Ammar

Qaseem
Mechanics of Materials -I

BSME 13-17
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences

Book Used: Mechanics of

Materials by R.C Hibbeler

Chapter 1: Stress
External Forces:
Surface forces:
Caused by direct contact of bodies.
Body forces:
Caused without contact e.g gravitational, magnetic
Support reactions:
Their cause(supports) arent included in free body diagram.
Always balance forces; not stresses since stress is per unit area (units are N/m2=Pa) and
will sum up to different force magnitudes depending on the area involved.
Stress has same units as that of pressure but pressure is on the outside while stress is in
the inside (in sections)(though it is still caused by external forces)

Types of Stresses/Stress Forces:

Shear Stress (V):
Directed tangent to the plane.
Normal Stress (N):
Directed perpendicular to the plane.
Principle Plane:
The plane that doesnt have any shear stresses
Symbols:
Normal Stress: (Sigma)
Shear Stress: (Thao)
Subscripts: for normal, the normal direction is used. For
shear stresses, first subscript is the planes normal stress
direction while second shows their direction.

Similarly, like shear and normal stress forces, there are

torsional (T) and bending (M) moments that are
components of the net stress moment.

Special Case of Coplaner Forces:

If a body is subjected to coplanar forces only,
then it will have only Normal, shear forces and
bending moment at the section point. (NO
TORSIONAL MOMENT)
If normal force or stress pulls on delta A, it is called tensile stress, if it
pushes, it is called compressive stress.
By convention, tensile forces are taken positive while compressive are taken
negative.

Average Normal Stress:

It is stress force divided by area of the plane on which it is applied on. avg

Average Shear Stress:

It is shear force divided by area of the plane on which it is applied on. avg
Complementary property of shear:
It says all the shear forces acting on cube are
equal and have to be either pointing towards or
away from each other at the edges.
Here tzy and tyz are equal and vice versa.
(proved by balancing all moments about x axis)
But since tyz and tzy are also equal, so all four
shears become equal.

zy = yz = zy = yz

Fail Stress:

Ex 1.9

Ex 1.10

The stress above which the material would break. Allowable stress is always kept
smaller than fail stress.

Allowable Stress:
The stress which the device is supposed to bear. It is smaller.

Ex 1.16
(imp)

Factor of Safety FS:

The ratio of fail stress to allowable stress.

Area required for load bearing:

Force divided by allowable stress gives the area required.

FS = fail / all

P 1-74,
1-80

A = F / all

Chapter 2: Strain
Normal Strain:
Change in length of a line per unit length.

avg =
The exact strain per unit length can be defined by applying limit that
s approaches zero.
Although strain is a dimensionless quantity, it is sometimes expressed in units of length.

Shear Strain:
If we consider two lines perpendicular to each other, than the change of angle between them
that occurs due to stress is called strain.
Denoted by

= lim(B->a along n)(C->a along t)

Small Strain Analysis:
Assumption is taken in most cases that the
deformations in the body are almost infinitesimal i.e
<<1.
It is used to approximate sin = , cos =1, tan =

Numerical Point:
If the strain given is not average, then it is change in length per unit length
with limit s approaching to zero. (strain of dz) In this case, the delta s will be ds
and will have to be integrated along the length of the solid.

Ex 2.1 (avg
and exact
strain)

Chapter 3: Mechanical Properties of Materials

Tension/Compression Test:
Before testing, material is made into standard shape and size (constant circular cross section
with enlarged ends). Two small punch marks are placed along the length. Initial readings are
taken and the material is placed into the testing machine.
For measurement purposes, either extensometer (manual) or electrical resistance
strain gauge can be used.
ERSG
It works on the resistance technology. It has an inner wire
placed in circular orientation which is attached to the
material being tested. When material length is changed,
the coil also changes cross sectional area and length

R=
This length is calculated by the change in the resistance of
the coil.
Caution: The elastic limit of coil should be taken in consideration.

