Proposer/

advocato
r
Goals

Mother Tongue

Natural Approach

Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT)

Audio-lingual Method
(ALM)

Crashen & Terrell/ 1977

?/1972

Charles Fries /1939

Students can acquire the

target languages in a natural
and communicative situation.
No mother tongue

Be able to communicate
with others in the target
language in different
situations
Both mother tongue and
target language

Be able to listen, speak,

read, and write in the target
language, with emphasis on
listening and speaking
Less mother tongue

Merits

1. Students acquire the target 1. Students have the

1. Students can learn target
language in a natural and
opportunities to express
language in natural order:
easy way.
their own thoughts and
listeningspeaking
2. Teaching materials are
opinions.
readingwriting.
designed very well.
2. Students have the
2. Students can speak the
Students ca acquire
opportunities to
correct answers without
language from easy to
communicate with each
thinking by overlearning.
difficult, from simple to
other in the classroom.
complex, and from
3. Students can learn the
concrete to abstract.
culture of the target
language because the
teaching materials are
related to the social
environments.
4. The communicative
situation makes students
reconstruct their
knowledge and thoughts,
so students can learn to
fluently speak the target
language more easily.

Limits

1. Students may use the target 1. Its difficult for a

1. It fails to teach the longlanguage fluently, but they
nonnative speaking
term communicative
cannot use it accurately.
teacher who is not very
proficiency.
2. Teachers should collect
proficient in the target
2. Structural linguistics
various teaching aids and
language to teach
didnt tell us everything
use them appropriately.
effectively. Teacher
about language that we
3. Special teaching designs is
training and certification
needed to know.
necessary for the students
are needed.
3. Its impossible and

with better abilities.

Teaching Aids Visual aids, such as pictures,

maps, advertisement; games

Features

2. Students pronunciation
unnecessary to teach
and grammatical
students without using
knowledge is poor.
native languages.
3. It is difficult for teachers 4. Its boring for students to
to evaluate students
overlearn the drills and
expression in the learning
its tiring for teachers to
process.
teach.
(a)Interesting and meaningful Textbooks, drills, tapes,
materials, such as linguistic language labs
games, role plays, and
problem solving materials.
(b) Technologyfilms,
videos, TV, computers, can be
used as teaching aids.

1. 5 important hypothesis 1.
A. the Acquisition-Learning H
Students acquire language
subconsciously in the
natural and communicative
situations.
B. the Monitor H
2.
Students may call upon
learned knowledge to
correct themselves when
they communicate, but that
conscious learning has only
this function.
C. the Natural Order H
3.
The acquisition of
grammatical structures
proceeds in a predictable
order.
4.
D. the Input (i+1) H
Students acquire language
best by understanding input
that is slightly beyond their
current level of competence. 5.
E. the Affective Filter H
Student work should center
on meaningful
6.

Language learning is
1.
learning to communicate.
The primary function of 2.
language is for
interaction and
communication.
Classroom goals are
3.
focused on all of the
components of
communicative
4.
competence and not
restricted to grammatical
or linguistic competence
Students learn to use the
appropriate language
5.
forms in the different
places.
Communicative activities 6.
include functional
communicative activities
and social interaction
activities.
Teachers are assistants,
guides, counselors and 7.
group process managers.
Students are expected to

New material is presented

in dialogue forms
Theres dependence on
mimicry, memorization
of set phrases, and
overlearning.
Structural patterns are
taught using repetitive
drills.
Theres little or no
grammatical explanation.
Grammar is taught by
inductive analogy
explanation.
There is much use of
tapes, language labs, and
visual aids.
It is based on Behaviorist
psychology. Students
successful responses are
immediately reinforced
and their errors are
corrected immediately.
The teaching sequences
are aural training,
pronunciation training,

communication rather than

interact with each other
on form; input should be
rather than with the
interesting and so contribute
teacher.
8.
to a relaxed classroom
7. Learners should take the
atmosphere.
responsibility of the failed
------------------------------------communication.
2. The teacher was the source 8. Language is created by
of the learners input and
the individual through
the creator of an interesting
trial and error. Correction
and stimulating variety of
of errors may be absent
classroom activities.
or infrequent.
3. Learners dont need to say 9. Students can speak
anything during the silent
fluently but not
period until they feel
accurately.
ready to do so.
10. Four language skills are
4. Start with TPR commands.
practiced. Reading and
5. Use visuals, typically
Writing can start from the
magazine pictures, to
first day, if desired.
introduce new vocabulary.
6. The focus in the classroom
is on listening and
reading abilities.
7. No sentence patterns
practice and no error
correction during the
process of acquisition.

Hypothesis

speaking, reading, and

writing.
Structures are sequenced
by means of contrastive
analysis and taught one at
a time.

