Chemistry Module Form 4 Complete Set

Mohd Faisol Mansor
faisolsmkkgv@gmail.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Page 1
CHAPTER 2
: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Page 5
CHAPTER 3
: CHEMICAL FORMULAE & EQUATIONS
Page 22
CHAPTER 4
: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
Page 54
CHAPTER 5
: CHEMICAL BONDS
Page 79
CHAPTER 6
: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Page 100
CHAPTER 7
: ACIDS & BASES
Page 130
CHAPTER 8
: SALTS
Page 148
CHAPTER 9
: MANUFACTURED SUBTSANCES
: IN INDUSTRY
Page 175
mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Chemistry
Careers
Is the study of the

composition,
structure, properties
& interactions of
matter.
Doctor
Chemical Engineer
Geologist
Biochemist
Pharmacist
Uses of Chemical
Salt (NaCl)
Vinegar (CH3COOH)
Tiles/Cement (CaCO3)
Chemical Industry
Petroleum
Food
Chemical Substance
Electronic
Agriculture
Contribution of Chemical
Industries
Financial
Job opportunity
Development of
country
Scientific Method : systematic method used to solve problems in Science.

Making
Observation
Making
Inference
Identifying
Problem
Making
Hypothesis
Collecting
Data
Planning an
Experiment
Controlling
Variables
Identifying
Variables
Interpreting
Data
Making
Conclusion
Writing
Report
1
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
Classify each of the following element into their group.

Hydrogen, H
Oxygen, O
Zinc, Zn
Chlorine, Cl
Potassium, K
Silver, Ag
Sodium, Na
Carbon, C
Phosphorus, P
Magnesium, Mg
Sulphur, S
Fluorine, F
Aluminium, Al
Lithium, Li
Barium, Ba
Copper, Cu
Bromine, Br
Lead, Pb
Neon, Ne
Argon, Ar
Calcium, Ca
Helium, He
Iron, Fe
Iodine, I
Metal Atom
Nonmetal Atom
Classify each of the following element/compound into their group.

Sodium chloride, NaCl
Hydrogen gas, H2
Chlorine gas, Cl2
Lead(II) oxide, PbO
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
Silver bromide, AgBr
Carbon dioxide, CO2
Naphthalene, C10H8
Sugar, C6H12O6
Copper(II) iodide, CuI2
Oxygen gas, O2
Magnesium oxide, MgO
Zinc chloride, ZnCl2
Methane, CH4
Ethanol, C2H6O
Water, H2O
Ionic Compound
Molecule
(Metal Atom + Nonmetal Atom)
(Nonmetal Atom + Nonmetal Atom)
CHAPTER 2
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Element
Matter
Anything that
occupies space & has
mass.
Substance that
consists of only one
type of atom.
Compound
Substance that contains
two or more elements
that are chemically
bonded together.
Kinetic Theory of Matter
Type of Particles
Atom
Molecule
Ion
Atom
Smallest particle of
an element that can
take place in chemical
reaction.
Ion
Is a positive charged
or negative charged
particle.
Matter is made up of
tiny & discrete particle.
Particle vibrate, moving
& collide with each other.
Particles move randomly.
There are forces between
the particle. Stronger the
forces, particle close to
each other.
Higher the temperature,
higher the kinetic energy
of particle.
Molecule
A group of two or
more atoms which are
chemically bonded
together.
Physical State
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Subatomic Particles
Electron
Proton
Neutron
Diffusion
Is a random movement
between different
particles from high
concentration to lower
concentration.
Atom, Molecule & Ion
Molecule (ELEMENT)
Atom
Atom
+
Atom
Molecule (COMPOUND)
Atom
+ -
+ + Cation
Ionic Compound
Anion
Example: Formation of WATER
Water Molecule
+
Oxygen Atom
Hydrogen Atom
A Glass of Water
6
Diffusion in Solid: Test tube is filled with a hot jelly and copper(II) sulphate crystal.
Difussion Rate:
Reason:
Diffusion in Liquid: A beaker is filled with water & potassium manganate (VII).
Difussion Rate:
Reason:
Diffusion in Gas: A gas jar is filled with few drop of bromine liquid.
Difussion Rate:
Reason:
Particles
Arrangement
States
SOLID
Forces between
particles
Particles Motion
Held together
very strong
Vibrate and rotate at

fixed position
Strong but weaker

than solid
Vibrate, rotate and

move through liquid &
collide against each
other
weak
Vibrate, rotate and

move freely
Packed closely in
orderly manner
LIQUID
Packed closely not in
orderly arrangement
GAS
Far apart from each
other
Solid
Shape :
Liquid
Gas
Shape :
Shape :
Ability to be
compressed:
Ability to be
compressed:
Ability to be
compressed:
Change in the State of Matter
Changes in the Heat Energy
Heating of Naphthalene
Cooling of Naphthalene
1. Why is solid naphthalene, C10H8 not heated directly with Bunsen burner?
2. Why is water bath used to heat the naphthalene?
3. During the cooling of naphthalene, explain why
a) the boiling tube must place in a conical flask?
b) the naphthalene must stirred continuously?
4. What happens to the temperature of naphthalene during

a) melting? Give a reason.
b) freezing? Give a reason.
5. The melting point of sugar is 184oC. The melting point of sugar cannot be
determined using same apparatus. Why? What apparatus can be used
instead?
10
The Heating Curve of Naphthalene

Temperature (oC)
D
Time (min)
Melting Point
Is the temperature at
which a solid changes into
a liquid at a particular
pressure.
Physical State
AB =
BC =
CD =
Why the temperature

remains constant at BC?
Heat energy ___________
by the particles is used to
overcome the force
between the particles so
that the solid turn into
liquid.
Also known as
latent heat of
fusion.
Why the temperature

increase from A to B?
When solid is heated,
heat energy is
________________.
This cause particles to
_________ kinetic energy
and vibrate __________.
Why the temperature

increase from C to D?
When liquid is heated,
heat energy is
________________.
and move __________.
* label the melting point of the naphthalene in the diagram above as MP.
11
The Cooling Curve of Naphthalene

Temperature (oC)
E
H
Time (min)
Freezing Point
Is the temperature at
which a liquid changes
into a solid at a particular
pressure.
Why the temperature

remains constant at FG?
Heat energy ___________
to the surroundings is
exactly same as the heat
energy released by
particle to form the
forces to become a solid.
Physical State
EF =
FG =
GH =
How to avoid supercooling?
Why the temperature

decrease from E to F?
When liquid is cooled,
heat energy is
________________.
and move __________.
Why the temperature

decrease from G to H?
When solid is cooled,
heat energy is
________________.
and vibrate __________.
* label the freezing point of the naphthalene in the diagram above as FP.
12
The Atomic Structure

[Draw the atomic model & briefly explain]
(1) John Dalton

(1766 1844)
(2) J.J. Thomson

(1856 1940)
(3) Ernest Rutherford

(1871 - 1937)
(5) James Chadwick

(1891 - 1974)
(4) Neils Bohr

(1885 - 1962)
13
Subatomic Particles of an Atom
NEUTRON
PROTON
Symbol : p
Relative electric
charge : +1
Relative mass: 1
Symbol : n
Relative electric
charge : 0
Relative mass: 1
ELECTRON
Symbol : e
Relative electric
charge : -1
NUCLEUS
Proton + Neutron
Relative mass: 0.0005
NUCLEON NUMBER =
Proton +
Number
Number of
Neutron
Definition
NEUTRAL ATOM
Atom Q has a proton number

of 11 and a nucleon number of
23. How many protons,
electrons and neutrons are
present in the atom?
Number of proton
is equal to the
number of electron.
Nucleon number is
the total number of
proton and neutrons
in its atom.
Definition
Proton number is the
number of protons in
its atom.
14
Symbol of Elements
Element
Symbol
Element
Symbol
Element
Symbol
Element
Hydrogen
Carbon
Sodium
Sulphur
Helium
Nitrogen
Magnesium
Chlorine
Lithium
Oxygen
Aluminium
Argon
Beryllium
Fluorine
Silicon
Potassium
Boron
Neon
Phosphorus
Calcium
23
11
Na
Also represented
by sodium-23
Symbol
A fluorine atom has 9 protons and

10 neutrons. What is the proton
number and nucleon number of
the atom? Represent the atom in
the form of
.
Bromine-80 has 45 neutrons.

What are the proton number
and nucleon number of the
atom? Represent the atom
in the form of
.
15
ISOTOPES
Atoms of the same
element has same
proton number but
different number of
neutron
Nucleon
Number
Element
Hydrogen-1
Proton
Number
1
No. of
Electron
Hydrogen-2
Hydrogen-3
Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Oxygen-16
Why isotopes element

has similar chemical
properties?
No. of
Neutron
Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18
Chlorine-35
17
Chlorine-37
Bromine-80
35
Bromine-81
To determine the
rate of absorption
of fertilisers by
plants.
To determine
the age of
artifact.
USES OF
ISOTOPES
To detect the
location of a
tumor in the brain.
To detect leaks in
underground
petroleum pipe.
To treat
cancer.
16
The Electronic Structure of an Atom
Maximum number
of electron filled in
the shell:
1st = 2 electrons
2nd = 8 electrons
3rd = 8 electrons
4th = 8 electrons
Valence Electrons
Electrons in the
outermost
occupied shell.
For atoms with

more than 20
electrons, the third
shell can filled up
to 18 electrons.
Electron
Configuration
Chlorine has
proton number 17.
The last shell filled

with electrons
known as the
outermost
occupied shell.
Write the electron

arrangement for
potassium & state the
valence electrons.
17
Element
Proton
Number
Number of
Electron
Electron
Configuration
& Valence
Electron
Electronic Structure
E.C =
Hydrogen
1
V.E =
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
18
Element
Proton
Number
Oxygen
Fluorine
Number of
Electron
Electron
Configuration
& Valence
Electron
Neon
10
Sodium
11
Magnesium
12
Aluminium
13
19
Element
Proton
Number
Silicon
14
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Number of
Electron
Electron
Configuration &
Valence
Electron
15
16
17
18
20
Element
Proton
Number
Potassium
19
Calcium
20
Number of
Electron
Electron
Configuration &
Valence
Electron
21
CHAPTER 3
CHEMICAL FORMULAE & EQUATIONS
Relative Atomic Mass
Relative Molecular Mass
Relative Formula Mass
Average mass of
one atom of an
element
1/12 x mass of an
atom of carbon-12
Average mass of
one molecule
1/12 x mass of an
atom of carbon-12
Average mass of
one formula unit
1/12 x mass of an
atom of carbon-12
Example
1) Element mercury is 20 times
heavier than helium. Determine
the relative atomic mass of
element mercury if the relative
atomic mass of helium is 4.
2) The relative atomic mass of helium,

nitrogen and sulphur is 4, 14, and 32
respectively.
a) How many times is one atom of
sulphur heavier than one atom of
helium.
b) Calculate the number of atoms of

helium that have the same mass as two
atoms of nitrogen.
Relative Molecular Mass (RMM)/Relative Formula Mass (RFM) can

be calculated by adding up the Relative Atomic Mass (RAM).
+
Water, H2O
RMM =
Sodium Chloride, NaCl

RFM =
22
Example
1. Calculate relative molecular mass of the following element or compound.

a) Oxygen gas, O2
b) Chlorine gas, Cl2
c) Carbon dioxide, CO2
d) Ammonia, NH3
e) Iodine gas, I2
f) Sulphur dioxide, SO2
g) Sugar, C6H12O6
h) Ethanol, C2H6O
2. Calculate relative formula mass of the following compound.

a) Magnesium oxide, MgO
b) Potassium iodide, KI
c) Calcium carbonate, CaCO3
d) Copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2
e) Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
f) Zinc Sulphate, ZnSO4
g) Hydrated magnesium sulphate,

MgSO4.7H2O
h) Hydrated copper(II) sulphate,

CuSO4.5H2O
23
The Mole, Number of Particles, Mass & Volume of Substances.