Nominal/Engineering Stress:
It assumes that Stress is constant over the cross sectional area and over the length
It always takes the original Area under consideration(even if it changes)

=
Nominal/Engineering Strain:
It assumes that Strain was constant throughout the region between gauge points. It can be
gotten by gauge or by equation

=
True Stress-Strain:
During a Stress-Strain Diagram, we are calculating stress at every point by taking the A and L
as the original length and area. If we take the area and length of specimen at the instant we
measure load P and change , we would get true stress and true strain.
Since in True Stress, the A has decreased (due to necking), so true stress is greater than
engineering stress. True Stress is equal to the nominal Stress as long as the strain is
small.

Note: All three examples are very

important for covering strain topic.

Ex 2.4 (shear
strain
proper)

Ex 2.3 (normal
and shear
strain)

Stress-Strain Diagrams:
There are two types of Stress-Strain Diagrams:
1) Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram
2) True
Stress-Strain
Diagram

Elastic Region:
In this region, the material has the capability to revert to original shape. The linear deformation
ends at proportional limit while the elastic region ends at elastic limit.
Yield Stress:
It has two points. Upper and lower. The material has a sudden change in length after which it
approaches lower yield stress. (elastic region).
Strain Hardening: (why true stresses rise)
After the yield stress elongation, plastic behavior is observed. The material has now increased
capacity to bear loads. Thus greater force causes small strain. So
Nominal stress increases.
Cross-sectional area decreases so true stress increases a lot.
This strain hardening ends at ultimate stress point
Necking:
After ultimate stress, a neck starts to form and stress concentrates at that point. Here the strain
hardening isnt present anymore. So
Nominal stress decreases (normal force, normal strain)
cross-sectional area decreases a lot, so true stress increases significantly

Ductile-Brittle Materials:
Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it breaks is called ductile materials.
Otherwise it is brittle.
Its measure is given by percent elongation. (formula is obvious)
It can also be given by percent decrease in area.

Offset yield point method:

When the yield point of material is not well defined e.g Almunium, we use offset
method (graphical). A 0.2 % (0.002 in/in usually) strain is chosen(strain is a percentage
itself) and a line is that drawn from point parallel to initial proportional line of material.
The point at which this line intersects the curve is
declared as the yield point.

At low temperature, materials become harder

and more brittle, while at high temperature they
are softer and more ductile

Hookes law:
Stress is proportional to Strain within proportional limit.

=E
This E is the Youngs modulus (modulus of elasticity). It
is the slope of stress-strain graph (within proportional
limit).

Strain Energy:
As deformation occurs in a body, it tends to store energy throughout its volume. This is called
strain energy.
When strain is applied on a body, it undergoes deformation due to force. This constitutes work
done which is equal to the strain energy.
- Force is increased uniformly from zero to its final magnitude, so we take average
- Displacement is
, where x can be any axis
Work=Strain Energy=

For convenience, we also use strain energy density which is denoted by u

u=
Note: Strain energy density is the area under the curve at the desired point

Modulus of Elasticity:
It is the youngs modulus. Read the Hooks law above.

Modulus of Rigidity/Shear Elasticity:

It is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. See shear stress-strain diagram below.

Modulus of Resilience:
When the material reaches its proportional limit(not yield point), the strain energy
density at that point is referred to as modulus of resilience
Def: Ability of material to absorb energy without any permanent deformation.

Modulus of Toughness:
The strain energy density at the materials fracture point is referred to as modulus of
toughness (entire area under stress-strain diagram)
Def: Ability of material to absorb energy without fracturing.

