1

Lecture Notes for Mathematical Methods for Economics I......................................................................................1

Chapter 6: Determinants of Matrices.........................................................................................................................1
6.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................1
6.2 Evaluating the Determinant..................................................................................................................................2
6.2.1 Matrix of Minors............................................................................................................................................2
6.2.2 Matrix of Cofactors........................................................................................................................................3
6.3 Laplace Expansion Theorem.................................................................................................................................3
6.4 Properties of Determinants...................................................................................................................................4
6.5 Other Worked Examples.....................................................................................................................................12

Lecture Notes for Mathematical Methods for Economics I

Prepared by M. Franklin and R. Hosein1
Chapter 6: Determinants of Matrices
6.1 Introduction
The determinant of an n n matrix A is a certain number assigned to it denoted by det A or |A|.
In the 3 3 case below,

a11 a12 a13

A= a a a
21 22 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
a11 a12 a13
its determinant is det A =

a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33

where we have replaced the brackets that we associate with matrices with the straight lines.
In deriving solutions for system of linear equations, determinants arise. For instance in the
system of equations:
1

We would like to acknowledge the research assistance of M. Maharaj.

1x + 2y = c1
1x + 2y = c2
where x and y are unknown variables and 1, 1, c1, 2, 2, and c2 are known constants.
x = (c12 c22) / (12 - 21)
y = (1c2 - 1c1) / (12 - 21)
provided that the denominator 0. Let us define:
1
A=
1

2
, then
2

1 2
1 2

1 2 2 1 which is the denominator in the solutions for x and y above.

Thus, once the determinant is non-zero, we can find a solution set for x and y.
The determinant is a real valued function defined on a matrix.
6.2 Evaluating the Determinant
6.2.1 Matrix of Minors
Consider the matrix [aij]n n

a 11 a1n

a n1 a nn

For the aij element, if we delete the row and column in which this element exists and take the
determinant of the (n-1)(n-1) remaining elements, then this subdeterminant is called the minor
of the element aij.

a11 a12 a13

For example, for the 3 x 3 matrix A: a a a

21 22 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
to form the M11 minor (i.e. the minor of a11), we delete all the elements in the first row and first
column and take the determinant of the resultant matrix:

M11 =

a 22
a 32

a 23
a 33

It follows:

M12

a 21 a 22

a21 a23
a31 a3

and M13 =

a 31 a 32

etc.

6.2.2 Matrix of Cofactors

Cofactors are derived from minors by adding an appropriate + or sign to a minor. The
determination of the sign to add to the minor is given by the formula:
Sign = (-1) i+j
so that

Cij = (-1) i+j Mij

Thus, for the a11 element:
C11 = (-1) 1+1 M11
C11 = (-1)2 M11
C11 = M11
and for a12:
C12 = (-1)3 M12
C12 = -M12
i.e. if the sum of the subscripts is an even number, Cij = Mij, and if it is an odd number, Cij = -Mij.
6.3 Laplace Expansion Theorem
For an n-square matrix, [aij]n n, let Cij be the cofactor associated with the element aij. It can be
shown that expanding upon any row in the following manner will give the determinant of the
matrix A. For example, expanding along the ith row gives:
|A| = det A = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 ++ ain Cin
where aij refers to the jth element of the ith row and Cij refers to the cofactor corresponding to aij.
This is the Laplace Expansion Theorem (LET). It is possible to summarize LET as follows:
n

|A| =

j1

aij Cij

For a 3 x 3 matrix, the Laplace Expansion along the first row gives:
|A| = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13

LET allows the calculation of a n n determinant to be reduced to the calculation of n

determinants of size (n-1) (n-1).2 With LET, it becomes possible to evaluate determinants of
any size.
Note that it is also possible to perform LET along any column, and so we have as the determinant
by expanding along column j:
|A| = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + a3j C3j + + amj Cmj
Example 6.1
Find the determinant of:
2

1
3

Solution

3 2
-2
-(-1)
1
2

6 2
42

+4

= -2 [(-6) (-2)] + [(12) (-8)] + 4 [(6) (-12)]

= [(-2) (-4)] + [20] + [(4) (18)]
= 8 + 20 + 72
= 100
If we were to try and find the determinant of a matrix A by expanding along the i th row but
instead of using the cofactors associated with the elements of this row we use the cofactors of
another row, say row j, then the resulting number is zero. This is more technically referred to in
the literature as expansion in terms of alien co-factors.
2

Note for n=1, the nn determinant |a|

is a.