MASS OF
SUBSTANCES
The mass of one
mole of the
substance equal to
the mass of 6.02 x
1023 particles.
NUMBER OF
PARTICLES
One mole of
substance contains
6.02 x 1023 particles.
Avogadro Constant
NA = 6.02 x 1023
mole = no of particles
NA
MOLE
Amount of substance
that contains as many
particles as the number
of atoms in exactly 12 g
of carbon-12
No of particles
= mole x NA
Molar Mass
= RAM/RMM/RFM
mole =
Mass
Molar Mass
Mass = mole x MM
VOLUME OF GAS
One mole of any gas
always has the same
volume under the
same temperature &
pressure.
Unit conversion
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
Molar Volume
1) Room Condition
= 24 dm3 mol -1
2) At S.T.P
= 22.4 dm3 mol -1
mole =
Volume
Molar Volume
Volume = mole x MV
24
Example 1
1. A closed glass bottle contains 0.5 mol of oxygen gas, O2.
a) How many oxygen molecules, O2 are there in the bottle?
b) How many oxygen atoms are there in the bottle?
2. Find the number of moles of hydrogen gas, H2 containing

a) 3.01 x 1024 hydrogen molecule, H2
b) 6.02 x 1023 hydrogen atoms.
3. Find the number of moles of molecules in a sample containing 9.03 x 1023

molecules of carbon dioxide, CO2.
4. A sample contains 6.02 x 1025 molecule of water. How many moles of water
are there in the sample?
25
5. A container contains 1.806 x 1023 oxygen molecules, O2. A sample of 0.5 mol
of oxygen gas, O2 is added to the container. How many molecules are there
altogether in the container?
6. Calcium is needed for the formation of bones and teeth. How many calcium
ions are there in a serving of cereal that contains 0.007 mol of calcium ions?
7. A beaker contains 0.1 mol of zinc chloride, ZnCl 2

a) Calculate the number of moles of chloride ions in the beaker.
b) Find the total number of ions in the beaker.
26
Example 2
1. What is the mass of
a) 0.1 mol of magnesium? [RAM: Mg, 24]
b) 2.408 x 1023 atoms of magnesium? [RAM: Mg, 24 ; NA = 6.02 x 1023]
2. How many moles of molecules are there in 16 g of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2?
[RAM: O, 16 ; S, 32]
3. How many chloride ions are there in 27.2 g of zinc chloride, ZnCl 2?
[RAM: Cl, 35.5 ; Zn, 65 ; NA = 6.02 x 1023]
27
4. What is the mass of carbon that contains 6.02 x 1023 carbon atoms?
5. What is the mass of

a) 0.01 mol of ammonia gas, NH3?
b) 6.02 x 1024 nitrogen molecules, N2?
6. How many moles of molecules are there in 2.8 g of carbon monoxide, CO?
28
Example 3
1. What is the volume of 1.2 mol of ammonia gas, NH3 at STP?
[Molar volume: 22.4 dm3 mol-1]
2. How many moles of ammonia gas, NH3 are present in 600 cm3 of the gas
measured at room conditions? [molar volume: 24 dm3 mol-1]
3. Calculate the volume of the following gases.

a) 0.3 mol of oxygen gas, O2, at room condition.
b) 4 mol of helium gas measured at STP.
4. Calculate the number of moles of 48 dm3 of chlorine gas, Cl2, at room

condition.
29
Example 4
1. What is the volume of 12.8 g of oxygen gas, O2, in cm3, at STP?
[RAM: O, 16 ; Molar volume: 22.4 dm3 mol-1]
2. How many molecules of carbon dioxide, CO2, are produced when 120 cm3 of
the gas is released during chemical reaction between an acid and a
carbonate at room conditions?
[Molar volume: 24 dm3 mol-1 ; NA = 6.02 x 1023]
3. What is the mass of 0.6 dm3 of chlorine gas, Cl2 at room condition?
[RAM: Cl, 35.5 ; Molar volume = 24 dm3 mol-1]
4. 3 dm3 of an unknown gas has a mass of 6.0 g at room conditions. Find the
molar mass of the gas.
30
CHEMICAL FORMULAE
Magnesium Nitrate
Water
A representation
of a chemical
substance using
letters and
subscript numbers.
Mg(NO3)2
H2O
Empirical Formula
The simplest
number ratio of
atoms in the
compound.
[state the number of particles consist in the substance above]
Compound
Molecular
Formula
Water
H2O
Ethene
Glucose
Empirical
Formula
CH2
C6H12O6
Molecular Formula = (Empirical Formula)n

Molecular Formula
The actual number
of atoms that are
present in the
compound.
RMM of Molecular Formula

=n
RMM of Empirical Formula
The empirical formula of a compound
is CH2. Its relative molecular mass is 42.
Find its molecular formula.
[RAM: H, 1 ; C, 12]
Copper(II) Oxide
Magnesium Oxide
31
To determine Empirical Formulae of Magnesium Oxide

1. Why is the magnesium ribbon cleaned with
sand paper before used?
2. Name the white fumes produced.
3. State the reason:
a) covering the crucible with its lid as soon as
the magnesium start burning.
b) raising the lid of the crucible at intervals
during heating.
c) heating, cooling & weighing are repeated
until constant mass is obtained.
4. Why is it important not to let any white fumes
escape from the crucible?
To determine Empirical Formulae of Copper(II) Oxide
1. Why do we start off with copper(II) oxide instead of allowing copper to react with
oxygen in the air in this experiment?
2. How do you test that the air in the tube has been removed completely?
3. Explain what will happen if we burn excess hydrogen gas without removing the air
completely in combustion tube?
4. Why we need to continue the flow of hydrogen gas after the heating of copper(II)
oxide?
5. Why do we need to repeat heating, cooling and weighing until constant mass is
obtained?
32
Example 1
a) A sample of aluminium oxide contains 1.08 g of aluminium and 0.96 g of

oxygen. What is the empirical formula of this compound? [RAM: O, 16 ; Al, 27]
Element
Al
Mass of Element (g)

Number of Mole
Ratio of Mole
Simplest Ratio
Empirical Formula of Aluminium Oxide =
b) 0.20 g of calcium reacts with fluorine to give 0.39 g of calcium fluoride. Find
the empirical formula of the calcium fluoride produced. [RAM: F, 19 ; Ca, 40]
33
c) Find the empirical formula of a compound that consists of 32.4% of sodium,

22.6% of sulphur and 45.0% of oxygen. [RAM: O, 16, Na, 23 ; S, 32]
d) 60 g of aluminium sulphide contains 38.4 g of sulphur. Find the empirical

formula of the compound. [RAM: Al, 27 ; S, 32]
34
Example 2
a) Butane has empirical formula of C2H5 and relative molecular mass of 58. Find
its molecular formula.
b) Ethanoic acid is an important ingredient of vinegar. The empirical formula of

this acid is CH2O. Given that its molar mass is 60 g mol -1, find its molecular
formula.
c) 6.24 g of element X combines with 1.28 g of oxygen to produce a compound

with an empirical formula of X2O. What is relative atomic mass of X?
[RAM: O, 16]
35
d) Element Y react with oxygen to produce a compound with molecular

formula YO3. Given that the mass of 1 mol of the compound is 80 g.
Determine the relative atomic mass of element Y.
e) Determine the percentage composition by mass of water in hydrated

copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4.5H2O. [RAM: H, 1 ; O, 16 ; S, 32 ; Cu, 64]
f) Due to its high nitrogen content, urea, CO(NH2)2 is commercially used as