Poissons Ratio:
When a deformable body is under axial stress, it deforms longitudinally as well as laterally.
Then the respective strains are

long=

lat=

Now the Poissons ratio is

(negative sign added)

Note: The formula is only valid for homogenous and isotropic materials

 The negative sign is added because if longitudinal is positive, latitudinal will be negative.
Thus the negatives cancel out and ratio always remain positive
1) If latitudinal strain is zero, Poissons ratio will be 0. (very least possible value)
2) Maximum possible value for this ratio is 0.5

Shear Stress-Strain Diagram:

Shear Modulus of Elasticity
G=shear stress/shear strain

G = (both under proportional limit)

Related to youngs modulus as

G=

Creep:
When a material is subjected to load for a long period of time, it keeps deforming slowly until a
sudden fracture occurs or its usefulness is impaired. This time dependent effect is called creep.
- Generally creep strength (resistance to creep) decreases with high temperature and
high stress
In Diagram, as less strain is applied, the creep time of the
material increases. Thus the stress at which time approaches
infinity is called endurance limit.

Fatigue:
When a material is subjected to repeated cycles of stress or strain, it causes its structure to
break down, ultimately leading to fracture. This is called fatigue.
e.g crankshafts, train shafts, cyclic swing in amusement parks, breakage of wire by to and fro
bending etc. In all cases, the material breaks before its yield stress.
Reason: There are minute imperfections in the structure of material. When subjected to cyclic
loadings, cracks form in the material. These cracks lead to formation of other cracks and even a
ductile material fractures like a brittle one.

In diagram, as lower stress is applied, the material can

endure greater number of cycles. The stress limit at
which the number of cycles approach infinity is called
endurance limit.
Numerical points:
While calculating strain from youngs modulus, we must
remember that youngs modulus will only be valid if there is no plastic deformation.(only
elastic)
Ex 3.3

Symbols So far

Normal Stress

Modulus of Elasticity

Shear Stress

Modulus of Rigidity(shear elasticity)

Normal Strain

Modulus of resilience

Shear Strain

Poissons ratio

Chapter 4: Axial Load

Actual Deformation:
Deformation more in the region near the point of force
application.

Saint Venantss principle:

stress and strain produced at points in a body sufficiently
removed from the region of load application will be the
same as the stress and strain produced by any applied
loadings that have the same statically equivalent
resultant, and are applied to the body within the same
region.

Tension force is taken positive by

convention while compression is
taken negative

Elastic deformation of axially loaded member:

Since stress is force per unit area, if member hasnt uniform cross section and the force is also
variable, then the stress will be a ration of their respective functions.

Special case: (Constant cross section and force)

Superposition principle:
By subdividing the loading into components, the principle of superposition states that the
resultant stress or displacement at the point can be determined by algebraically summing the
stress or displacement caused by each load component applied separately to the member.
Conditions:
1) The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to be
determined.
2) The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or configuration of the
member

Statically indeterminate axially loaded member:

Such members in which the reaction forces are not simply enough to find the
stresses are called statically indeterminate.
Solution:
The bar is split in two at the point C. Now the change caused by both bars
must cancel each other out.

Flexibility or force method of analysis:

In this method, one support reaction is assumed to be none (forced statically determinate) and
change in length is found, then the removed reaction is supposed to be another force causing
change in length. In the end, the net change is set equal to zero.

Thermal Stress:
If heat is applied to the body and the body isnt allowed to expand, then thermal stress is
produced.
Thermal Stress and Thermal strain
can never exist at the same time.

Where is the linear coefficient of expansion.

Note: The formula is only valid for homogenous and isotropic materials

Stress Concentrations:
-

At sharp bends or sudden change in cross sections, the stress gets concentrated
We are concerned with the maximum stress value that can accumulate in a material
For this we have stress concentration factor K

Determining the K (concentration factor):

- The value of K can be seen from graphs
- Graphs for K are different for different bar geometries.
- Different graphs need different variables for finding K due to different geometry of
materials
- Graphs for 2 kinds of geometries are given below.

Inelastic axial deformation:

-

When load is increased, after a while the yield point is reached.

Now the plastic deformation starts.
In reality the strain at this point will be yield strain for a little while and then strain
hardening will start.
But we assume the material to be elastic perfectly plastic or elastoplastic so that strain
hardening never occurs.
This way, all our analysis will be safe since in reality the structure will have additional
capability to resist loads due to strain hardenings.

