The Use of Simulation in Fleet Selection and

Equipment Sizing in Mining

Carlos Enrique Arroyo Ortiz1, Adilson Curi2, and Pedro Henrique Campos1
1
2

Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil

Federal University of Ouro Preto, Brazil

Abstract. The choice of fleet type and sizing to be used in mining operations is
surely important, for taking this decision the engineers need to have enough
information in order to get the most benefit and efficiency of each piece of
equipment. In this process, technical, geometrical, geographic and, uppermost,
economic variables are involved. Furthermore, the market offers a different range
of brands, models and capacities of equipment, which can deliver similar results of
those which are expected. At the moment, there is a shortage of reliable and
appropriate systems to evaluate the type and the sizing of a fleet, because most of
them allow the work with just one piece of equipment at a time and not with the
whole fleet, so it is needed to do a manual calculation. One solution is the use of a
stochastic and deterministic simulation for it is possible to determine the quantity
and type of equipment used in an activity in a deterministic way and simulate
possible combinations of them all. In this scientific work, it is intended to use the
software Arena to evaluate and determine the appropriate fleet selection in an
iron ore project.
Keywords: Simulation, stochastic and deterministic simulation, fleet selection,
MPES 2013.

Introduction

The computer simulation of systems (Simulation) is the use of mathematical

techniques used in computers, imitating the behavior of almost every type of
operation or real-world process through the exercising of models. According to
Pegden (1990): "the simulation is a process of designing a computational model of
a real system and conducting experiments with this model in order to understand
its behavior and / or evaluate strategies for its operation,"
Therefore, it is a broad process involving the construction of a model and also
all the experimental method followed. It is tried to describe the behavior of the
system, build theories and hypotheses, considering the observations made, and,
also, use the model to predict future behavior, i.e., the effects produced by changes
in the system or in the methods employed in an operation.
C. Drebenstedt and R. Singhal (eds.), Mine Planning and Equipment Selection,
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-02678-7_84, Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

869

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C.E. Arroyo Ortiz, A. Curi, and P.H. Campos

According to Banks, the simulation also has a functional applied level, like:

Communication environment for describing the operation of a system;

An analysis tool to determine the critical elements and estimate performance

measures;
A planning system of operations for works, tasks and resources;
A control mechanism and a training tool;

The simulation is increasingly used by professionals in various sectors allowing

verify or forward appropriate solutions to everyday problems. Its increasing use
comes from the easiness of use, sophistication of environments and development
of computational models. This growth demonstrates the importance and
recognition given to the simulation model, companies and national and
international industries in order to save resources and anticipate problems.

Objectives

Propose models which represent the system in the process of loading and haulage
in an open pit mine, simplified both in its structure and in its operation, in order to
provide not just solutions in selection and sizing of equipment depending on the
type, size, and style brand, but also their possible combinations, taking into
account the optimization criteria of higher productivity using less resource and
time.
The simulation models generally allow evaluating and solving problems that
would require large investments in trying to implement experimental solutions.
Through the implementation of a model that represents a system, it is possible
to estimate the future behavior of this system, for this it is given the name of
simulation. The simulation may be understood as a numerical technique for
conducting experiments on a computer, which involve certain types of logic
models that describe the behavior of a system over extended periods.

Problem

Usually, in the mining industry, the process of selection and sizing equipment is
done based on successful experiences and equipment information, or combination
of loaders and haulage equipment operating in similar ore deposits or in the same
mining method. But it is known that, eventually, the fleet work improperly and the
high cost of investment makes the fleet change unfeasible, or, if feasible, then one
should wait for the replacement period. In addition to this problem, the team in
charge of making decisions have to deal with another aspect: the great number of
choices of brands, models, capacities and prices. Facing this reality, it is necessary
to use tools to make quick analysis of different scenarios equiprobable.

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Methodology

For the preparation of this work, it was done a literature review about the state-ofart use of computer simulation concerning the selection and sizing fleet, finding
that there are software and specific systems equipment suppliers that somehow
restrict some analysis by the users. This is because the suppliers database has
included just its own equipment. For the independent analysts, this doesnt meet
the expectations, because you cannot test and observe the results between different
equipment. After the literature review, it was conducted the recompilation of
equipment information, primarily: technical specifications of income, costs,
schedules and capacities, as well as information of the operation of the mine, in
which the development of a deterministic model, using electronic charts, was
taken place. With the stochastic model, the software Arena was used, as it is
considered, at the time, one of the most complete and user-friendly software in
simulation of models.