fertilizers. Calculate the percentage composition by mass of nitrogen in urea,
CO(NH2)2. [RAM: H, 1 ; C, 12 ; N, 14 ;O, 16]
36
Metal
Atom
Cation
(+ve ion)
Nonmetal
Atom
Anion
(-ve ion)
Zinc
Zn
Zn2+
Oxygen
O
IONIC
COMPOUND
Ionic
Formulae
Zinc Oxide
ZnO
Ionic
Formulae
O2-
Silver
Silver
Chloride
Ionic
Formulae
Chlorine
37
Charge
1+
2+
3+
Charge
1-
23-
Name of Cation
Formula of Cation
Hydrogen ion
H+
Lithium ion
Li +
Sodium ion
Na +
Potassium ion
K+
Silver ion
Ag +
Ammonium ion
NH4 +
Barium ion
Ba 2+
Calcium ion
Ca 2+
Magnesium ion
Mg 2+
Zinc ion
Zn 2+
Copper(II) ion
Cu 2+
Iron(II) ion
Fe 2+
Lead(II) ion
Pb 2+
Aluminium ion
Al
3+
Iron(III) ion
Fe 3+
Name of Anion
Formula of Anion
Hydroxide ion
OH -
Chloride ion
Cl -
Fluoride ion
F-
Bromide ion
Br -
Iodide ion
I-
Nitrate ion
NO3 -
Oxide ion
O 2-
Sulphate ion
SO4 2-
Carbonate ion
CO3 2-
Phosphate ion
PO4 3-
38
Name of Cation
Formula of
Cation
Name of Cation
Hydrogen ion
Hydrogen ion
Lithium ion
Magnesium ion
Sodium ion
Barium ion
Potassium ion
Potassium ion
Silver ion
Iron(II) ion
Ammonium ion
Ammonium ion
Barium ion
Zinc ion
Calcium ion
Aluminium ion
Magnesium ion
Lithium ion
Zinc ion
Iron(III) ion
Copper(II) ion
Sodium ion
Iron(II) ion
Calcium ion
Lead(II) ion
Silver ion
Aluminium ion
Copper(II) ion
Iron(III) ion
Name of Anion
Formula of
Cation
Lead(II) ion
Formula of
Anion
Name of Anion
Hydroxide ion
Phosphate ion
Chloride ion
Bromide ion
Fluoride ion
Oxide ion
Bromide ion
Carbonate ion
Iodide ion
Iodide ion
Nitrate ion
Chloride ion
Oxide ion
Sulphate ion
Sulphate ion
Nitrate ion
Carbonate ion
Hydroxide ion
Phosphate ion
Fluoride ion
Formula of
Anion
39
Name of Cation
Formula of
Cation
Name of Cation
Hydrogen ion
Hydrogen ion
Lithium ion
Lithium ion
Sodium ion
Sodium ion
Potassium ion
Potassium ion
Silver ion
Silver ion
Ammonium ion
Ammonium ion
Barium ion
Barium ion
Calcium ion
Calcium ion
Magnesium ion
Magnesium ion
Zinc ion
Zinc ion
Copper(II) ion
Copper(II) ion
Iron(II) ion
Iron(II) ion
Lead(II) ion
Aluminium ion
Aluminium ion
Iron(III) ion
Iron(III) ion
Lead(II) ion
Name of Anion
Formula of
Anion
Name of Anion
Hydroxide ion
Hydroxide ion
Chloride ion
Chloride ion
Fluoride ion
Fluoride ion
Bromide ion
Bromide ion
Iodide ion
Iodide ion
Nitrate ion
Nitrate ion
Oxide ion
Oxide ion
Sulphate ion
Sulphate ion
Carbonate ion
Carbonate ion
Phosphate ion
Phosphate ion
Formula of
Cation
Formula of
Anion
40
Name of Cation
Formula of
Cation
Name of Cation
Hydrogen ion
Hydrogen ion
Lithium ion
Lithium ion
Sodium ion
Sodium ion
Potassium ion
Potassium ion
Silver ion
Silver ion
Ammonium ion
Ammonium ion
Barium ion
Barium ion
Calcium ion
Calcium ion
Magnesium ion
Magnesium ion
Zinc ion
Zinc ion
Copper(II) ion
Copper(II) ion
Iron(II) ion
Iron(II) ion
Lead(II) ion
Aluminium ion
Aluminium ion
Iron(III) ion
Iron(III) ion
Lead(II) ion
Name of Anion
Formula of
Anion
Name of Anion
Hydroxide ion
Hydroxide ion
Chloride ion
Chloride ion
Fluoride ion
Fluoride ion
Bromide ion
Bromide ion
Iodide ion
Iodide ion
Nitrate ion
Nitrate ion
Oxide ion
Oxide ion
Sulphate ion
Sulphate ion
Carbonate ion
Carbonate ion
Phosphate ion
Phosphate ion
Formula of
Cation
Formula of
Anion
41
Example
Construct the chemical formula for each of the following ionic compound.
a)Magnesium hydroxide
b) Silver iodide
c) Potassium Bromide
d) Zinc nitrate
e) Sodium carbonate
f) Aluminium oxide
g) Copper(II) iodide
h) Iron(II) sulphate
i) Magnesium oxide
j)Calcium carbonate
l) Ammonium phosphate
m) Sodium hydroxide
n) Zinc bromide
o) Lead(II) nitrate
p) copper(II) sulphate
42
Example
1.
Write the formula of the following substances.

a) Potassium iodide
1) Nitric acid
b) Magnesium oxide
2) Lead(II) iodide
c) Carbon dioxide
3) Copper(II) nitrate
d) Copper(II) oxide
4) Zinc sulphate
e) Lead(II) bromide
5) Iron(II) chloride
f) Calcium chloride
6) Iron(III) chloride
g) Hydrochloric acid
7) Chlorine gas
h) Copper(II) sulphate
8) Potasium nitrate
i) Hydrogen gas
9) Silver nitrate
j) Water
10) Magnesium bromide =
k) Sulphuric acid
11) Zinc chloride
l) Silver chloride
12) Sodium hydroxide
m) Potassium nitrate
13) Ammonia
n) Calcium carbonate
14) Iron(II) sulphate
o) Aluminium oxide
15) Lead(II) oxide
p) Oxygen gas
16) Carbon monoxide
q) Oleum
17) Magnesium sulphate =
r) Ammonium sulphate
18) Ammonium nitrate
s) Sodium chloride
19) Potassium hydroxide =
t) Zinc oxide
20) Lithium oxide
43
Example
1.

a) Potassium iodide
1) Nitric acid
b) Magnesium oxide
2) Lead(II) iodide
c) Carbon dioxide
d) Copper(II) oxide
4) Zinc sulphate
e) Lead(II) bromide
f) Calcium chloride
7) Chlorine gas
8) Potasium nitrate
i) Hydrogen gas
9) Silver nitrate
j) Water
k) Sulphuric acid
11) Zinc chloride
l) Silver chloride
13) Ammonia
o) Aluminium oxide
15) Lead(II) oxide
p) Oxygen gas
16) Carbon monoxide
q) Oleum
s) Sodium chloride
t) Zinc oxide
20) Lithium oxide
44
Example
1.

a) Potassium iodide
1) Nitric acid
b) Magnesium oxide
2) Lead(II) iodide
c) Carbon dioxide
d) Copper(II) oxide
4) Zinc sulphate
e) Lead(II) bromide
f) Calcium chloride
7) Chlorine gas
8) Potasium nitrate
i) Hydrogen gas
9) Silver nitrate
j) Water
k) Sulphuric acid
11) Zinc chloride
l) Silver chloride
13) Ammonia
o) Aluminium oxide
15) Lead(II) oxide
p) Oxygen gas
16) Carbon monoxide
q) Oleum
s) Sodium chloride
t) Zinc oxide
20) Lithium oxide
45
Example
Name the following ionic compound by using their IUPAC name.
Ionic
Formula
Name
Ionic
Formula
NaCl
KI
MgO
BaSO4
Cu(NO3)2
CaCO3
Al2O3
FeCl3
ZnCl2
LiOH
CuO
FeSO4
AgNO3
NaOH
MgBr2
ZnO
PbSO4
PbI2
Name
NaBr
Br Bromide
Na +
Sodium
Sodium Bromide
46
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
a) Qualitative Aspect
K(S) + H2O(l)
KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Reactant
Product
Meaning: Solid Potassium react with water liquid to give

potassium hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas
p/s: 1) Able to classify reactant and product.
2) Able to balance the equation.
Example 1
For each equation, identify the reactant(s), product(s) and the state of each
of them. Then, balance the equation.
a)
H2 (g) +
O2 (g)
b)
CuO (s) +
c)
Cl2 (g) +
NaBr (aq)
d)
Mg (s) +
HCl (aq)
HCl (aq)
H2O (l)
CuCl2 (aq) +
H2O (l)
NaCl (aq)
Br2 (l)
MgCl2 (aq) +
H2 (g)
47
Example 2
Write a balanced equation for each of the following reactions.
a) Carbon monoxide gas + oxygen gas
Carbon dioxide gas
b) Hydrogen gas + nitrogen gas
Ammonia gas
c) Aluminium + iron(III) oxide
Aluminium oxide + iron
d) Ammonia gas react with oxygen gas to yield nitrogen monoxide gas and
water.
e) Silver nitrate solution is added to calcium chloride solution. Silver chloride

precipitate and calcium nitrate solution are produced.
f) When solid zinc carbonate is heated, it decomposes into zinc oxide powder
and carbon dioxide gas.
48
Example 3
1. Construct balanced chemical equations:
a) Magnesium react with oxygen will produce magnesium oxide.
b) Sodium metal react with chlorine gas will produce sodium
chloride.
c) Potassium oxide react with water will produce potassium
hydroxide.
d) Lithium metal react with water will produce lithium hydroxide
and hydrogen gas.
e) Zinc metal react with water will produce zinc oxide and
hydrogen gas.
f) Calcium carbonate react with hydrochloric acid will produce
calcium chloride, water and carbon dioxide.
g) Hydrochloric acid react with sodium hydroxide will produce

sodium chloride and water.
h) Potassium oxide react with nitric acid will produce potassium

nitrate and water.
49
i) Iron metal react with chlorine gas will produce iron(III) chloride.
j) Magnesium metal react with nitric acid with produce
magnesium nitrate and hydrogen gas.
k) Zinc metal dissolved in copper(II) chloride will produce zinc
chloride and copper metal.
l) Chlorine gas react with potassium bromide will produce
potassium chloride and bromine gas.
m)Copper(II) carbonate when heated will produce copper(II)
oxide and carbon dioxide.
n) Lead(II) nitrate when heated will produce lead(II) oxide,
nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
o) Potassium iodide react with lead(II) nitrate will produce lead(II)
iodide and potassium nitrate solution.
p) Sodium hydroxide react ammonium chloride will produce
sodium chloride, water and ammonia gas.
q) Zinc metal react with hydrochloric acid will produce zinc
chloride and hydrogen gas.
r) Magnesium oxide react with sulphuric acid will produce
magnesium sulphate react with water.
50
b) Quantitative Aspect
2H2 (g) +
2 molecule
Or
2 mol
O2 (g)
2H2O(l)
1 molecule
Or
1 mol
2 molecule
Or
2 mol
Note: The coefficient in the reaction tell the exact proportions of

reactant and product in chemical reaction.
Example
1. Copper(II) oxide, CuO reacts with aluminium according to the following
equation.
3CuO (s) + 2Al (s)
Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)
Calculate the mass of aluminium required to react completely with 12 g of

copper(II) oxide, CuO. [RAM: O, 16 ; Al, 27 ; Cu, 64]
51
2. A student heats 20 g of calcium carbonate, CaCO3 strongly. It decomposes

according to the equation below.
CaCO3 (s)
CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
a) If the carbon dioxide produced is collected at room conditions, what is its

volume?
b) Calculate the mass of calcium oxide, CaO produced.
[RAM: C, 12 ; O, 16 ; Ca, 40 ; Molar volume = 24 dm3 mol-1]
52
3. Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 decomposes according to the following equation.

2H2O2 (l)
2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
Calculate the volume of oxygen gas, O2 measured at STP that can obtained
from the decomposition of 34 g of hydrogen peroxide.
[RAM : H, 1 ; O, 16 ; Molar volume = 22.4 dm3 mol-1]
4. 16 g of copper(II) oxide, CuO is reacted with excess methane, CH4. Using the
equation below, find the mass of copper that is produced.
4CuO (s) + CH4 (g)
4Cu (s) + CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
[RAM : H, 1 ; C, 12 ; O, 16 ; Cu, 64]
53
CHAPTER 4
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
54
55
Historical Development of Periodic Table
Antoine Lavoiser
(1743 1794)
Johann Dobereiner
(1780 1849)
John Newlands
(1837 1898)
divided element
according their
similar chemical
properties
arranged element
in order of
increasing atomic
mass
first scientist classify

substances.
Lothar Meyer
(1830 1895)
Dmitri Mendeleev
(1834 1907)
showing that the

properties of the elements
formed a periodic
pattern against their
atomic masses.
arranged the elements in

order of increasing atomic
mass and
grouped them
according to similar
chemical properties.
Henry J.G. Moseley

(1887 1915)
Studied the X-ray
spectrum of elements.
He rearranged the
elements in order of
increasing proton number.
Concluded that the

proton number should
be the basis for the
periodic change of
chemical properties
instead of the atomic
mass.
Leading to the modern
Periodic Table.
56
Arrangement of Element in the Periodic Table

Element in the
Periodic Table are
arranged in an
increasing order of
proton number
ranging 1 to 118.
GROUP
The number of
valence electron in
an atom decides the
position of the group
of an element.
Element with
similar chemical
properties are
placed in the same
vertical column
GROUP
Valence electron 1
and 2
18 vertical column
called a group
7 horizontal rows
called a period
GROUP
Valence electron 3
until 8
Example:
PERIOD
Equal to the number
of shell occupied
with electrons in its
atom
An atom of element X has a proton

number of 15. In which group and period
we can find element X in Periodic Table.
57
Exercise
1. Element D has a proton number 19. Where is element D located in Periodic

Table?
2. An atom of element E has 10 neutrons. The nucleon number of element E is 19.

