Documenti di Didattica
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Vagaikulam, Tuticorin
LAB MANUAL
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICES LAB
Page 1
S.NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
EXPERIMENT
Study of Electronics components and equipments.
Measurements of AC signal parameters using CRO.
Study of logic gates.
Generation of Clock Signal.
Soldering practice Components Devices and Circuits.
Measurement of Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier.
Measurement of Ripple factor of full wave rectifier
Page 2
Page
No
Resistor colour coding (ii) Usage of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) and Multimeter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Resistor
Capacitors
Inductors
PN junction Diode
Zener Diode
LED
Transistor
CRO
Multimeter
various ranges
various ranges
various ranges
DIN4007
BC547
-
1
1
1
1
1
1
THEORY
(i) ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
It is the branch of science, which relates to the conduction of electricity through a) Vaccum b)
Gases and c) Semi Conductors. The electronic devices are fairly complex. They are made of simple
components such as Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors are come under passive components. Tube
devices and semi conductor devices fall under active components.
RESISTORS:
It is a passive electronic component, which exhibits the property of the resistance. Resistance is
a physical property of the material, which opposes the flow of current. Resistors are used in circuits to
limit the flow of current or to provide a voltage drop.
UNIT: Ohms ()
Types
Resistors are broadly classified into two categories are
1) Fixed Resistors
2) Variable Resistors
Fixed Resistors
Fixed Resistors are those whose values cannot be changed after manufacturing.
Variable Resistors
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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Variable Resistors are those whose values can be changed after manufacturing.
RESISTOR COLOUR CODING
Resistance is coded to indicate the value and the tolerance. For axial type resistors, four colour
bands are used as shown in figure. The first three colour bands indicate resistance value and the fourth
one indicates the tolerance. The first colour band gives the first significant digit and the second colour
band gives the second significant digit. Third colour band is the multiplier and gives the number of zeros
that is to be added to the numerical value obtained from the first two bands. The following table gives the
colour and its numerical value.
CAPACITORS
A Capacitor is a component that stores electric energy. It consists of two conducting plates,
separated by an insulator. The conducting surfaces are called electrodes and the insulating medium is
called dielectric.
UNIT: Farads (F)
Types
In general capacitors are classified as
1) Fixed Capacitors
2) Variable Capacitors
Fixed Capacitors
Fixed Capacitors are classified as several types depending upon the dielectric material used.
Some of them are
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Paper Capacitors
Film Capacitors
Mica Capacitors
Glass Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors
Tantalum Capacitors
Variable Capacitors
Variable capacitors consist of a set of plates and a set of movable plates with respect of fixed
plates.
1) Trimmer Capacitors
2) Ceramic Trimmer Capacitors
3) Mica Trimming Capacitors.
INDUCTORS
Inductor is a component whose construction is simply a coil of wire. The property of a coil by
which it opposes change in the value of current or flux through it due to the production of self induced
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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E.M.F is called inductance. An inductor consists of number of turns of wire used to introduce inductance
into an electric current and produces magnetic flux.
UNIT: Henry (H)
Types
1) Fixed Inductors
a) Air - Core Inductor
b) Iron - Core Inductor
c) Ferrite Core Inductor
2) Variable Inductor
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
PN JUNCTION DIODE
A single piece of semiconductor, are half of which is P type and the other half is N- type is
known as PN junction diode. The plane dividing the two halves is known as PN junction diode. Diode is
an electric component which allows current to flow through it in one direction but not in opposite
direction. The current is flowing through a diode, when the voltage on the positive is higher than the
negative. The main function of a diode is rectification.
ZENER DIODE
It is reversed biased PN junction diode, which is operated in break down region. It is used for
meter protection and as voltage regulators.
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
Light emitting diodes have same properties as diode when forward biased. Their threshold
voltage is 1.6v to 2.4v LEDs use a special material, which emits light when current flows through it LED
has a positive terminal (anode) and a negative terminal (cathode) just like regular diode. Often positive
terminal is longer than negative terminal.
TRANSISTORS
It is a three terminal semiconductor device, consisting of two P N functions formed by sand
witching a thin layer of n type semi conductors between two layers of p type semiconductors. This
type of transistor is known as p n p transistor. On the other hand, when a layer of p type
semiconductor is sand witched between two layers of n type semiconductor material, it is known as
n-p-n transistor.