When plastic deformation starts, the irregular stress distribution slowly converts to uniform
stress distribution.

Residual Stress:
-

When stress is applied to a material and it deforms plastically, it reverts back to zero
stress when relaxed.
Some strain still exists at this point.
But If the member is statically indeterminate, then upon
removing the force, the reaction forces would be trying to
bring it to the zero strain.
But the original stress had already equaled to zero, when
the strain wasnt zero. Thus the reaction forces would take the material to a point of
zero strain and negative stress.
This is called Residual Stress

Numerical Point:
First the parts of material deform; both
plastically or one plastically. The sum of change
in length of both parts equals to zero. PL/AE
doesnt apply here
Then the force P is released. Now we
know that they both will revert to original shape
elastically. So we find the forces by using PL/AE.
The sum of change in length of both parts equals
to zero because extension of one is only possible
by compression of other.

Numerically, residual stress is found because during plastic deformation, the maximum stress
can only be the yield stress but during the elastic recovery, stress is greater than yield stress.
This causes an overall residual stress since full recovery isnt possible on removing the force.

Chapter 5: Torsion
Shear Strain:

Shear Strain increases with radius

linearly.
Thus according to =G the shear
stress also increases linearly

The Torsion Formula:

and

Where T is the torque, J is the moment of inertia. Derivation can be seen from book. Max shear
stress is at the outer surface of the shaft. C is the total radius of the shaft. Rho is the radius at
the point at which we are finding stress.

Some moments of inertia:

Circular Shaft:

Tubular Shaft:

Co and Ci are the outer and inner radiuses respectively.

Power Transmission:
If a torque is causing a shaft to rotate, then we can find the power transmitted by the formula

OR

Note: If the frequency and power transmission of shaft are known, torque can be found which
lets us calculate the area of cross-section.

Angle of Twist:
For very long pipes like thousands of feets of bore
pipe, it is important to keep angle of twist d in
mind since it increases axially.
Shear Strain increases with distance from
circular center while Angle of twist increases
with axial length

The formula can be derived by equating s=r for both angles and

Now, replacing using hookes law and then replacing shear stress by our formula, we get the
relation

Special Case: Constant cross-sectional Area

Recall:

Note the similarities (compare)

Note: Multiple Torques:
In case of multiple torques, twist is found from each torque
individually and then summation is taken.
Caution: Shafts must not yield for these formulas to be
valid

Statically Indeterminate Torque Loaded Members:

Sign Convention
Use right hand rule for torque. If
thumb points outwards, then
torque is positive else negative.
Anti-Clockwise=positive

As previously done, we get one equation due to summation

equation,

but we need a compatibility equation which is obtained by setting the net angle of twist due to
moments at A and B equal to zero

Caution: This is only valid within elastic limit.

Plastic deformation and residual stresses phenomenon is very similar to the force case. They
will be explained if in assignment.

Stress Concentration:
Just like before, in sudden change areas, stress reaches a max value that is K times the average
stress. We will only be showing graph for one type of change.

Chapter 6: Bending
Beams:
Members that are slender and support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their
longitudinal axis are known as beams.
- Simply Supported beam: Pinned at one end and roller at other end.
- Cantilever beam: Fixed at one and free at other end.

Overhanging beam: one or both its ends freely extended over the supports

Ex 6.2, 6.6

Shear and Moment Diagrams:

In beams shear forces and moments are generated which may vary along the length of the
beam. This shear force and moment when plotted along the length of the beam is called a
shear or moment diagram.
Choice of origin:
To plot the length, one end of beam must be taken as origin and a positive direction must be
assumed. Usually its the left end with left direction as positive.
Note: Shear and moment diagrams cannot be drawn just by looking at the diagrams but they
can be roughly guessed by looking at a few things of the freebody. (coming later)

Beam Sign Convention:

Case: External distributed load, upward positive
Case: Internal Shear, clockwise positive
Case: Internal Moment, Compressive on upward surface is
taken positive
Caution: These are only Internal Shear and Internal Moment
conventions.