In which group and period of element E located in the Periodic Table?
3. An atom of element G has 3 shell occupied with electrons. It is placed in

Group 17 of the Periodic Table. What is the electron arrangement of atom G?
4. An atom Y is located in Group 18 and period 2 of the periodic Table. What is

the electron arrangement and proton number of atom Y?
5. Element R has a proton number of 11. Its atom has 6 neutrons. In which group
and period can you find element R in the Periodic Table?
58
The advantage of grouping elements in the Periodic Table

1. Helps us to study the element systematically especially their
physical and chemical properties.
2. Element with a same number valence electron is place in the
same group because they have the same chemical properties.
3. It could be used to predict undiscovered properties.
4. To relate the characteristic of an element with atomic structure
59
GROUP 18
GROUP 18
consist of helium,
neon, argon,
krypton, xenon
and radon
Known as
NOBLE GAS
Exist as
monoatomic gas.
Physical Properties of Group 18

COLOUR
ELECTRIC
CONDUCTIVITY
SOLUBILITY
GROUP 18
NOBLE GAS
DENSITY
MELTING &
BOILING POINT
60
The inert properties of G18

All noble gas are inert which means unreactive.
Noble gas are inert because the outermost occupied shell are full.
This electron arrangements are very stable.
Helium have 2 valence electron, this electron arrangement is called
duplet electron arrangement whereas other noble gas have eight
valence electron which called octet electron arrangement.
p/s:
All other element try to achieve noble gas electron arrangement to

become stable.
The Physical Properties of G18
The physical properties vary down the group.

physical properties vary down the group are related to atomic size.
Melting and boiling point of an element increase when going
down the group because the atomic sizes increase, the forces
attraction (Van der Waals forces) becomes stronger. Thus more
heat energy is required to overcome the forces.
The strength of Van der Waals forces propotional to the size of
particle
61
Uses of Noble Gas Elements

[ State the element of group 18 ]
Fill light bulb
laser for repair retina,

photographic flash lamps
treatment cancer
fill airships and weather

balloons
Car bulb, use in bubble chamber
advertising light and

television tubes
62
Exercise
1. Table below shows the electron arrangements of atoms of elements P, Q,
and R.
Element
Electron Arrangement
2.8
2.8.18.8
2.8.18.32.18.8
a) Arrange the element in ascending order of boiling points. Give reasons for
your answer.
b) Elements P, Q, and R are chemically unreactive. Why?
2) What is the meaning of

a) Duplet electron arrangement
b) Octet electron arrangement
63
GROUP 1
Known as Alkali
Metals.
Have valence
electron of 1.
Consist of elements
such as lithium,
sodium, potassium,
rubidium, caesium
and francium.
Physical Properties of Group 1
HARDNESS
APPEARANCE
GROUP 1
ALKALI METALS
ELECTRIC
CONDUCTIVITY
DENSITY
MELTING
POINT
64
Element
Atomic Size
Melting /
Boiling
point
Density
Hardness
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Caesium
Francium
A melting point of a metal indicates the strength of its metallic bonding in its
structure.
Generally, the strength of metallic bonding is directly proportional to the number
of valence electron per atom divided by the radius of a metal.
A metallic bond can be defined as the electrostatic force between the
positively charged metallic ions and the sea of electrons.
Electropositivity is the measurement of an atom to release an electron and form
positive ion
When going down the group, what happen to the electropositivity of the
element? Why?
65
Chemical Properties of Group 1 Elements

React vigorously with water to produce alkaline metal hydroxide solution
and hydrogen gas, H2.
2Li (s) + 2H2O
2LiOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Burn in oxygen gas rapidly to produce solid metal oxide

4Li (s) + O2 (g)
2 Li2O (s)
Solid metal oxide dissolve in water to form alkaline metal hydroxide

Li2O (s) + H2O
2LiOH (aq)
Alkaline metal burn in chlorine gas, Cl2 to form white solid metal chloride
2Na (s) + Cl2
2NaCl (aq)
Exercise :
1. Why does Group 1 element have similar chemical properties?
2. Why is paraffin oil used to store metals such as sodium and potassium?
3. Element in Group 1 has similar chemical properties but differ in reactivity.

Why?
66
To investigate the chemical properties of Lithium, Sodium & Potassium

1) The reaction of alkali metals with water
2) The reaction of alkali metals with O2 gas
[ Draw the diagram ]
[ Draw the diagram ]
[ Discussion ]
1. Why are the experiments involving sodium and potassium demonstrated by
your teacher and not carried out by the students?
2. Write the chemical equations for the reactions of lithium, sodium and
potassium with
a) Water, H2O
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
b) Oxygen gas, O2
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
:
67
3. Write the chemical equations for the reactions between the products from
the combustion of each alkali metal with water.
Lithium
:
Sodium
:
Potassium
:
Exercise
1. A student performs two experiments to study the reaction of alkali metal with
water.
Experiment
Metal used
Observation
Sodium
Sodium moves rapidly and randomly on the

water surface and emits hiss sounds.
Lithium
Lithium moves slowly on the water surface.
a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between sodium and lithium
with water.
Lithium
:
Sodium
:
b) Between reactions of Experiment 1 and 2, which is more vigorous? Explain
your answer from the point of electron arrangement.
c) Explain why sodium and lithium show similar chemical properties?

d) Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas produced if 2.3 g of sodium is used.
[RAM: Na, 23 ; molar volume: 24 dm3 mol-1]
68
GROUP 17
GROUP 17
GROUP 17
consist of fluorine,
chlorine, bromine,
iodine and
astatine.
Known as
HALOGENS.
Elements are
poisonous.
Have valence
electron of 7.
Exist as diatomic
molecules.
Element
Symbol of
Atom
Symbol of
Molecule
Physical
state at
room
condition
Colour
Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
Astatine
Melting & Boiling

Point
Density
Electric
Conductivity
Physical State
HALOGENS
Smell
69
Element
Atomic
Size
Melting /
Boiling
point
Density
Electronegativity
Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
Astatine
Electronegativity is an ability of atom to receive an electron to become

negative charged ions.
All halogen have seven valence electron. Their atoms always gain one electron
to form an ion with a charge of 1, in order to achieve stable octet electron
arrangement.
Chemical Properties of Group 17 Elements
Halogen react with water to produce two acids

Cl2 + H2O
HCl
HOCl
Halogen react with metal to produce metal halides

2Fe (s) + 3Cl2 (g)
FeCl3 (s)
Halogen react with sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium

halide and sodium halate (I) and water
I2(s) + 2NaOH (aq)
NaI (aq) + NaOI (aq) + H2O (l)

70
To Investigate the Chemical Properties of Halogens

[Draw the Apparatus]
SECTION A : Reaction with Water

1) Chlorine
2) Bromine
3) Iodine
SECTION B : Reaction with Iron

1) Chlorine
2) Bromine
3) Iodine
SECTION C : Reaction with Sodium Hydroxide

1) Chlorine
2) Bromine
3) Iodine
71
[Discussion]
1.
Name the products formed when chlorine, bromine, and iodine

react with water.
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
2.
:
:
:
Write the chemical equations for the reaction of chlorine,

bromine and iodine with water.
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
:
:
:
3.
What is the function of soda lime in SECTION B?
4.

react with iron.
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
5.
:
:
:
Write the chemical equation for the reaction of chlorine,

bromine, and iodine with iron.
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
:
:
:
72
4.

react with sodium hydroxide solution.
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
5.
Write the chemical equation for the reaction of chlorine,

bromine, and iodine with sodium hydroxide solution.
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
6.
:
:
:
:
:
:
Describe the changes in reactivity of Group 17 elements when

going down the group. Explain your answer.
73
Exercise
1. Table below shows several halogen elements with their proton numbers.
Halogen
Proton Number
17
35
a) State the group that the halogen elements belong to in the Periodic Table.
b) i) Write the electron arrangement of elements X and Y.
ii) From your answers in (b)(i), deduce the period of elements X and Y.
c) Draw the electron arrangement of element Y.
d) State the changes of properties of halogens down the group from X to Z in

terms of:
i) Atomic radius
ii) Electronegativity
iii) Melting point and boiling point

74
e) i) Iron glow brightly when reacting with element Y. Write the chemical
reaction to represent this reaction.
ii) Predict the observation for the reaction between iron and element Z.
iii) Between Y and Z, which is more reactive? Explain why.
f) i) Determine the elements X, Y and Z.
ii) State the colour for each elements X, Y, and Z.
iii) Why the physical state of halogen differ when down the group?
75
Comparison & Similarities between Group 1 and Group 17

Properties
Atomic
Size
Melting &
Boiling
Point
Density
Reactivity
Group
Down the Group
1
17
1
17
1
17
1
17
76
Elements in a Period 3
Element
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Symbol
Proton Number
Electron
Arrangement
Metal Properties
Physical State
[RC]
Atomic Radius
Electronegativity
Property of the
oxide
The proton number ____________ by one unit.

All atom of the element have __________ shells occupied by electron.
The number of valence electron ____________ from 1 to 8.
All element exist as __________ except chlorine and argon.
The atomic radius of element ________________.
The electronegativity of element ______________.
The oxides of element in Period 3 change from basic to acidic properties,
therefore the metallic properties decrease across the period. On the other
hand non-metallic properties of the elements increase.
Note: the atomic radius ______________ and electro negativity ______________

due to the increasing nuclei attraction on the valence electrons.
(nuclei attraction force increase with the increase of proton number)
77
Transition Elements
Transition elements are elements from Group 3 to Group 12
All the elements are metals, usually solids with shiny surfaces, ductile,
malleable and have tensile strength.
Have high melting and boiling point as well as high density.
Good conductors of heat and electricity.
Three special characteristics of transition element
Show different oxidation number in their compound.
Form coloured ions or compound.
Act as catalysts.
78
CHAPTER 5
CHEMICAL BONDS
Almost all chemical
substances exist as
compounds in nature
except inert gases
and other stable
element (such as
gold and silver).
Atom of other
element that have
less than eight
valence electron
are not stable
All other elements

combine together to
achieve the stability by
forming duplet or octet
electron arrangement by
i) The transfer of electron
ii) Sharing of electron
Less stable atom

will tend to release,
accept or share
electron to
achieve the stable
electron
arrangement
of an inert gas.
Two types of chemical

bonds formed:i) ionic bonds
ii) covalent bond
Ionic Bond
Covalent Bond
79
Ionic Bond
Ionic bond formed

when metal atom
transfer electrons to
non-metal atom to
form ionic
compound.
Example:
Formation of
Cation
Metal atom from

group 1,2 and 13
tend to released all
their valence
electrons.
Formation of
Anion
Non-Metal atom
from group 15, 16
and 17 tend to
accept the
electrons.
Draw the formation

of sodium ion.
80
Exercise
1.
Draw the formation of the following cations:

a) Potassium ion
b) Magnesium ion
c) Aluminium ion
81
2.
Draw the formation of the following anions:

a) Chloride ion
b) Oxide ion
c) Nitride ion
82
Formation of Ionic Compound
1.
2.
3.
Metal atom and non-metal atom are not stables.