Example 6.5

1 2 3

A= 4 5 6

7 8 9

The minor of the elements of the second row are:

231312
897978

Solution
Expanding along the first row, but using the cofactors from the second row gives:

23 13 12
89 79 78
-2

+3

= (18 24) 2 (9 21) +3 (8 14)

= (-6) 2 (-12) +3(-6)
= (-6) + (24) (18)
=0
6.4 Properties of Determinants
1. For an n-square matrix A, its determinant is equal to the determinant of its transpose. This
property of determinants holds even when the matrix A is not symmetric.
Thus |A| = |AT|

E.g. For the 2 2 matrix

xy
ab

= xb ay,

xa
yb

= xb ay

The fact that the |A| = |AT| implies that any theorem on |A| remains correct if we interchange
the rows and columns of A.
2. The determinant of the identity matrix is equal to one, |I| = 1, and the determinant of the null
matrix is |0| = 0.
3. As long as any row of A is zero, the |A| = 0 since the coefficients in the Laplace expansion
will be zero, i.e. 0Ci1 + 0Ci2 + 0Ci3 + + 0Cin
The same will be true is any column were all zeroes.
4. Interchanging any two rows (or columns) of B to form A results in:
|B| = -|A|
Proof:

Let B =

w x

y z
|B| = wz xy

Interchanging the rows of B to form A gives:

A=

y z

w x
|A| = xy wz = -|B|

In general, interchanging any two rows, say row i with row j, changes the sign of the
cofactors, and hence the determinant of the matrix changes sign as well, i.e. it changes by a
factor of 1.
5. The determinant of a triangular (upper or lower) matrix is equal to the product of the
elements along its principal diagonal.

E.g. Consider the [aij]nn matrix, below (lower triangular):

a 11 0 0
a a 0
21 22

A=

a n1 a n2 a nn

i<j = 0

Using Laplace expansion:

|A| = a11C11 + 0
where C11 is the cofactor of a11.
The minor associated with C11 is:

a 22 00
M11 =

a 32 a 33 0

a n 2 a n3 a nn

which upon expansion of the first row of this matrix gives M11 = a22 C22* + 0. Note that C22*
is the cofactor of the a22 element in the M11 minor, and not the cofactor of a22 in the original
matrix.
Repeating this process n times, we get
|A| = a11 ann.
Example 6.2

1 0 0

Find the determinant of A = 2 3 0

4 5 6
Solution

=1

30
56

= 1 (3 6) = 18.

6. For diagonal matrices, the determinant is the product of the diagonal elements. From this
statement, we get the result that the identity matrix has a determinant of 1.3
Example 6.3
Find the determinant of:

a11 00
0 a 0
22

A=

0 0ann
Solution
A = a11 a22 ann
3

This property of determinants means that elementary row analysis can be used to simplify large matrices into an
upper or lower triangular form from which it is very easy to read off the determinant as the product of the diagonal
elements.

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Example 6.4
Find the determinant of

1 0 0

I = 0 1 0

0 0 1
3

Solution
This is a special case of a diagonal matrix and its determinant is 111 = 1.
7. If a matrix has two identical rows (or columns) or if one of its rows (or columns) is a linear
combination of another row (or column), then the determinant of the matrix is zero. Also, if a
matrix has two identical rows, then they can be interchanged without changing the matrix,
and by property 4, we would get:
|A| = -|A|
which can only hold true if |A| = 0.
Case a: Replica rows (or columns)

A=

x y

x y

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xy
|A| =

xy

= xy xy = 0

Note this is the case of linear dependence among the row vectors of the matrix A.
Case b: One row (or column) is a linear combination of another
R2 = 2R1 (read as row 2 is equal to 2 row 1)

|A| =

x y
2x 2 y

= x2y 2xy = 0
and more generally:

x y
|A| =

ax ay

axy axy = 0
a (xy xy) = 0
In the general case of one row (say row i) being a linear combination of another row (say row j),
then subtracting rowi from row j (where is an appropriate scalar) will result in a zero row.
By applying Laplace Expansion to a row of zeroes, we obtain a zero determinant.

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This is the general situation of linear dependence. If rowi is not a linear function of rowj, then
we say that the rows are linearly independent. If each row of the matrix is independent of every
other, the matrix is said to exhibit linear independence. Linear independence is therefore a
precondition for the existence of the non-zero determinant of a matrix.
8. For any matrix, A, adding a linear combination of row i to rowj does not change the
determinant of A.
Example 6.6

Let A =

Let |B| =

so that |A| =

Solution
|B|= ( + ) ( + )
= + - -
= -
|A|=

= -

|A| = |B|
More generally, let rowi of B = (rowi of A) + ( rowj of A). Expanding the matrix B along its
ith row gives:
|B| = (ai1 + aj1) Ci1 + (ai2 + aj2) Ci2 + + (ain + ajn) Cin

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= (ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + + ain Cin ) + (aj1Ci1 + aj2Ci2 + ajn Cin)
= |A| + 0, as the expression (aj1Ci1 + aj2Ci2 + ajnCin) vanishes as it represents
expansion along alien cofactors.
Example 6.7
Let |A| denote the determinant of the n n matrix A. Give a recursive definition of the
determinant of an n n matrix.
Solution
Let Cij be the ijth cofactor of element aij in A. Then, if we expand along the first row using
LET, |A| = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + + a1n C1n
n

More generally, |A| =

a
j 1

ij

C ij for any i= 1, 2 n.