Before we take a plunge into shear and moment diagrams,

you should have a grip on the derivative and integral graph
making.

Derivative Integral Graphical relationship:

Derivative shows only the change in a function

If function is horizontal at any point, derivative graph is at zero on that point.

If function is increasing (moving upwards), derivative graph will be in positive region.

If function is decreasing (moving downwards), derivative graph will be in negative region.

If function change is constant (straight line) (changing constantly), then derivative is a

horizontal line.

If function change is increasing and function is increasing, the derivative graph will become more
vertical upwards.
- If function change is increasing and function is decreasing, the derivative graph will become more
vertical downwards.
viceversa...
REVERSE: We will need a starting point to plot function from the "change graph".
practice the reverse. Practice doesn't make you perfect but it certainly increases you self-esteem.

Shear and Moment Diagrams:

After analyzing a generalized beam under distributed loading, we reach the following
conclusions

Thus in order to master the diagrams, you must have good practice of making integral graphs.

Some of the common

curves will be shown here.
If a point load acts on a beam, shear force receives a sharp change which is equal to the
magnitude of that force, while moment receives a sharp edge.
If a point Moment acts on a beam, Internal Moment receives a sharp change which is
equal to the magnitude of that moment.
Note: The equations are solved by all conventions but the diagrams are drawn by the new
conventions. How this is done? While drawing fbds, draw the shear force and internal moment
as positive by convention. Then solve by any convention. Thus if they are actually negative
beam convention, we will get negative values.

Bending Deformation of a Straight Member:

From the figure, we can see that in upper portion, compression takes place while in lower
portion, elongation takes place. Thus there must exist a neutral axis where no change will be
observed longitudinally.
We will base our calculations on some assumptions:
Assumptions:
1) The neutral axis does not undergo any change in length. (it will curve though)
2) All cross-sections of beam remain plain and perpendicular to the neutral axis.

Calculations:

By making use of s=r, we will

calculate the longitudinal strain

Substituting the values, we get

Note: This neutral axis is not necessarily in the center.

Actual Deformation:
We made some assumptions about no
strain in cross-sectional areas. In an
actual case, the cross-sectional area
below neutral axis will become smaller
while the area above will become larger (if load is applied downwards on the beam). This can
be calculated by Poissons ratio.

Common Conventions:
Remember:
Normal force is positive when directed out of body. Compressive is negative.
Strain is positive when expansion takes place. Negative in case of compression.
Stress is positive when directed normal to surface.
Make sure the calculated stress and strain are in accordance with these conventions.

The Flexure Formula:

By Hooks law, we can deduce that,

Also, we can see that for y positive, we get strain negative and stress negative. Moment is
positive for y pos or neg. The stress strain formulas are in accordance with these.

Finding the neutral Axis:

We set the condition that the net force
Due to stress distribution is equal to zero.

Since the stress max or c cannot be zero, so First Moment must be equal to zero.
This condition (first moment zero) is only satisfied at centroidal axis.

Finding the stress:

We set the condition that the resultant internal moment must
be equal to the moment about the neutral axis produced due
to stress distribution.

Now, we can see that we have moment of inertia formed. So we

can deduce the following equations. These are flexure formulas

It is derived for beams that are

symmetrical across an axis
perpendicular to neutral axis

Drawing Shear/Moment Diagrams:

While making diagrams, draw the shear force and internal moment assumed direction such that they
are positive by beam convention.
Make the beam to be in sections. Different formulas govern different sections.
Moments also includes all moments due to forces of freebody diagram. Forces do not include forces
due to moments.
While calculating internal moment, take the moment about the sectioned point since, shear force
might not be known.