(ii) USAGE OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE AND MULTIMETER
CATHODERAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The CRO is a versatile electronic testing and measuring instrument that allows the amplitude of
the signal which may be voltage, current, power etc.., to be displayed primarily as a function of time. It is
used for voltage, frequency and phase angle. Measurement and also for examining the waveforms from
Page 5
AC or very low frequency to very high frequencies. CRO comprises the main sections of i) Horizontal &
Vertical voltage amplifiers ii) Power supply circuits iii) Cathode ray tube.
Applications
1.
2.
3.
4.
Measurement of voltage
Measurement of Current
Measurement of frequency
Measurement of Phase difference
MULTIMETER
An instrument used to measure voltages, currents and resistance known as multi meter. It is an
indispensable instrument and can be used for measuring as well as AC voltages and currents. There are
two types of multimeters. That is analog and digital. The digital multimeter is commonly used in
laboratory and workshop because of its high resistance.
Applications
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
RESISTOR
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R1
1k
COLOUR CODING
COLOUR
BLACK
BROWN
RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
GREEN
BLUE
VIOLET
GREY
WHITE
NUMBER
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
MULTIPLIER
10
10
10
10
104
105
106
107
108
109
TOLERENCE
BROWN COLOUR
RED COLOUR
GOLD COLOUR
SILVER COLOUR
NO COLOUR
1%
2%
5%
10%
20%
CAPACITOR
C1
0.1F
INDUCTOR
L1
1mH
PNJUNCTION DIODE
D1
1N4001
ZENER DIODE
Page 7
D2
02BZ2.2
LED
LED1
TRANSISTORS
Q1
BC547A
N P N Transistor
Q2
BC327
P N P Transistor
RESULT
Thus the study of basic electronic components has been studied.
Page 8
Dual
-
30MHZ
30MHZ
-
1
1
Few
THEORY
AC FUNDAMENTALS
Alternating quantity
A quantity in which the magnitude and direction of the signal is change with respect to time is
called an alternating quantity. Ex: Sinusoidal Quantity.
Cycle
One complete set of changes in magnitude and direction of any alternating quantity is called a
cycle.
Period
Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete a cycle is called period. Unit of period is
Second.
Frequency
The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is called frequency.
Unit of frequency is Hertz (H).
Peak value or Amplitude
The maximum value that an alternating quantity attains during a cycle is called peak value or
amplitude. These are positive and negative peak values. The magnitude between two peaks is called
Peak Peak value.
Root Mean Square Value (RMS)
It is the value of direct current that flows through the given circuit for a certain amount of time It
produces the heat And it is same as that of an alternating current flowing through the same circuit for the
same RMS value. It can be determined by
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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Vrms = v1 + v2+v3+.+ vn
CALCULATION
Frequency = 1/T
Vrms = 0.707 /
v peak
PROCEDURE
Output of the function generator is connected to any one of the channel in CRO through a
probe. Positive is connected to positive and negative is connected to the negative of the
prob.
Now switch on the power supply of CRO and AFO.
CRO is kept in single channel mode and adjust the focus and intensity knobs. If there is
any problem arises adjust the X Y Position knob.
In function generator kept Sinusoidal waveform and adjust the amplitude knob and
frequency knob and maintain it in particular value.
Then we observed the output sinusoidal waveform through CRO.
Now note down the X and Y axis divisions in the CRO monitor. Then calculate the Peak
value, peak peak value of the sinusoidal waveform.
The product of voltage base knob value and the Y axis divisions are given us the peak
value and peak peak value.
The product of time base knob value and the X axis divisions are given us time period.
Reciprocal of this time period is known as frequency of the sinusoidal signal.
RMS voltage is obtained by multiplying the peak voltage with 0.707.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
MODAL GRAPH
V(volt)
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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Amplitude
Peak to peak
Time
T(sec)
OUTPUT
OUT PUT
WAVE
AMPLITUDE (V)
FREQUENCY
sinusoidal
100
0.3535
1000Hz
Page 11
RESULT
Thus peak value, RMS, peak peak value, period and frequency of the sinusoidal waveform is
observed using CRO.
Page 12
AIM
Study the operation of logic gates and verify its truth table.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1
1
1
1
1
few
THEORY
Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one output signal gate.
The input and output signal passes through the gates are either low or high voltages that is 0 or 1. It is
called logic circuits. It can be verified using Boolean algebra.
NOT GATE: IC 7404
A NOT gate has the single input and a single output. It is also called as inverter. If the input is 0
(low voltage) then will the output is 1 (high voltage) and vice versa. The Boolean expression is Y= A
.