Deterministic Simulation

In this type of simulation, cycle time is considered as being fixed. It is shown in

Figure 1 the necessary elements for the deterministic simulation in the cycle of
loading and haulage, between the points of loading and dumping.[2]

Fig. 1 Required data for the determinist model

5.1

Deterministic Cycle

As mentioned, in this cycle it will be processed loading time, fully loaded truck
haul time, empty truck haul time and dumping time, to which will be used abacus
degradability and delay of each type of haulage equipment. The determination of
the cycle time, loaded and empty, can be determined in two ways:

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1) Using the variables of transport routes (slopes, lengths and resistance to

traction on each way) and the weight of the equipment loaded and empty.
With this information and using abacuses aforementioned, one estimates the
maximum and average speeds. At this stage, it is necessary to be careful for
the estimated speeds do not exceed safe speed limits, information provided in
the technical specifications of each device.
2) Using the laws of kinematics of uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
of Newtonian mechanics, where the mass and acceleration are constant,
therefore the speed and distance is obtained with the following expressions:

V = V0 + a * t

(1)

S = Vo + 1 2 a.t 2

(2)

Both the acceleration and the truck speed depend on some parameters such as
resistance to traction, slopes, coefficient of adhesion between the tires and the
surface. Beyond these parameters, according to the number of equipment, there is
a possibility of generating queues and delays.

Stochastic Simulation

For the implementation of stochastic simulations, in addition to the information

mentioned in Figure 2, it is necessary to know the probability distribution function
of the variables related to loading cycle times and transportation, as well as
maneuvers, delays and training of operators, because the distribution functions
represent the real system. In Figure 2 are mentioned also the information needed
to generate the simulation model.[4]

Fig. 2 Required data for the stochastic model

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873

Stochastic Cycle

In this cycle, analysis can be made for different existing routes. For that, you must
record cycle times in order to find the distribution of the variable, the study of this
distribution being different for each type and size.

Match Factor

The time also depends on the compatibility of loading equipment and haulage
equipment (match factor), because with it we can also determine the number of
transport units for each loading unit. The compatibility factor is determined using
the following expression. According to Gentry et.al, 1992 the number of transfer
must be between 4 and 6, so the choice for the capacity of the loader bucket is
chosen after selecting the transport unit. [2]

FA

. .
.

truck cycle time

(3)

To determine the Match Factor (FA) it is considered the following variables:

N = Total number of haulage units.
n = Total number of loading units.
T = Cycle time of each haulage unit
t = Cycle time of each loading unit.
x = Number of haulage units per loading unit
p = Number of buckets necessary to fill a truck.
The optimal number of haulage units will occur when the match factor is = 1.
When the FC is less than 1, then there is surplus of loading units and its efficiency
is 100% and when FC> 1, then it means that there are excess haulage units and its
efficiency is 100%.

Deterministic Simulation Study Case

The necessary data relating to production rates of ore and waste for one year, the
number of working benches, tracks, number and type of loading and transport
equipment (technical specifications), fill factors, efficiencies, operating costs per
hour and all the data necessary to generate the simulation are shown in table 1.
To determine the loading time, it was considered the number of necessary
loader-buckets to fill the truck, measured in the field, and those provided by the
manufacturer, and for determining the haulage cycle, it was considered speed
factors as well as the maximum speed (loaded and empty).

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C.E. Arroyo Ortiz, A. Curi, and P.H. Campos

Thus, it was possible to determine the cycle, to determine the number of trucks
needed for the system and the compatibility factor ranging between 0.90 and 1.1
for the different scenarios. From these results, it was estimated the annual capacity
of the fleet and the number of equipment as being 4 loading units and 9 trucks.
Likewise, it was possible to determine the annual costs of haulage and loading
equipment.
Table 1 Necessary data for the deterministic calculation

ITEM
Production rate
Productive time
Working benches
Equipment capacities
Fill factor
Operating cost / hour
Distances (m)