To achieve stability, metal atom will combine with nonmetal atom by transfer of
electrons.
Metal atoms will donate electrons to form cation.
X
4.
Non-metal atom will accept electrons to form anion.
Y + e
5.
6.
7.
8.
X+ +
Y-
Both ions already achieve stable duplet/octet electron arrangement.

The formation of cation & anion will create strong electrostatic force between the ions.
Ionic bond will pull cation & anion together in crystal lattice form.
The compound formed called as ionic compound.
Example: Formation of Sodium Chloride, NaCl
83
Exercise
1.
Explain the formation of ionic compound below:

a) Lithium fluoride
b) Magnesium oxide
84
c) Calcium chloride
d) Aluminium oxide
85
2.
Draw the formation of the following ionic compound:

a) Lithium fluoride
b) Magnesium oxide
86
c) Calcium chloride
d) Aluminium oxide
87
Ionic Equations
Equation that represent the formation of ionic compounds are
known as ionic equation.
Example:
a) Formation of sodium chloride, NaCl
i) Chemical Equation :
ii) Half-ionic Equation :
b) Formation of Magnesium oxide, MgO

i) Chemical Equation :
ii) Half-ionic Equation :
Exercise
1.
Write an ionic equation of the following compound

a) Lithium fluoride
b) Magnesium chloride
c) Aluminium oxide
88
Exercise
1.
Atom X and Y each have proton numbers of 3 and 8. What is

the ionic compound formula formed between atoms X and Y?
2.
Complete each of the following table:

Atom
Proton
Number
A
1
Electron
Arrangement
Ionic
Formula
Atom
Proton
Number
11
12
17
20
19
17
13
13
17
Electron
Arrangement
Ionic
Formula
Compound
Formula
89
Covalent Bond
Covalent bond is the
chemical bond
formed through the
sharing of electron
between two or more
non metal atom to
form covalent
compound.
Three types of covalent

bonds:
single covalent bond
( sharing one pair of e )
double covalent bond
( sharing two pairs of e )
triple covalent bond
( sharing three pairs of e )
Single Covalent Bond

Example:
Draw the formation of chlorine gas.
90
Double Covalent Bond

Example:
Draw the formation of oxygen gas.
Triple Covalent Bond

Example:
Draw the formation of nitrogen gas.
91
Exercise
1.
Draw the formation of the following compound.

a) water
b) Carbon dioxide
92
c) Ammonia
b) Tetrachloromethane , CCl4.
93
Determine the Formula of Covalent Compound

Guideline:
1. State the electron configuration of atoms.
- Make sure electron valence for both atoms is either 4, 5, 6, and 7.
2. Determine the number of electrons needed to achieve stability.
3. Write the number of electron needed to achieve stability at the
below right corner of each atom.
4. Cross the number.
Example:
If atom P has 8 protons and atom Q has 9 protons, determine the
formula of the covalent compound formed.
94
Exercise
1. Atoms K and S each have a proton number of 6 and 8

respectively. What is the formula of the covalent compound
which is formed by K and S?
2. Complete the table below to show the formulae of compounds

which are formed.
Atom
Proton
number
Electron
config.
Atom
Proton
number
Electron
config.
Compound
formula
2.4
2.7
AB4
16
17
95
Comparison between the formation of the ionic bond and the

covalent bond
IONIC BOND
COVALENT BOND
Similarity
Differences
Formation
Particles
Force of
Attraction
96
The following figure compares and contrasts the properties

of ionic compound and covalent compound
IONIC COMPOUND
COVALENT COMPOUND
PROPERTIES
Melting &
Boiling point
Electric
Conductivity
Physical State
Solubility
97
Exercise
1. (a) Table 1.1 shows the proton number of three elements, X, Y, and
Z. The letters used do not represent the actual symbols of the
elements.
Element
X
Y
Z
i)
Proton Number
6
12
17
Table 1.1
Write the electron arrangement of:

Atom Y : _______________________________________________
The ion of Z : ___________________________________________
ii)
Write the formula of the compound formed between

elements Y and Z.
________________________________________________________
iii)
Element X reacts with element Z to form a covalent

compound with a formula XZ4. State two physical
properties of this compound.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
i)
Draw the electronic structure of the compound XZ4.
98
(b) Table 1.2 shows some physical properties of two compounds, U

and V.
Compound
Melting pt
(oC)
Boiling pt
(oC)
Solubility in
water
Solubility in
organic
solvent
800
1 420
Soluble
Insoluble
- 95
86
Insoluble
Soluble
Table 1.2
i) State the physical state of the following compound at room
condition.
U : _______________________________________________________
V : _______________________________________________________
ii) State the type of compound for U.
__________________________________________________________
iii) Explain why melting point and boiling point of compound U is
higher than V?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
99
CHAPTER 6
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrolytes are
substances that can
conduct electricity when
they are in molten state
and aqueous solution.
This due to the present of
free moving ions in the
electrolytes.
Non-electrolytes are
substances that can not
conduct electricity when
they are in all state. This
because non-electrolyte
exist as molecule which
means contain no ions.
Electrolysis is a process
whereby compounds in
molten or aqueous state
are broken down into
their constituent
elements by passing
electricity through them.
Example
2NaCl (l)
2Na (s) +
Cl2 (g)
Chlorine Gas
Sodium Metal
100
Electrolytic Cell (molten state)

[ Draw the apparatus of electrolysis molten sodium chloride ]
a) Electrode attach to positive terminal (battery)
b) Electrode attach to negative terminal (battery)
c) Anion (negative ion) discharged at electrode
Anion will _______________ electrons.

d) Cation (positive ion) discharged at electrode
Cation will ______________ electrons.

e) Electron flow from ___________________ to ___________________
f) Electrolytic Cell will change the _______________ energy to
________________ energy.
101
Product of Electrolysis
Ion
discharged
at Cathode
All ion metal
except
Copper ion
Observation
Half-equation
Product
Observation
Half-equation
Product
Copper ion
Hydrogen
ion
Ion
discharged
at Anode
Oxide ion
Chloride ion
Bromide ion
Iodide ion
Hydroxide
ion
Gas Test
Hydrogen
gas
Oxygen gas
Chlorine gas
102
Electrolysis Molten Lead(II) Bromide
1.
State the ion consists in the electrolyte.
2.
Which electrode is
a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
3.
Which ion will be discharged at

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
4.
State the observation at

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
5.
State the product formed at

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
6.
Write the half equation at

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
7.
Draw the electron flow on the diagram above.
103
Exercise
1. State the ion present in the following electrolyte. Predict the

products from the electrolysis of some molten compound and
write the ionic equation involved.
a) Magnesium oxide
b) Copper(II) chloride
c) Lead(II) iodide
104
2. State the meaning of the following terms.

a) Anode
b) Cathode
c) Electrolysis
3. A molten oxide, R2O3 is electrolysed using carbon electrodes.

a) Draw a labeled diagram to show the set-up of apparatus for
the electrolysis.
b) What ions are present in the electrolyte? Write the formulae for
the ions present in the electrolyte.
c) State the ions move to each of the electrodes during

electrolysis.
105
d) Write half equation of the reaction at each of the electrodes.
e) Name the substances formed at each of the electrodes.
f) Label the flow of electron in the diagram (a).
106
107
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution

Aqueous solution consists of four types of ions. Two ions from the
compound and two ions from the water.
Example:
Molten sodium chloride
Sodium chloride solution
Generally, there are 3 factors that may influence the selective of ions
during electrolysis of an aqueous solution
1. Position of ions in the electrochemical series
2. Concentration of ions in the electrolytes
3. Types of electrodes used in the electrolysis
108
Position of ions in the electrochemical series (ECS)

The ions that are lower in the ECS will selected to be discharged.
[ Draw the apparatus of electrolysis sodium chloride solution ]
1.
2.
Which electrode is
a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
3.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
4.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
5.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
6.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
7.
109
Exercise
1.
Carbon electrode
Copper(II)
sulphate solution
For the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution,

(a) State all the ions that are present in the electrolyte.
(b) State the ions in (a) which discharged to the

i) anode
ii) cathode :
(c) Write a half equation for the reaction at the
i) anode
ii) cathode :
(d) The blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution fades if the
electrolysis is carried for a long period of time. Explain why.
110
2.
Carbon electrode
Dilute sulphuric
acid
For the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid,

a) State all the ions that are present in the electrolyte
b) State the ion in (a) which discharged to

i) anode
ii) cathode
c) Write half equation for the reaction at the
i) anode
ii) cathode
d) Explain why the concentration of dilute sulphuric acid increases
gradually during the electrolysis
3. Base on the answer 1(c) and 2(c), name the process that occur
at the
a) anode
b) cathode
111
Concentration of ions in the electrolytes

If the concentrations of particular ions are high, the ion is selectively
discharged
[ Draw the apparatus of electrolysis concentrated sodium chloride solution ]
1.
2.
Which electrode is
a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
3.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
4.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
5.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
6.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
7.

