Details related to haul road, distances, grades, and surface
conditions.
Hourly production required and anticipated overall job efficiency
expressed in working minutes per hour.
b) Cycle Load:
From Manufacturer`s specifications take the heaped volume capacity of
the scraper. This must be multiplied by a fill factor depending on material
to be loaded. Table (3.7) is a rough guide.
Material
Soft clay
Sand & gravel
Rock-well blasted
factor

Table (3.7)
Fill factor
Conventional scraper
0.75 1.05
0.70 0.90
0.50 0.80

Elevating scraper
0.90 1.00
0.85 0.95
N.A

Cycle Load (loose volume) = Scraper heaped capacity x Fill

Cycle Load (weight) = Loose volume x Loose density
Loaded weight = Scraper weight + Cycle load weight
Cycle Load (bank volume) = Loaded weight / Solid density

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

c) Cycle Time:
Cycle time is made up of two main parts:
Cycle Time = Fixed Time + Variable Time
Fixed time
Is the time required to load and subsequently unload the scraper, plus any
other non-traveling time, waiting for the push tractor, maneuvering etc.
Table (3.8) gives a rough estimation of the fixed time.

Scraper
type

Table (3.8)
Fixed time, seconds
Load
Dump

Conventional 30 60
Elevated
55 80

10 20
15 25

Wait
& Total
Maneuver
30 60
70 -140
10 -25
80 - 130

Variable time
This is the time to travel from the cut (loading area) to the fill or dump
(unloading area) and the return.
The haul road is divided into sections having gradient and rolling
resistance.
If the job is done at high altitude (over 3000 m) the power loss may be
significant. Therefore, the total resistance is divided by an altitude factor.
The altitude factor is calculated as:
Altitude factor = (100 power loss factor) / 100
This will give the maximum theoretical travel speed for a given total
resistance.
The theoretical travel speed should also be multiplied by a speed factor.
Figure (3.2) shows the speed factor in relation to the haul section length.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

Fig.3.2 Speed factor.

Time = Distance (m) x 3.6 / speed (km/h)
Cycles per hour = Working minutes per hour x 60 / Cycle time (sec)
d) Number of scrapers required
Number of scrapers required to do the job is calculated as:
No of scrapers = Production required / Production per scraper
Production per scraper = Cycle load x Cycles per hour

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

e) Number of Push tractors

If the scrapers are to be push loaded, the number of push tractors must be
determined.
Number of pushers = Number of scrapers required / Number of
scrapers per pusher
Number of scrapers per pusher = Scraper cycle time / pusher cycle
time
Pusher cycle time = 1.4 x scraper load time + 15 seconds
e) Form of the output calculations
The forms shown in figs.(3.3, 3.4) can be used to calculate the scraper
output.
To complete the required calculations for scrapers output some
relationships showing the data of scraper engine, and pusher engine
power as related to heap capacity are required.
These are given in Figs.
The characteristics of scraper engine enable selecting the travel speed as
affected by the road resistance.
The relationship of required pusher engine power versus heap capacity
engine enables selecting the correct pusher.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

500 m3 (bank)
25

Common Earth

1400

1800

150

60

Standard scraper

-------------

0.9

17

26948

22860

17

0.9

15.3

15.3

1400

26948

21420

21420

48368

21420
1800

11.9

60

5.12
702

5.12

11.9

60.928

500
60.928

Fiat Allis F930

71

40

702
71
10
10

Fig. 3.3 Form for calculation of scraper output.

10

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

100
40

20
40

Haul

48368

h1

300

-2

1451.04

42

0.4

16.8

64.2

h2

700

-2

1451.04

42

0.8

33.6

75

1200

1934.72

41

0.8

32.8 131.7

300

4353.12

17

17

300

-3

808.44

50

0.5

1200

1077.92

47

0.8

1000

1886.36

32

63.5

Return 26948
27

40

37.6

114.8

32

112.5

702

Fig.3.4 Form for calculation of total cycle time.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

Fig. 3.5 Scraper engine characteristics.

Fig. 3.6 Pusher tractor power vs heap capacity.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

e) Solved example:
Calculation of scraper output
How many scrapers and pushers are required to haul 350 m3 of common
earth soil with land topography as shown in the Figure using conventional
scrapers that have engine characteristics as given by the figures.
Suppose that the actual working time is fifty minutes per hour, and that
the return is by same route.
Given data:
Bank soil density = 1700 kg/m3 , loose soil density = 1350 kg/m3
Anticipated job efficiency = 50 %
Altitude = 100 m
Heaped scraper capacity = 16.1 m3
Scraper rated load = 22860 kg, scraper empty weight is 26948 kg
Fill factor = 0.9

Fig. (3.7) Land topography.