Moment of Inertia for a rectangular

beam is given by I=1/12 bh3

Unsymmetric Bending:
Now we imply some conditions for beams that are not symmetrical across an axis perpendicular
to the neutral axis.
Imagine a couple moment to be applied on a beam. Thus we can say a few things about it

Summation forces is zero

Moment across y axis is zero.

Moment across z axis=Internal
Moment

So we get some results

This term is called Product of Inertia and it is equal to zero in this case.
Moment Arbitrarily Applied:
Moment might not be applied just across z axis. It might be
in the middle of z and y axis. In this case, we add the flexure
formulas of the moment components

Orientation of neutral axis:

Stress Concentrations ?

Chapter 7: Transverse Shear

This chapter is explains the shear force more in detail and how it is applied in crossections.

Shear in Straight members:

Due to complimentary property of shear, longitudinal shear
stresses are formed and thus the member undergoes crosssection warp.
Consequence:
As a result, flexure formula which assumed All cross-section of
beam remain plain and perpendicular to the neutral axis. That
doesnt hold true. BUT we can generally assume that for
members that have small depth compared to their length
(Slender Beams), this warping is so little that we can neglect it.

The Shear Formula:

We need to make a formula for the complementary shear force applied in the beam.
So lets assume a general beam

Now we take an arbitrary cross-section from it

NA is the neutral axis

We ignored the vertical forces (distr load and shear force since they dont affect
horizontal complimentary shear)
One side of the crossection has moment M while the other has M+dM
One side has dF while other has dF. Important things is that above and bottom forces
cancel each other out.

Now to calculate complimentary shear, we take a section from this cross-section(the shaded
one) (above figure) (we will refer this as section from now on(self-made name))

Now before we took this section, above and bottom forces satisfied Fx=0
(btw since beam isnt moving, the condition must satisfy)

But now we see that moment on both sides differ by dM and thus on the right side, the
forces are greater. (positive moment on right side suggest forces in direction of forces
that are already on the right side)(the internal moment is taken about neutral axis)
So to balance x directed forces, there must be a shear force underneath the section
which is the complimentary shear

Now we balance the x directed forces

(Note that Area A on both sides of our section is equal)(the above picture is the guide for this)

Here, dM/dx is shear force V,

Integral of ydA is the first moment of area A about neutral axis(since y is distance from
neutral axis).

Also we can call this integral as Q and since

, we can say that

(This y bar is the distance of the centroid of our section from the neutral axis)

Now we put in the values and get the shear formula

The shear formula gives us

the longitudinal shear
stress, where is our
transverse shear stress???
(First diagram of this chap tells the
difference between them)

Didnt we say that shear stress is simply shear force divided by Area???
Yes, that was average shear But actually shear force also causes longitudinal shear
which due to complimentary produces extra transverse shear stress. Thus stress by
shear formula is greater (It is actual)

According to the
complementary property of
shear, these two are equal

Limitation on the use of Shear Formula:

1) Since Flexure formula was used in its calculation, the material must remain elastic.
2) Assumption is that the longitudinal shear stress is uniformly distributed across beam but
it is actually arc shaped ( larger on the corners ).

This has little affect unless width to height b/h is much greater like this
Beam on right
And also the shear applied is actually average shear stress
3) Shear formula does not give accurate results at sharp corners since stress concentration
is in effect there.
4) Another important limitation is that in members where the boundary isnt rectangular
Fig (a), at the outer areas, we can make two two components of shear stress. and
which act on parallel and perpendicular planes to the boundary. Fig (c). Since boundary
is stress free, so is zero. And shear direction is on perpendicular to the boundary. Fig
(d). Thus we cannot find the shear simply. We can only find shear along the coloured
lines of Fig (a) in this case.

To Summarize, the shear formula does not give accurate results when applied to
members having cross sections that are short or flat, or at points where the crosssection suddenly changes. Nor should it be applied across a section that intersects the
boundary of the member at an angle other than 90.

Shear Flow in built-up members:

Often members are joined with each other and the adhesive material (nails, glue) has to resist a
certain force. This force per unit length of the beam is called Shear Flow.