112
Exercise
1.
Carbon
electrode
Dilute Hydrochloric
acid solution
Experiment A
Carbon
electrode
Concentrated
Hydrochloric acid
solution
Experiment B
Diagram above show the apparatus set up for the experiments of
electrolysis using two different concentration of hydrochloric acid.
i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
113
b) State the ion in (a) which discharged to anode and cathode in

i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
c) Write half equation for the reaction at the anode and cathode in
i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
d) State the observation occur at cathode and anode in

i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
e) State the product formed at cathode and anode in

i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
114
Types of electrodes used in the electrolysis

If using the active electrode at anode, ions that are present in the
electrolytes are not discharge. Instead the active electrode will
corrodes and dissolves in the electrolytes.
[ Draw the apparatus of electrolysis silver chloride solution using silver electrodes ]
1.
2.
Which electrode is
a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
3.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
4.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
5.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
6.

a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
7.
115
Exercise
1.
Carbon
electrode
Copper(II) sulphate
solution
Experiment A
Copper
plate
Copper(II) sulphate
solution
Experiment B
Diagram above show the apparatus set up for the experiments of
electrolysis using two different electrodes immersed in copper(II)
sulphate solution.
i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
116
b) State the observation occur at anode and cathode in

i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
c) Write half equation for the reaction at the anode and cathode in
i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
d) Explain the observation on the colour of copper(II) sulphate

solution in
i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
117
Electrolysis in Industry
1)
Most common
application:
Extraction of Metal
Extraction of aluminium
from aluminium oxide.
i) Extraction of metal
ii) Purification of metal
iii) Electroplating
2)
3)
Purification of Metal
In purification:
The impure metal is made to be the
anode
The cathode is a thin layer of pure metal
Electroplating
Electroplating is a process to coat
one metal onto another metal.
The purposes of electroplating
onto metal are:i) Make it look more attractive
ii) more resistant to corrosion
In electroplating :
object to be electroplated
as the cathode
anode is the metal used for plating
Electrolyte is a solution of the
compound of the electroplating
metal
Copper nugget
118
Extraction of Metal
[ Draw the apparatus of electrolysis for extraction of aluminium from aluminium oxide ]
1) Ion present in electrolyte =

2) Ion discharged
a) Cathode
b) Anode
3) Observation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
4) Half equation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
5)Function of cryolite, Na3AlF6
119
Purification of Metal
[ Draw the apparatus of electrolysis for purification of impure copper ]

2) Ion discharged
a) Cathode
b) Anode
3) Observation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
4) Half equation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
5) Colour changes of electrolyte
120
Electroplating
[ Draw the apparatus of electrolysis to electroplate key by using copper as electrode ]

2) Ion discharged
a) Cathode
b) Anode
3) Observation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
4) Half equation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
5) Colour changes of electrolyte
121
Voltaic Cells
A simple voltaic cell can be made by dipping two different
types of metals in an electrolyte
Electron flow from one metal to another metal through the
connecting wire in the external circuit.
More electropositive metal will release electron, thus act as
the negative terminal. Less electropositive metal will accept
electron and act as the positive terminal.
Continuous flow of electron produces an electric current.
Simple zinc-copper
Voltaic
Zinc more reactive than

copper
Zinc will act as terminal
________________, and
copper will act as
terminal ______________.
Zinc will release electron
to form Zn 2+.
Half equation:
Cu 2+ ions from copper(II) sulphate solution receive

electron to form copper metal.
Half equation :
Overall equation:
The further the distance between the position of two
metals is in ECS the bigger the cell voltage.
122
Different Types of Voltaic Cells

Two types of voltaic cell:
1) Primary cells: non rechargeable cell
Example: Daniell cell, dry cells, alkaline cell
2) Secondary cells: rechargeable cells
Example: Lead-acid accumulator, Nickel-cadmium
Daniell Cell 1
1. Used salt bridge
Salt bridge contain inert
ions or salt that does not
react with electrolyte.
Example:
2. Used porous pot
Daniell Cell 2
Porous pot has fine pores

that allow ions flow through.
What is the function of salt
bridge and porous pot in
Daniell Cell?
123
Exercise
1.
For the simple voltaic cell that you see at the diagram
Mg
Cu
Magnesium sulphate
solution
a) State how electricity was produced.
b) What are the chemical changes that occur at the

magnesium ribbon and the copper plate.
c) Write the half equation for the changes that occur at each
the electrode.
d) What is the direction of electron flow from terminal to

another through the external circuit.
124
Electrochemical series (ECS)
Tendency of
metal to release
electrons to
form ions
increases
Tendency of cation
to receive
electrons to form
metals
increases
The electrochemical series (ECS) can be constructed by two

method:
a) The potential difference (voltage difference) between pairs of
metal.
b) The ability of metal to displace another metal from its salt solution.
125
The potential difference (voltage difference) between pairs of metal.

The bigger the voltage value the further apart their position.
The metal act as negative terminal is placed at higher position
in electrochemical series (ECS).
How to determine the positive/negative terminal?
Example: The voltaic cells are constructed as shown in the figure. The
voltmeter reading of the cell I is 1.1 V while that of cell II is
2.5 V.
Cell 1
Cell 2
Arrange the metals in descending order in the

electrochemical series.
126
The ability of metal to displace another metal from its salt solution
If the M can displace metal N from an aqueous N salt solution, then:
i) Metal M is more electropositive than metal N
ii) Metal M is placed at a higher position than metal N in the ECS
Example: Zinc and copper(II) sulphate sulphate solution
Observation :
Half-equation :
The Important of ECS

ECS can be used to determine:
The terminal of voltaic cell
The standard cell voltage
The ability of a metal to displace another metal from its
salt solution.
127
Exercise
1.
The diagram shows an electrolytic cell. The left section of the cell
(S) is a source of electricity to drive the right section (T) of the
cell.
Copper
Zinc
Aluminium
Aluminium
Sulphate
S
Zinc Sulphate
Copper(II) Sulphate
a) State the change of energy in cell S
b) i) For cell S, state the positive terminal of the cell
ii) Explain your choice for b(i)
c) i) State what has happened at the negative terminal
ii) What process has happened in this electrode
128
d) Explain why the color of copper(II) sulphate remain unchanged
e) Determine the anode of cell T
f) Write down the half equation for the cathode in cell T
g) What will happened if the aluminium in cell S is replaced by copper
129
CHAPTER 7
ACIDS AND BASES
Arrhenius Theory
A base defined as a
chemical substance
that can neutralise an
acid to produce a
salt and water.
An acid is a chemical
compound that
produces hydrogen ions,
H+ or hydroxonium ions
H3O+ when dissolve in
water.
An alkali is defined as
a chemical
compound that
dissolve in water to
produce hydroxide
ions, OH- .
Example
HCl (g)
H2O
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
NaOH(s)
H2O
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The role of water

In the presence of water an acid will ionise to form hydrogen ion and
alkaline will dissociate into hydroxide ions, OH-.
Therefore, water is essential for the formation of hydrogen ions, H+
that cause acidity and hydroxide ions, OH- that cause alkalinity.
130
BASICITY OF AN ACID
Is the number of ionisable hydrogen atoms per molecule of an
acid.
Monoprotic Acid
Diprotic Acid
Triprotic Acid
Acid which produces

1 hydrogen ion when
one molecule of an
acid ionises in H2O.
Example: a) CH3COOH? (ethanoic acid) =

b) H2SO4? (sulphuric acid )
c) HNO3? (Nitric acid)
d) H3PO4? (Phosphoric acid)
STRENGTH OF ACID & ALKALI
131
STRONG ACID
WEAK ACID
Strong acid will dissociate or ionize

completely in water to produce
hydrogen, H+ ions.
Degree of dissociation is higher.
Thus, higher concentration of
hydrogen ions in aqueous acid
solution.
Therefore, low pH value of the acid
solution.
STRONG ALKALI
WEAK ALKALI
132
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACID & ALKALI

pH Value
Conduct
electricity
Litmus paper
ACID
Taste
Corrosive
Litmus paper
pH Value
ALKALI
Taste
Corrosive
Conduct
electricity
133
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACID & ALKALI

Acids can react with,
i) bases to produce salts and water
eg :
ii) metal to produce salts and hydrogen gas
eg :
iii) metal carbonates to produce salts, carbon dioxide
and water
eg :
iv) alkali to produce salts and water (neutralization)
eg :
Alkali can react with,

i) acid to produce salts and water (neutralization)
eg :
ii) ammonium salt to produce salts, water and ammonia
gas
eg :
134
The concentration of acid and alkali

Concentration are measurement of the quantity of solutes dissolved
in a quantity of solvent.
Moles per dm3

( mol dm-3)
dm3
Grams per
( g dm-3)
*known as Molarity
Concentration
Unit Conversion
Grams per
dm3 ( g dm-3)
molar mass
molar mass
Moles per dm3

( mol dm-3)
Example
1. The molarity of a bottle of nitric acid, HNO3 solution is 2.0 mol dm-3.
What is the concentration of the solution in g dm-3?
[RAM: H, 1 ; N, 14 ; O , 16]
135
2. Calculate the molarity of a sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 solution with

a concentration of 28.4 g dm-3. [RAM: O, 16 ; Na, 23 ; S, 32]
Calculating Involving Concentration and Molarity

3
No of mole = Molarity x Volume ( cm )
1000
MV
n=
1000
1.
5.00 g of copper (II) sulphate is dissolved in water to form 500

cm3 solution. Calculate the concentration of copper (II) sulphate
in g dm-3.
2.
A 250 cm3 nitric acid solution contains 0.4 moles. Calculate the
molarity of the nitric acid.
136
3.
What is the mass of sodium carbonate required to dissolve in

water to prepare 200 cm3 solution contains 50 g dm-3.
4.
Calculate the number of moles of ammonia in 150 cm3 of 2 mol

dm-3 aqueous ammonia.
5.
Calculate the volume in dm3 of a 0.8 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid

that contains 0.2 mol.
6.
4.0 g sodium carbonate powder, Na2CO3 is dissolved in water

and made up to 250 cm3. What is the molarity of the sodium
carbonate solution. [RAM: C,12;O,16;Na,23]
137
7.
Dilute hydrochloric acid used in the school laboratories usually

has a concentration of 2.0mol dm-3. Calculate the mass of
hydrogen chloride that found in 250 cm3 of the hydrochloric
acid? [RAM : H,1; Cl,35.5]
8.
The concentration of a potassium hydroxide solution is

84.0 g dm-3. Calculate the number of moles of potassium
hydroxide present in 300 cm3 of the solution. [RAM: K,39,H,1 O,16]
138
9.
Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen ions present in

200 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid.
Preparation of Standard Solution
A solution in which its concentration is accurately known is a

standard solution.
Preparation of a solution by dilution method
Adding water to a concentrated solution changes the concentration
of the solution but does not change the amount solutes ( number of
moles)of solution present in solution.
Moles of stock solution = moles of dilute solution

n1 = n2
M1V1 = M2V2
139
Exercise
1.
Find the volume of 2.0 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4 needed to
prepare 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4.
2.
Calculate the volume of a concentrated solution needed to

prepare each of the following dilute solution:
a)
50 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution

from 2.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution.
b)
100 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium manganate(VII),

KMnO4 solution from 1.0 mol dm-3 potassium
manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution.
140
3.
Calculate the volume of 2.0 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4

needed to prepare 2.5 dm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 of the same acid
solution.
4.
Calculate the molarity of potassium hydroxide, KOH, solution if

200 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 potassium hydroxide, KOH, solution is
added to 200 cm3 of water.
5.
60 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide, NaOH, solution is

diluted with 30 cm3 of water. Calculate the molarity of the
solution produced.
141
The pH Values and Molarity