Material density
Efficiency

8.1

DESCRIPTION
2,400,000 t / year
8 hours per shift
2 shifts per day
6 days per week
50 weeks per year
2
Loading equip: 2m3
Truck: 15t
0.8
Loading equip: 45
Haulage equip: 35
Bench Crusher: 2300
Bench Low-grade ore pile: 1450
Bench Waste dump: 1650
1.6 t/m3
100%

Stochastic Simulation Study Case

The generation of the stochastic simulation model was performed with the
program Arena, as it offers the use of random variables quickly and easily.
For the construction of the model, it was necessary the use of some data
contained in Table 1 (see 7) and more information given in table 02, which
contains the information of loading cycles and transport of one open pit mine.
The determination of the number of loaders was estimated dividing the annual
production required between the annual production of each loader. In the
simulated model, were considered trucks with different average speeds and
capacities and loading equipment also with different capacities.

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Table 2 Necessary data for the stochastic simulation

ITEM

DESCRIPTION
Maneuver: 28s
Dump: 32s
Deviation: 20s
Spot time: 28s
Load time: 40s
Deviation: 18s

Loading times

Haulage times

Model Description in ARENA

The 4 different scenarios simulated can be seen in table 3.

Table 3 Different Scenarios of simulation

Scenario 01
Scenario 02
Scenario 03
Scenario 04

Loader
capacity (m3)
2
3
4
5

Number of
loaders
4
3
2
2

Truck
capacity (t)
15
18
25
30

Number of
trucks
9
9
7
7

The module CREATE was used to introduce all the entities or the haul trucks
into the system at the same time. The module DECIDE was used to split the
entities into two different working benches. The time spent by the truck to get to
the working benches was input in the module STATION. After this, it was used
the module DELAY performing the Spot Time, the module PROCESS as
being the Loader and performing the Load Time and also another DECIDE, this
time to split the trucks into three different places: The Crusher, the Low-Grade
Ore Pile or the Waste Dump. Again, the full haul time was input in the module
STATION. The following steps were made for each branch/place: The module
PROCESS was used as being the Crusher and performing the Dump Time. The
module COUNT was used afterwards to count the number of dumps and the
number of tonnage dumped. After this, the trucks return to the working benches
and the empty haul truck time was input in another STATION module. Figure
3 and Figure 4 show the display of the process in ARENA.

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Fig. 3 Process of loading

Fig. 4 Process of split and dump

C.E. Arroyo Ortiz, A. Curi, and P.H. Campos

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Results

With the results given by the stochastic and deterministic simulation, it is possible
for one to estimate the behavior of the different combinations of loading and
haulage equipment, due to the utilization of the loaders and due to the costs of
material moved in metric tons per hour, for each one of the combinations. The
results are shown in table 4.
Table 4 Results of the different scenarios

Loader utilization
Scenario 01
Scenario 02
Scenario 03
Scenario 04

11

0.83
0.75
0.80
0.73

Cost per ton of

material moved ($/t)
0.84
0.98
0.76
0.81

Conclusion

In using stochastic and deterministic simulation, it is possible to generate models

of systems, as this one is, a system of loading and haulage of waste and ore in an
open pit mine. In the determinist simulation, with the knowledge of the load and
haulage cycle, and the production rate, it is possible to determine the necessary
number of loaders and trucks to meet the production required, due to the
operational parameters, technical specifications and the geometrical characteristics
of the pit. However, just with the stochastic simulation it is possible to insert the
probability distribution functions and deviation of the loading and haulage cycle
times, allowing one to generate different scenarios as being shown in the results. It
is also important to mention that the data base must be reliable, otherwise wrong
decision in choosing the fleet can be made.

References
[1] Costa, F.P., Souza, M.J.F., et al.: Um modelo d programao matemtica para alocao
dinmica esttica de caminhes visando ao atendimento de metas de produo e
qualidade. REM 58, 7781
[2] Prado, D.S.: Usando o Arena em Simulao - INDG Tecnologia e servios, Belo
Horizonte, Brazil, vol. 3 (2004) ISBN 85-98254-04-5
[3] Pedgen, C.D., Shannon, R.E., Sadowski, R.P.: Introduction to Simulation Using
SIMAN, vol. 2. McGraw-Hill, New York (1990)
[4] Atkinson, T.: SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd edn., ch. 13.3, vol. 2, p. 1312
(1992)