Now just like we previously formulated, summation of x directed forces will give us this
equation,

Just like before, we introduce Q, divide both sides by dx thus getting shear force V and dF/dx
becomes q i.e shear flow

Note: The concept of Q will only be clear after practicing said numericals.
Clarification of Q: In it, Q=ybar x A. This y is the distance of the centroid of A from the neutral
axis. Carefully note what is A.

Now after calculating shear flow q, this q will be resisted by the number of nails given. Etc.

Chapter 8: Combined Loadings

Thin Walled Pressure Vessels:
-

Thin Wall refers to a vessel

having an inner radius to wall
ratio of 10 or more r/t >= 10

Provided that the vessel wall is thin, the stress

distribution in it will not vary greatly and can be
assumed constant.

The pressure in the vessel will always be the gauge pressure

since the atmospheric pressure is assumed to be present
outside the cylinder before the cylinder is pressurized.
Now we perform some stress analysis,
Cylindrical Vessels:

Reason: If radius and thickness

ratio is 10, the stress calculations
of the wall give a stress which is
4% less than the actual max stress
in the wall.
Error will be even smaller in larger
rations
Caution: This is radius to thickness
ratio, diameter to thickness ration
must be >= 20

Now we take a section from this cylinder as specified.

Stress pulls the section inwards

Pressure pushes it outwards. Pressure
Is taken at the middle of cylinder since
It is the same pressure that is applied to the circular region.
(no additional force acts between these two points)

Self Explanatory

Spherical Vessels:

In Cylindrical Vessels, we can see

that circumferential stress is
twice as much as longitudinal
stress.
Thus circumferential joints must
be designed twice as strong as
longitudinal joints.

Some Results:
From the above calculations, we found that an element taken from pressure vessel (cylindrical
or spherical) is subjected to biaxial stress. i.e a Normal Stress existing in only two directions.
Actually a radial stress is also occurring which is equal to P at the inside and reduces to zero at
the outer surface since the gauge pressure there is zero. However for thin walled vessels we
can ignore this component since the circumferential 2 and longitudinal 1 stresses are 5 and 10
times greater than the maximum radial stress P. (r is 10 times remember )

Chapter 8: Combined Loadings

Plane Strain Transformation:
We have studied that at any point in a body there are six normal stresses and other shear
stresses. But in actual case Engineers make assumptions and simplifications to analyze these
stresses in a single plane. In this case, the material is said to be subjected to plane strain.
Example:
When there is no stress on outer surface of a material, than there is obviously no stress on the
opposite inner face either. Thus the material is said to be subjected to plane strain.
Seen in: Cylindrical and spherical thin walled pressure vessels.

Representation of Stresses:
In an xy plane, the element is arranged, we can represent the stresses by two normal stress
components and one shear stress component (Fig (a))
However we change its orientation, the
stresses will have different values (since
area also plays a role) (Fig (b))
Thus we can say that,
The state of plane stress at the point is
uniquely represented by two normal stress
components and one shear stress
component acting on an element that has a
specific orientation at the point

Stress Transformation:
We will learn how to transform stress components from one orientation (a) to another
orientation (b). This is just like finding x and y components of a resultant vector and a waste of
my time if you ask me.
Not so fast there buddy : Force can be transformed considering its magnitude and direction.
But stress must take care of its area as well.
Ex 9.1 page
440

General Equations of Plane-Stress Transformation:

Whats our world if not automation :
The difficult procedure of the last topic can be automated by making general equations and
simplifying them. (You would have realized they were difficult if you had actually tried them)
So as always, forming conventions:
- Angle positive is taken from positive x axis to the positive x axis.
- Positive normal stress is outward normal from the material surface.
- Positive Shear stress is along the positive y axis.

can be calculated by setting the angle to +90 in the

normal stress formula.
(caution => there is a minus sign in the shear transformation formula)

Principal Stresses and Maximum In-Plane Shear Stresses:

From the above two topics we saw that the magnitude of the stresses depend
on the orientation angle of the element. Since in Engineering, we are often
concerned with finding the orientation that causes the stress to be maximum
or minimum, this thing is a friggin goldmine for us.