As the molarity of an acid increases, the pH value of the acid
decreases, however the pH value of an alkali increases when the
molarity of the alkali increases.
Neutralisation
Acid-base titration
Reaction of an acid
and a base that
produce salt and
water.
Titration is a very useful

laboratory technique in
which one solution is
used to analyse another
solution.
Acid-base indicator is
used to detect the end
of titration.
Eg: methyl orange,
phenolphthalein and
litmus.
An acid of known
concentration is
carefully delivered from
burette to completely
neutralise a known
volume of an alkali in a
conical flask.
The point at which the

colour of the solution
change is called the
end point.
Titration using
phenolphthalein
142
NEUTRALISATION
ACID-BASE
TITRATION
143
Example
1.
Write a balanced equation for the neutralization of each of the

following:
a) Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 and barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2
solution.
b) Nitric acid, HNO3 and calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 solution.
c) Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH and potassium hydroxide, KOH

solution.
Acid-base Indicator
Indicator
Colour in
alkalis
Colour in neutral
solution
Colour in
acids
Methyl orange
phenolphthalein
litmus
The end-point of neutralisation also can determined by another two

method:i) Measurement of pH values by computer
ii) Measurement of electrical conductivity during titration
144
Numerical Problem involving Neutralisation

Say the balance equation is
aA + bB
product
which,
A = acid
a = no of mole of acid
B = base
b = no of mole of base
MAVA = a
Therefore
and
MAVA
MBVB
MBVB = b
a
b
Exercise
1.
In an experiment, 25.0 cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution of

unknown concentration required 26.50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3
sulphuric acid to complete a reaction in titration. Calculate the
molarity of sodium hydroxide.
145
2.
What is the volume of 0.5 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4 needed
to neutralize 25.0 cm3 of 0.8 mol dm-3 ammonia, NH3 solution?
3.
A sample of copper(II) oxide, CuO was found to completely

neutralize 100 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, HCl.
Calculate the mass of the sample. [RAM: O, 16 ; Cu, 64]
146
4.
The volume of 0.15 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4 required to

completely neutralize 25.0 cm3 of potassium hydroxide, KOH
solution is 30.5 cm3. Calculate the molarity of the potassium
hydroxide, KOH solution.
5.
A student dissolved 3.65 g of hydrogen chloride gas, HCl in water

to make 1.0 dm3 of solution. Calculate the volume of a 0.1 mol
dm-3 barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2 solution required to completely
neutralize 25.0 cm3 of the acid solution. [RAM : H, 1 ; Cl, 35.5]
147
CHAPTER 8
SALTS
A salt is an ionic
substance produced
when the hydrogen
ion of the acid is
replaced by metal
ion or an ammonium
ion.
The salt consists of two

parts, cation from base
and anion from acid.
NaCl
NaOH
(Base)
HCl
(Acid)
148
Table of Salts
Complete the table below.
Metal ion
Sulphate salt
(SO42-)
Chloride salt
(Cl-)
Nitrate salt
(NO3-)
Carbonate salt
(CO32-)
K+
K2SO4
KCl
KNO3
K2CO3
Na+
Ca2+
Mg2+
Al3+
Zn2+
Fe2+
Sn2+
Pb2+
Cu2+
Ag+
NH4+
Ba2+
Based on the table above, mark the insoluble salt.
149
SOLUBLE & INSOLUBLE SALTS

SALT
SOLUBLE
INSOLUBLE
K+ , Na+ , NH4+
All soluble
none
Nitrate salts
(NO3- )
All nitrate salts
none
Chloride salts
(Cl-)
Sulphate salts
(SO42-)
Carbonate
salts
(CO32-)
Oxide salts
(O2-)
All chloride salts
Lead (II) chloride,

PbCl2
Silver chloride, AgCl
Mercury chloride,
HgCl
All sulphate salts
Lead (II) sulphate

Calcium sulphate
Barium sulphate
Sodium carbonate,
Na2CO3
Potassium carbonate,
K2CO3
Ammonium carbonate,
(NH4)2CO3
Sodium oxide, Na2O
Potassium oxide, K2O
Calcium oxide, CaO
All others carbonate

salts
All oxide salts
(slightly soluble)
Hydroxide salts
(OH-)
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

Potassium hydroxide, KOH
Calcium hydroxide,
Ca(OH)2
All hydroxide salts
(slightly soluble)
150
Preparation and Purification of Soluble Salts

Soluble salt can be prepared by the following ways:
1. Reaction between acid and alkali - preparation for
sodium, potassium and ammonium salts only.
Eg: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
[write the step of preparation of the salts on the diagram]
Burette
Evaporating dish
NaCl solution
HCl solution
NaOH solution
NaCl crystal salt
NaCl salt crystal

151
Preparation and Purification of Soluble Salts

Soluble salt can be prepared by the following ways:
1. Reaction between acid and metal oxide
Eg: HNO3(aq) + MgO(s)
Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O(l)
2. Reaction between acid and metal
Eg: H2SO4(aq) + Zn (s)
ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g)
3. Reaction between acid and metal carbonate
Eg: HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)
CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
[write the step of preparation of the salts on the diagram]
Copper(II) nitrate
Solution + excess
CuO
heat
heat
Copper(II) nitrate
solution
Evaporating Dish
Copper(II) nitrate solution

& crystal salt
Cu(NO3)2 crystal salt
152
Crystallization
is a process to crystallize
the soluble salts.
Recrystallization
process will carried out in
order to get pure and
more defined crystal
Physical characteristic of
crystals
Fixed geometrical shapes
such as a cuboids,
rhombic or prism
Flat surface, straight edges
and sharp angles.
Same shapes for same

substance but differ in
sizes
Fixes angle between two
neighbouring surfaces.
153
Preparation of insoluble salts

An insoluble salt is prepared through precipitation method.
Aqueous solution of two soluble salts are mixed to form
insoluble and soluble salt:
[write the general equation of preparation insoluble salt]
The reaction is called double decomposition.

Two solutions contain ions that make up the insoluble salts.
Eg: Preparation of lead(II) iodide salt by using lead(II)
nitrate solution and potassium iodide solution.
[write the balance chemical equation]
Double Decomposition
154
Chemical and Ionic Equation

Chemical and ionic equation can be written for all reaction
That used to prepare salts.
Example: Formation of precipitate Barium Sulphate, BaSO4.
1. Chemical Equation:
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq)
BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)
2. Ionic Equation:
Ionic equation shows the ions take part in the reaction.

Exercise
1. Change each of the following word equations to a balanced
chemical equation.
a) Sulphuric acid + zinc
zinc sulphate + hydrogen gas.
b) Silver nitrate + potassium iodide
c) Nitric acid + chromium(III) hydroxide
silver iodide + potassium

nitrate
chromium(III) nitrate
+ water
155
2. Complete the following equations.

a) HCl (aq) +
NiO (s)
b) HNO3 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)

c) H2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3 (s)
3. Write an ionic equation for each reaction between the following
pairs of substances.
a) Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 and barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2 solution
b) Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl solution and silver nitrate, AgNO3

solution.
c) Lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 solution and copper(II) sulphate,

CuSO4 solution.
d) Iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3 and hydrochloric acid, HCl.
156
Constructing Ionic Equation using the Continuous Variation Method
Continuous variation method can be used to construct ionic

equation for the formation of insoluble salts.
Fixed volume of a reactant A is react with varying volumes
of a reactant B to determine the mole ratio of reactant A
that react completely with reactant B.
If x mol of reactant A with y mole of reactant B, than the
empirical formula for insoluble salt is A x B y.
Example:
2Fe3+ (aq) + 3CO32- (aq)
Fe2(CO3)3 (s)
157
158
Example
1.
6.0 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 Xn+ solution reacts completely with 4.0
cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 Ym- solution to form a salt XmYn. Write the
ionic equation and hence determine the empirical formula of
the salt reaction.
2.
18.0 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 solution of Px+ ions reacts completely
with 9.0 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 solution of Qy- ions to form a salt
PyQx. Write the ionic equation and hence determine the
empirical formula of the salt in this reaction.
159
Solving Problem Involving Calculation of Quantities of Reactants or

Product in Stoichiometric Reactions
Since the quantities of chemicals involved in a reaction are in term
of moles, the quantities of chemicals (volume, mass and number of
particles) must be converted to moles in calculation regarding
quantities of reactant and products.
Exercise
1. Calculate the number of moles of aluminium sulphate
produced by the reaction of 0.2 mole of sulphuric acid with
excess aluminium oxide.
[0.067 mol]
2. 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide reacts with excess sulphuric acid.

What is the mass of sodium sulphate produces
[RAM: H,1 ; O,16 ; Na,23 ; S,32]
[ 3.55 g]
160
3. What the volume of carbon dioxide gas evolved at s.t.p when

2.1 g of magnesium carbonate reacts with excess nitric acid.
[ RAM: C,12;O,16;Mg,24; s.t.p = 22.4 dm3]
[ 560 cm3]
4. What is the mass of magnesium required to react with 20 cm3 of

2.0 mol dm3 hydrochloric acid to produce 120 cm3 of hydrogen
at temperature? [RAM: Mg,24 ; 1 mol = 24 dm3 at room temp.]
[ 0.12 g]
161
Qualitative Analysis of Salts

General procedure of qualitative analysis
Observations on the physical
properties of salts
Action of heat on salts
Tests for cations and

anions
Confirmatory tests for

cations and anions
Colour & Solubility of the Salt
GREEN
PALE GREEN
Iron(II) Sulphate, FeSO4

Iron(II) Nitrate, Fe(NO3)2
Iron(II) Chloride, FeCl2
REDDISH-BROWN
Iron(III) Sulphate, Fe2(SO4)3

Iron(III) Nitrate, Fe(NO3)3
Iron(III) Chloride, FeCl3
GREEN
INSOLUBLE
Copper(II) Carbonate, CuCO3
BLUE
Copper(II) Sulphate, CuSO4

Copper(II) Nitrate, Cu(NO3)2
Copper(II) Chloride, CuCl2
YELLOW/BROWN
[depend on concentration]
INSOLUBLE
Iron(III) Oxide, Fe2O3
BLUE
BROWN
BLACK
INSOLUBLE
Copper(II) Oxide, CuO
162
Colour & Solubility of the Salt
WHITE
COLOURLESS
Potassium Oxide, K2O

Sodium Oxide, Na2O
Calcium Oxide, CaO
WHITE [cold]
WHITE
Magnesium Oxide, MgO

Aluminium Oxide, Al2O3
YELLOW [cold]
INSOLUBLE
YELLOW [hot]
INSOLUBLE
Zinc Oxide, ZnO
INSOLUBLE
BROWN [hot]
Lead(II) Oxide, PbO
163
Gas test
Oxygen gas
hydrogen gas
Wooden splinter
Hydrogen gas, H2
Oxygen gas, O2
Carbon dioxide gas
sulphur dioxide gas
Carbon dioxide
HCl acid
Sulphur dioxide
HCl acid
Sodium Sulphite, Na2SO3
Sodium Carbonate,
Na2CO3
chlorine gas
ammonia gas
Red litmus paper
Glass rod dipped into

concentrated HCl acid
White fumes
Chlorine gas, Cl2
Ammonia gas, NH3
164
EFFECT OF HEAT ON SALTS