OR GATE: IC 7432
OR gate have two or more inputs and only one output. Any one (01 or 10) or both of its input is
high (11) then the output is logic 1 (high). The Boolean expression is Y= A+B.
EX OR GATE: IC 7486
It has two or more inputs and single output. Both the inputs are same that is both are high (11) or
low (00) then the output is same (0 or 1). The Boolean expression is Y=
A B + A B .
Page 13
U1A
74S04D
TRUTH TABLE
OUTPUT ( Y
INPUT (A)
1
AND GATE IC 7408
U3
AND2
TRUTH TABLE
OUTPUT
INPUT
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
Y
0
OR GATE IC 7432
Page 14
U4
OR2
TRUTH TABLE
OUTPUT
INPUT
B
A
0
0
1
1
Y
0
EX OR GATE IC 7486
U5
XOR2
TRUTH TABLE
OUTPUT
INPUT
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
Y
0
RESULT
Thus the logic gates are studied and their truth tables are verified.
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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AIM
Using IC 555 timer generate clock signal in astable mode.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Timer IC
Resistors
Capacitors
Power supply
CRO
Bread Board
Connecting wires
IC 555
2.2k, 3.3k
0.1F, 0.01F
0 30 v
0 30 MHz
-
1
1
1
1
1
1
Few
THEORY
Multivibrator is basically a two stage feedback amplifier. The output is feedback to the input of
the timer. The clock signal is internally generated it is not required for the external pulses. It needs only a
power source. The width of the square wave and its frequency depend on the components what we used in
the multivibrator circuit.
ASTABLE FREE RUNNING MODE
The 555timer IC operates like an oscillator. Trigger and threshold inputs (pin 2, 6) are connected
together with the o.1F external capacitor. For monostable multivibrator we did not require this circuit,
we give external trigger to change the state of the output. So it is called free running multivibrator. The
output is determined by the externally connected two resistors and capacitors.
When Q is low or output voltage (Vout) is high, then the discharging capacitor (C2) is cut off
and C1 begins charging towards Vcc through the resistances R1 and R2. The charging time constant is
2
(R1 + R2) C. When the threshold voltage exceeds + 3 Vcc, the comparator 1 has an output and triggers
the flip-flop so that its Q is high and the timer output is low. When Q is high the discharge transistor is
saturates and the 7th pin is grounded. So that capacitor discharges through R1 and R2 resistances.
Discharging time constant is RaC.
When discharging of capacitor the trigger voltage at inverting input of comparators decreases.
When it drops below to
1
3 Vcc, the output of comparator is goes high and this reset the flip-flop. So
Page 16
that Q is low and the timer output is high. This proves the auto transition in output from low to high and
then to low. Thus the cycle repeats.
APPLICATION
FORMULAS
When capacitor C charges
T hig h + T low
= 0.693 (
R A +2 R B ) C
1
T
= 1.44 (
R A +2 R B ) C
PROCEDURE
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define multivibrator.
Give the specification for timer IC.
Draw the pin diagram for timer IC.
Why we called astable multivibrator as free running vibrator?
Give some applications of multivibrator.
Page 17
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
VCC
5V
R1
2.2k
U1
XSC1
VCC
R2
3.3k
RST
DIS
THR
TRI
CON
OUT
_
+
PIN DIAGRAM
U1
8
VCC
DIS
THR
TRI
CON
OUT
GND
1
LM555CM
C2
0.01F
RST
Ext Trig
+
GND
C1
0.1F
Page 18
LM555CM
MODEL GRAPH
V (volt)
T (ms) OUTPUT
TABULATION
WAVE
ON TIME
(s)
OFF TIME
(s)
TOTAL
TIME (s)
FREQUENC
Y (Hz)
AMPLITUDE
(volts)
Square
Wave
500
300
800
12500
Page 19
OUT PUT
Page 20
RESULTS
Thus the clock signal was generated by using IC 555 Timer in astable mode.
Exp. No:
Date:
AIM
Assemble and solder the electronic components on a printed circuit board (PCB) for the given
circuit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Soldering Rod
Soldering Led
Flux
Resistor
Capacitor
Printed Circuit Board
1
1
1
As per the circuit
As per the circuit
1
THEORY
Printed circuit board is the board that is used to solder all the components in it. The inter
connection between the components made by in metallic tracks. Etching process in PCB removes all the
excess copper from the base lamination. After this only the printed pattern is left behind. We add Ferric
chloride in 75 degree hot water and prepare the solution. This will be removing the excess copper in the
board. The components are inserted through the hole on the board. Then we are using the led and
soldering rod solder the components in the board. Excess leads of the components will be removed by
wire cutter. If we apply over heat to the components it may damaged. So we carefully solder the
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Page 21
components. Do not uses more amount of led because it will connect the nearby components. Once we
use the soldering rod we put it on the soldering pad.