In-Plane Principal Stresses:

Calming downfirst of all, The maximum and minimum In-Plane Stress is called Principle Stress.
Now to calculate the maximum stress, we take the derivative of the stress transformation
formula and set it equal to zero.

Now to put it into the stress transformation formula,

we need cos and sin functions of this p angle. We can
obtain those from the graph on the left side by plotting the
perpendicular and base of the triangle; for both positive and
both negative stresses.

Putting these values in the normal stress transformation

formula, we get

So maximum and minimum normal stresses can be found where 1 >= 2

This set is called Principal Stresses,
And their corresponding planes are called principal planes.

At the Principal Plane, if

one normal stress is
maximum, then the other
component of normal
stress will be minimum.
Thus two principal planes
are possible in which 2
different components are
maximum.

Furthermore if we put the trigonometric relations in the shear stress transformation formula,
we can find that the shear stress there is zero. So we can say that
No Shear Stress Acts On The Principal Planes.

Maximum In-Plane Shear Stresses:

Just like before, we take derivative, make tan, make triangles, put the values in shear
transformation formula. We get

We observe two things in this case.

The maximum In-Plane shear stress occurs at an angle of 45 degree from the Principal
Plane.
At the Maximum shear plane, there is also normal stress present which is average of the
initial stresses.

Mohrs Circle:
It is used to analyze plane stress and understand the principle stress, transformed stress etc.
Recall the stress transformation equations (normal and
shear)

ThePositive Shear Stress is on

the downward axis of the Mohrs
Circle.
A flower from the garden of Javed

Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress

and Plane Strain is one of the
favorite tools of the interviewers

We can remove the angle by squaring and adding these

equations.

Now we the stresses on the right side are all known constants. So we replace them by R.

This is an equation of Circle. From this we build a diagram called Mohrs circle.

Keeping in mind the two circle equations, we can understand what point represents what.

1)
2) Let we have an element, it will have x, x, xy. Remember that these are not
3)
4)
5)
6)

necessarily the maximum or minimum.

We can construct a circle of a radius R by these values.
For convenience, we take the origin of the circle to be at avg.
Now plotting the constant values of circle of radius R, we get the P point where the
distance of P from the circle center is^ and from the y axis is x . The distance from the x
axis is xy.
Now imagine some scenarios where we transform the element and the values change.

Figure (a)

x = x
xy = xy
Since there is no change in this case, this is point P (our reference point)
Figure (b) (rotating 90 degree anticlockwise)

x = y
xy = -xy
On the Mohrs circle , we
can see that plotting the
new x xy we get the
point G.
Thus we can see that by
rotating the reference
line by 2, we obtain
transformed values of .

Values of normal stress in y direction can also be obtained by plotting mohrs diagram
for it.
If instead the axis were established positive upwards, then the angle 2 on the circle
would be measured in the opposite direction to the orientation of the plane. (what
the book said :/)

Absolute Maximum Shear Stress:

Previously:
On a body, if normal stress was acting in two directions, we were
able to find the orientations where one stress became max and the
other became min. We were assuming not considering z direction
stress.
If we consider z direction in a 3 dimensional body, then the
principal stresses will be max, intermediate, and minimum. This
condition is called triaxial stress
(Too complex for our scope. Too complex my ass )

Finding Absolute Maximum Shear Stress:

We ignore z direction stresses and consider xy, xz
and yz plane.
Drawing Mohrs circles for all these planes, we find
the maximum shear stress.

The above Diagram is pretty self-explanatory (look carefully at the subscribts, which planes
shear stress is which) along with these formulas. (circle center will always be at the average
normal stress)

Mohrs circle
Absoulte maximum shear stress