9. If (bij)n n = the matrix A with the ith row multiplied by the scalar , then
|B| = |A|
Further if (bij)n n = ( aij) n n , then |B| = n |A|
Example 6.8

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

Let A =
0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

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Let B = (aij)4 4

0 0 0
0 0 0

=
0 0 0

0 0 0

Find the determinant of B.

Solution
|B| = 4 |I4|
= 4
Example 6.8

a11 a12 a13

Let A = a a a
21 22 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
a 11

Let B = a 21
a 31

a 12
a 22
a 32

a 13
a 23
a 33

Demonstrate using cofactor expansion that

|B| = |A|
Solution
Now
|A| = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + + a1n C1n
Now

|B| = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + + a1n C1n

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= [a11 C11 + a12 C12 + + a1n C1n]

= |A|
So that |B| = |A|
Example 6.9
Express the following determinants
a 11

a 12

a 13

(i) a 21

a 22
a 32

a 23
a 33

a 31

(ii)

a 11 a 11

a 12 a 12

a 13 a 13

a 21
a 31

a 22
a 32

a 23
a 33

in terms of |A|, where

a11 a12 a13

A= a a a
21 22 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
Solution
(i) |A|
(ii) (1 + )|A|
Example 6.10

a 1 1
Show that A =

a2 b c
a3 b2 c2

= a (b a) (c a) (c b)

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Solution
From the first column of A we see that a is a common factor and so we can factorize by a to
give:

a 1 1

1 1 1
a2 b c = a a b c

a3 b2 c2

a 2 b2 c2

Using the following column operations: C2* = C2 C1 and C3 = C3* C1, we get:

1 0 0
= a a ba
ca
a 2 b2 a 2 c2 a 2
Since (b-a) and (c-a) are factors two and three respectively, we can factor them out to obtain:

1 0
= a (b a) (c a) a
1

0
1

a2 ba ca
To evaluate this determinant, we can use LET and expand along the first row to obtain

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1 0
a 1

0
1

ba

ca

a2 ba ca
= (c + a) (b + a)
so that

a 1 1
|A| =

a2 b c

= a(b a) (c a) [ (c + a) (b + a) ]

a3 b2 c2
= a(b a) (c a) (c b)
which concludes the proof.
6.5 Other Worked Examples
Example 6.11
Let A be an n n matrix in which aij is the element in the ith row and jth column.
(i) Define the minor matrix Mij for the matrix A.
(ii) Define |A|, the determinant of A, in terms of its cofactor matrix.
Solution
(i) Mij is the matrix of sub-determinants obtained from A by removing the ith row and jth column
and then finding the determinant.
(ii) The ijth cofactor Cij = (-1) i+j |Mij|
|A| = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + ai3 Ci3 + + ain C1n
Example 6.12
For a square matrix A, state the effect on the determinant of the following operations

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(i)

transposing A

(ii)

multiplying two rows of A by a constant c

(iii)

interchanging two rows of A

(iv)

adding one row of A to another row

Prove that if two rows of A are identical then |A| = 0

Solution
(i)
The determinant is unchanged.
(ii)

The determinant gets multiplied by c2.

(iii)

The determinant changes sign, i.e. from ve to +ve or vice versa.

(iv)

The determinant is unchanged.

Proof: If we interchange the two equal rows, the matrix is unchanged and thus the determinant is
unchanged. However from (iii) above, the determinant changes sign. Thus we get |A| = -|A|. This
means that |A| = 0 since +0 = -0 = 0.
Example 6.13
Expand the following determinant as a polynomial and factorize:

1 x x2
124
139
Solution
We expand along the first row to get: 1 (18 12) x (9 4) + x2 (3 2)
= 6 5x + x2
= (x 2) (x 3)
Example 6.14
Find the solution of the following equation. (It is not necessary to expand the determinant.)

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1
1
1
1

x
1
2
3

x2
1
8
9

x3
1
16
27

=0

Solution
When we substitute x = 1, 2 and 3 in turn, we get two identical rows. But two identical rows
produce a determinant of zero. Therefore, x can take the values of 1, 2, and 3 as solutions to the
determinant equation.
Example 6.15
Derive the following determinant
1
D
2

As a first step, subtract the third column from the second column and from the third column the
first column to obtain:
1
D
2

2 2

2 2

which evaluates to
D 1

2 2

2 2

D ( )( 2 2 ) ( 2 2 )( )

D ( )( )( )

Example 6.16
Show that

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yz
D zx
xy

x
y
z

x2
1
2
y 1
z2
1

x2
y2
z2

x3
y3
z3

The first step requires us to multiply the first row of the first determinant by x, the second row by
y and the third row by z. These operations give:

xyz
z D yzx
zxy

1
xyz
D
1
xyz
1

which is as required.

x2
y2
z2

x3
y3
z3

x2
y2
z2

x3
y3
z3