Solution:
Procedure of calculation is as follows:First calculate cycle load
estimated cycle load

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

cycle load weight

loaded scraper weight
cycle load bank volume
Second calculate number of scrapers required
cycle per hour
output per scraper
number of scrapers required
Third total cycle time
Calculate for each road section the following:
scraper weight
distance traveled
road resistance
max speed
speed factor
actual speed
After that calculate the total cycle time
Fourth calculate number of push tractors required
cycle time
number of scraper per pusher
number of pushers require
Figs. (3.8, 3.9) show the solved example calculations.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

Fig. 3.8 Solved example calculations sheet 1.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

Fig. 3.9 Solved example calculations, sheet 2.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

3.7.2 Productivity of Wheel Loaders

The productivity of a dozer is defined using same equation for a scraper
productivity.
a) Cycle Load:
From Manufacturer`s specifications take the heaped volume capacity of
the wheel loader. This must be multiplied by a fill factor depending on
material to be loaded. Table (3.9) is a rough guide.
Table (3.9)
Material
Soft clay, loam
Sand & gravel
Uniform aggregate (over 3 mm)
Hard clay, cemented materials
Rock-well blasted
-Poorly blasted

Fill factor
1.00 1.10
0.95 1.00
0.85 0.95
0.85 0.95
0.80 0.85
0.60 0.65

Cycle Load (bank volume) = Cycle load weight / Bank density

b) Cycle Time:
As a starting point for calculations, the basic cycle time for a wheel
loader is taken as 25 seconds.
This includes bucket filling and dumping.
The time must be adjusted for varying conditions, as those shown by
Tables (3.10).
Digging conditions
Table 3.10
Conditions

Adjustment, seconds

Loose, free flowing

-2
Medium digging
None
Hard digging from +10 and more
bank, large rocks
Dumping conditions

Revised cycle,
seconds
23
25
+35

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

Table 3.11
Conditions

Adjustment,
seconds
Common ownership of truck (one size & Up to -2
loaders
Independent owned or mixed sizes of Up to +3
trucks
Small or fragile target
Up to +4
Dumping on ground from embankment
Up to -2
Travel distance
Travel time is calculated as:
Travel time = Haul distance (m) / speed (km/h)
Total travel time is:
Total travel time = Haul time + Return Time
Haul distance is taken as the distance between the point of bucket filling
to the dumping point.
Maximum speed in each gear can be found from machine specifications
as shown by Fig. (3.25).

Fig.3.10 Average speed rolling resistance relationship.

Although higher speeds may be possible, there will be a tendency of
bucket shaking and a safety hazard may be created.
c) Hourly output:

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

Cycles per working hour can be calculated as:

Cycles per working hour = working time per hour x 60 / Total cycle
time (s)
Hourly output = Cycles per working hour x Cycle load
d) Truck size:
The effective capacity of haul can be achieved if the loader can fill the
truck from four tom six bucketfuls.
e) Form of calculations:
Fig.(3.11) shows a typical form of calculations.
Procedure can be run as follows:
First calculate cycle load
Second calculate cycle time
Finally calculate hourly output.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

500 m3 (bank)
Common Earth

~25

1800

1400
1000

60

-------------------

------------1.911

1
10971

-------

------

10971

1.911

1.911

1400

1.911

2675.4

2675.4
10971

24.38

2675.4
1800

1.48

-------------3
3
-

1200

1231

24.38

67.97
1231

Fig. 3.11 Form of calculation of hourly output of loaders.

Chapter 3

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

f) Solved example
A loader has to excavate and load stiff dry clay into a mixed fleet of
trucks. Assuming a 45 minute hour work efficiency, can an output of 200
m3/ h be achieved?
Given data:
Bucket heaped capacity 3.5 m3, Static tipping load = 10971 kg
Bank density = 1800 kg/ m3, loose density = 1400 kg/ m3
Fill factor = 1.00
Solution:
Fig. 3.12 shows the results of calculation of hourly output of the wheel
loader.

Chapter 3

Fig. 3.21 Results of

Operating Cycles of Earthmoving Equipment

Fig 3.12