PROCEDURE
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
SOLDERING
Page 22
R1
R2
1k
1k
C1
0.01F
C1
0.01F
R2
1k
R1
1k
DE SOLDERING
C1
0.01F
R2
1k
R1
1k
Page 23
RESULT
Thus the electronic components were soldered and the continuity checked.
AIM
Design the Half wave rectifier (HWR) with and without filter circuit and to measure the ripple
factor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Transformer
Diode
Resistor
Capacitor
CRO
Bread Board
Connecting Probe
Connecting wires
230v / 12 0 12 v
IN 4001
1K
100F
0 30 MHz
-
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Few
THEORY
A rectifier is a circuit to convert the AC voltage signal to DC voltage signal. Half wave rectifier
has one Diode (IN4007). We apply the positive voltage current will be passed through the diode the
circuit will be forward biased and the current is passed through the diode. Now the diode is in ON
condition. So we got the positive cycle of the signal.
Then we applied the negative signal the circuit will be reverse biased so there is no current is
passed through the diode. So the diode is in OFF condition. So we did not have any signal. In the output
we only get the positive half cycle of the signal. It has more ripples. To overcome this we use a capacitor.
This capacitor is act like a filter. After this Filter operation only we get the half wave DC Signal.
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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PROCEDURE
RIPPLE FACTOR () =
V ac
V dc
*100
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Define rectifier.
Explain the operation of HWR.
What is the ripple factor for HWR?
What are the types of rectifier?
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITTHOUT FILTER
D1
V1
230Vrms
60Hz
0
T1
XSC1
1N4001
R1
1k
Ext Trig
+
_
B
A
+
10:1
MODEL GRAPH
Vout
INPUT
Page 25
T(sec)
T(sec)
INPUT
OUTPUT
Page 26
T(sec)
D1
V1
230Vrms
60Hz
0
T1
XSC1
1N4001
R1
1k
C1
0.1F
Ext Trig
+
_
+
10:1
OUT PUT
Page 27
A
_
RESULT
Thus half wave rectifier with and without filter is constructed and the output is obtained.
AIM
Design full wave rectifier with and without filter and to measure the ripple factor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Transformer
Diode
Resistor
Capacitor
CRO
230v/ 12 0 12 v
IN 4001
1K
100F
0 30MHz
Page 28
1
2
1
1
1
6.
7.
8.
Bread Board
Connecting Probe
Connecting wires
1
1
Few
THEORY
A rectifier is a circuit to convert AC signal voltage to DC signal voltage. Full wave rectifier
conducts both the positive and negative half cycles of the input. In full wave rectifier we used centre
tapped transformer. Now we apply the positive half cycle of the input signal. Now the diode D1 get
forward bias and D2 get reverse biased. That is D1 is in ON condition D2 is in OFF condition. D1 diode
is passed the positive half cycle.
Then we apply the negative half cycle of the input signal. Now the diode D1 get reversed bias and
D2 get forward biased. That is D1 is in OFF condition D2 is in ON condition. D2 diode is passed the
negative half cycle. So we get both positive and negative half cycle of the signal with ripples. We put the
capacitor across the load resistance we get the pure DC signal.
PROCEDURE
RIPPLE FACTOR () =
V ac
V dc
*100
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Define rectifier.
Explain the operation of HWR.
What is the ripple factor for HWR?
What are the types of rectifier?
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITTHOUT FILTER
Page 29
D1
V1
T2
120 Vrms
60 Hz
0
1N4001
R1
1k
XSC2
TS_MISC_25_TO_1
Ext T rig
+
D2
_
B
A
+
1N4001
MODEL GRAPH
Vout
INPUT
Page 30
T(sec)
T(sec)
T(sec)
OUTPUT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Page 31
1N4001
R1
1k
C1
10F
XSC2
TS_MISC_25_TO_1
Ext T rig
+
D2
_
+
1N4001
INPUT
OUTPUT
Page 32
A
_
RESULT
Thus full wave rectifier with and without filter is constructed and the output is obtained.
Page 33