Carbonate salts
Sodium carbonate & potassium carbonate are very stable. They do
not decompose on heating.
Carbonate Salt
Heating
Metal Oxide +
Carbon dioxide
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ white ]
Salts
1.
Calcium carbonate
2.
Magnesium carbonate
3.
Aluminium carbonate
Chemical Equation
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ yellow hot ]
[ white cold ]
Chemical Equation
Zinc carbonate
165
Carbonate Salt
Heating
Metal Oxide +
Carbon dioxide
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ brown ]
residue
[ brown ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Iron(III) carbonate
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ green ]
residue
[ black ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Copper(II) carbonate
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ brown hot ]
[ yellow cold ]
Chemical Equation
Lead(II) carbonate
166
Carbonate Salt
Heating
Metal + Carbon dioxide + Oxygen gas
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ grey ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Mercury(II) carbonate
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ shiny grey ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Silver carbonate
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ golden yellow ]
Chemical Equation
Aurum(II) carbonate
167
nitrate salts
Nitrate Salt
Heating
Metal Oxide + Oxygen gas + Nitrogen dioxide
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ white ]
Salts
1.
Calcium nitrate
2.
Magnesium nitrate
3.
Aluminium nitrate
Chemical Equation
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ yellow hot ]
[ white cold ]
Chemical Equation
Zinc nitrate
168
Nitrate Salt
Heating
Metal Oxide + Oxygen gas + Nitrogen dioxide
Heating
nitrate salts
[ brown ]
residue
[ brown ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Iron(III) nitrate
Heating
nitrate salts
[ blue ]
residue
[ black ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Copper(II) nitrate
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ brown hot ]
[ yellow cold ]
Chemical Equation
Lead(II) nitrate
169
Nitrate Salt
Heating
Metal + Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen gas
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ grey ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Mercury(II) nitrate
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ shiny grey ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Silver nitrate
Nitrate Salt
Heating
Metal nitrite + Oxygen gas

Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
Potassium nitrate
2.
Sodium nitrate
residue
[ white ]
Chemical Equation
170
TEST FOR ANIONS
Unknown aqueous salt solution
[ state the procedure ]
OBSERVATION
[ label the diagram ]
OBSERVATION
Salt needed to be
dissolved into water
first to produce
aqueous salt
solution.
OBSERVATION
OBSERVATION
Ionic Equation
Ionic Equation
Ionic Equation
Ionic Equation
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
[ state the anion ]
[ state the anion ]
[ state the anion ]
[ state the anion ]
171
TEST FOR CATIONS
Salt needed to be
(soluble salts) or in
dilute acid then
filtered (insoluble
salts) first to produce
aqueous salt solution.
Add NaOH drop by drop
No precipitate
White precipitate
Coloured precipitate
Green
Add NaOH drop by drop until excess
Dissolve in excess NaOH
Brown
Insoluble in excess NaOH

Blue
* All coloured ions insoluble in excess NaOH
172
TEST FOR CATIONS
Salt needed to be
(soluble salts) or in
dilute acid then
filtered (insoluble
salts) first to produce
aqueous salt solution.
Add NH3 drop by drop
No precipitate
White precipitate
Coloured precipitate
Green
Add NH3 drop by drop until excess
Dissolve in excess NH3
Brown
Insoluble in excess NH3

Blue
Dissolved in excess NH3
Dark blue solution

* Fe2+ & Fe3+ ions insoluble in excess NH3
173
Confirmatory Test for Cation

Cation
Procedure
Observation
Fe 2+
Fe 3+
Pb 2+
NH4 +
Exercise
1.
Identify the aqueous solutions based on the test and observation given.
Type
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Observation
Potassium thiocyanate,
KSCN, solution is added.
Potassium iodide, KI, solution
is added.
Ammonia solution, NH3, is
added until excess.
A little hydrochloric acid is
added.
A sulphuric acid, iron(II)
sulphate solution and
concentrated sulphuric acid
is added.
Ammonia solution is added
until excess.
K2 CO3
ZnCl2
PbCl2
Answer
Blood red solution formed.

Yellow precipitate is
formed.
Blue precipitate dissolve to
form dark blue solution.
Effervescene occur and
lime water turn into chalky.
Brown ring formed.
White precipitate
dissolved.
CuSO4
NaNO3
FeCl3
174
CHAPTER 9
MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY
SULPHURIC ACID
The Uses of
Sulphuric Acid
175
[ Cause by ]
[ Cause by ]
[ Effect ]
POLLUTION of
Sulphur DIOXIDE
Formation of Acid Rain
Burning of Sulphur
[ Explain the formation of acid rain & write the chemical equation ]
Burning of Sulphur Dioxide
[ Explain the formation of acid rain & write the chemical equation ]
176
Effect of Acid Rain
177
Industrial Process in the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid

Contact Process
Burn in
the air
Stage 1
[ write the chemical equation ]
Catalyst:
Temp. :
Pressure:
Stage 2
Dissolves in
concentrated H2SO4
Stage 3 ( i )
Dilute with water
Stage 3 ( ii )
178
AMMONIA
[ Label the uses of ammonia ]
The Uses of
ammonia
179
Properties of
ammonia
Glass rod dipped into

concentrated HCl acid
White fumes
Ammonia gas, NH3
180
Industrial Process in the Manufacture of Ammonia

Haber Process
1 part
3 parts
Catalyst chamber
Catalyst
Temperature
Pressure
:
:
:
[ Write the balance chemical equation ]
The unreacted
mixture will flowed
back
Condenser
[ state what happen in the condenser ]
[ state the final product ]
181
Preparation of Ammonium Fertilisers in the laboratory

Ammonia fertilizers can be prepared by using neutralization reaction between acid and
ammonia solution.
Acid + Ammonia
Ammonium salts H2SO4 + NH3
(NH4)2SO4
Eg: Preparation of ammonium sulphate salt
Burette
Evaporating dish
(NH4)2SO4 solution
H2 SO4 acid solution
Ammonia solution
(NH4)2SO4 crystal salt
(NH4)2SO4 crystal salt

182
Alloys
Pure metal is soft and not strong.

Atom of pure metal have similar shape and size.
The particles in pure metal are arranged layer by layer and
easily slide along between each other.
Physical
Properties
Of pure metal
Ductile
[ state the definition of the ductile and draw the particle arrangement ]
malleable
[ state the definition of the malleable and draw the particle arrangement ]
183
alloys
Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements
which is the major component is pure
metals.
Foreign elements either metal or
non-metal is added into pure metal.
The size of foreign elements either
smaller or bigger.
It will disrupt the orderly arrangement of
pure metal. Thus, the properties of pure
metals improved.
[ draw the particle arrangement of alloy ]
Aim of making
alloys
184
Uses of Alloys & Their Compositions

[ state the components, properties & uses of alloy ]
COPPER-NICKEL
DURALUMIN
STEEL
Pure metal : 99% Iron
Foreign element : 1% Carbon
- Strong
- Hard
- Withstands corrosion
- To make bridge, vehicles,
building & train tracks
BRASS
STAINLESS STEEL
PEWTER
BRONZE
185
Synthetic Polymers
Polymers are long chains of molecules made from combination of monomers by

polymerisation process.
Two types of polymer:
i) Natural polymer
ii) Synthetic polymer
Polymer that occurs naturally made by living organisms.
Polymer
Polymer
RUBBER
Monomer
CELLULOSE
Natural
polymers
Monomer
Polymer
PROTEIN
Polymer
Monomer
FAT
Polymer
Monomer
STARCH
Monomer
Amino acid
Isoprene
186
Polymer that are man-made polymer produced from

chemical compound through polymerisation.
Two types of polymerisation:
i) Addition polymerisation
ii) Condensation polymerisation
Polymer
POLYTHENE
Polymer
Synthetic
polymers
POLYPROPENE
Monomer
Monomer
Polymer
NYLON
Polymer
Monomer
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

Monomer
Polymer
PERSPEX
Monomer
187
Glass & ceramics
Main component of glass is silica & silicon dioxide, SiO2.
glass
Main
characteristics
188
Type of Glass
FUSED SILICA GLASS
SODA-LIME GLASS
Method of Productions
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
- Very high melting point

- Not easy to change its shape
- Does not easily expand or shrink
with changes of temperature
- Transparent to ultraviolet ray
Uses
- Transparent
- Low melting point
- Easily shaped
- Easily broken
- Cannot withstand heat & chemical
reaction
Uses
189
Type of Glass
BOROSILICATE GLASS
LEAD CRYSTAL GLASS
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
- Withstand heat & chemical reaction

- High melting point
- Transparent to light & infrared ray
but not to ultraviolet ray
- Expand & shrink a little when
temperature changes
Uses
- Very transparent
- Shiny
- High density
Uses
190
Made from clay at very high temperature and the main

component is silicate.
ceramics
Common
properties
191
Uses of
ceramics
192
Composite Materials
Produced from the combination of two or more different

compound such as alloys, metals, glass, ceramic & polymers.
USES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
REINFORCED CONCRETE
SUPERCONDUCTOR
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
Uses
Uses
193
FIBRE GLASS
FIBRE OPTICS
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
Uses
Uses
Success is not the key to happiness. Happiness is the key to success.

If you love what you are doing, you will be successful.
- Albert Schweitzer Read more at http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/topics/topic_success.html#bz21QZZiyRAZOLSt.99
194
PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS
CERAMIC GLASS
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
Uses
Uses
There are no secrets to success. It is the result of

preparation, hard work, and learning from failure.
- Colin Powell 195

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Mohd Faisol Mansor

: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

: CHEMICAL FORMULAE & EQUATIONS

: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

: ACIDS & BASES

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 1

Is the study of the

Scientific Method : systematic method used to solve problems in Science.

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 1

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 1

Classify each of the following element into their group.

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 1

Classify each of the following element/compound into their group.

Chlorine gas, Cl2

Lead(II) oxide, PbO

Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

Silver bromide, AgBr

Carbon dioxide, CO2

Copper(II) iodide, CuI2

Magnesium oxide, MgO

Zinc chloride, ZnCl2

(Metal Atom + Nonmetal Atom)

(Nonmetal Atom + Nonmetal Atom)

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

Kinetic Theory of Matter

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

Atom, Molecule & Ion

Example: Formation of WATER

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

Vibrate and rotate at

Strong but weaker

Vibrate, rotate and

Vibrate, rotate and

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

Change in the State of Matter

Changes in the Heat Energy

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

b) the naphthalene must stirred continuously?

4. What happens to the temperature of naphthalene during

b) freezing? Give a reason.

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

The Heating Curve of Naphthalene

Why the temperature

Why the temperature

Why the temperature

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

The Cooling Curve of Naphthalene

Why the temperature

How to avoid supercooling?

Why the temperature

Why the temperature

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

The Atomic Structure

(1) John Dalton

(2) J.J. Thomson

(3) Ernest Rutherford

(5) James Chadwick

(4) Neils Bohr

mohd faisol mansor/chemistry form 4/chapter 2

Subatomic Particles of an Atom

Relative mass: 0.0005