Definition

the Acquisition-Learning H

Acquisition is a unconscious and intuitive process of constructing the

system of a language. Learning refers to a process in which conscious rules
about a language are developed. Learning cannot lead to acquisition.

the Monitor H

Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and
repairs the output of the acquired system.

the Natural Order H

The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order.

Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during
acquisition, similar developmental errors occur in learners, no matter what
their mother tongue is.

the Input (i+1) H

People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond

their current level of competence. If an acquirer is at stage or level i, the
input (s)he understands should contain i+1. Input should neither be so far
beyond their reach nor so close to their current stage.

The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; it emerges

independently in time.
the Affective Filter H

The learners emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely

passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. Three kinds of
affective or attitudinal variables are: (1) motivation, (2) self-confidence (3)
anxiety. The best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low
and defensiveness absent.

Direct Method

Natural Approach
Similarity

1. It emphasized that the principles underlying the

1.
method were believed to conform to the principles
of naturalistic language learning in young
children.

It is believed to conform to the naturalistic

principles found in successful second acquisition.

Difference
DM focuses on:
1. Teacher monologues
2. Direct repetition
3. Formal questions and answers
4. Accurate production of target language sentences

NA focuses on:
1. Exposure input
2. Optimizing emotional preparedness for learning
3. Listening & Reading

Proposer/
advocator
Goals

Asher/ 1964

Curran/1961

No mother tongue
1.

2.

3.
Limits

Community Language Learning (CLL)

Counseling Learning Method

Be able to respond
To get the language competence and performance by asking
physically to the sentences questions.
made in the target language.

Mother Tongue
Merits

Total Physical Response

(TPR)

1.

2.
3.

4.

5.

Both mother tongue and the target language

It provides rapid and

1.
rather permanent
language gains on early 2.
levels, so students can
remember the learned
3.
vocabulary for a long
time.
Students respond
actively and feel
interested in the learning
processes.
Its easy for teachers to
teach students verbs.

Each student lowers the defenses that prevent open

interpersonal communication.
The anxiety caused by the educational context is lessened
by means of the supportive community.
The teachers presence is not perceived as a threat, but as
a counselor.

Its difficult to teach the

abstract content with
TPR
Students pronunciation
is poor.
Teachers have to do
obvious actions
carefully or students
would be confused and
be misled by the
unnecessary hints.
TPR has been an
experimental model
with volunteer students;
its, not useful for the
inactive students.
TPR is especially
effective in the
beginning levels of

The counselor-teacher can be too nondirective. Some

intensive inductive struggle is a necessary component of
second language learning. Learning by being told is
much better.
Translation is an intricate and complex process that is
often easier said then done. If subtle aspects of
language are mistranslated, there could be a less than
effective understanding.
The training is required for an ideal knower. (s)he would
have a perfect command of the foreign language and
would have to be professionally competent in both
psychology and linguistics.
It has limitations in a large-group situation with one
teacher.
Theres a need for clients who speak a common
language.

1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

language proficiency,
but then loses its
distinctiveness as
learners advance in their
competence.
Teaching Aids
Features

No text. Body language and Various materials for different purposes; colored coded
practical materials.
signals; tapes; recorders
1.

Based on 3 important
hypothesis:
(A) the Bio-program H
Children, in learning
their first language,
appear to do a lot of
listening before they
speak, and their listening
is accomplished by
physical responses.
(B) the Brain
Lateralization H
Motor activity is a rightbrain function that
should precede left-brain
language processing
speaking.
(C) Reduction of Stress H
An important condition
for successful language
learning is the absence
of stress.
2. Imperative()
drills are the major
classroom activity in
TPR.
3. Commands are easy
first, and then become
more and more
complex.
4. Students are listeners
and performers. They
do a lot of listening and
acting until they master

1.

The sense of belonging needed by both students and

teachers.
2. Both teachers and students have the responsibility for the
learning activity.
3. In a good knower-client relationship, there quickly
develops a warm, sympathetic attitude of mutual trust
and respect. The client emulates the language and person
of the knower; the knower is fulfilled and enriched
through the counseling-teaching experience.
4. More important to learners is the freedom and initiative
they are permitted.
5. The most basic ingredient in CLL is a mutual interest,
respect and concern of teachers for students and students
for students.
6. A group of ideas concerning the psychological
requirements for successful learning are collected under
the acronymSARD. (S-security, A-attention and
aggression, R-retention and reflection, D-discrimination)
7. The teaching procedure:
(a) The students sit in a circle, and the teacher(s) is(are)
outside the circle.
(b) During the first stage, a tape recorder is normally used.
The only voices taped are those of the student-clients
when they are speaking in the target language.
(c) The students initiate the conversation in their native
language and the knower Translates it into the target
language. They then repeat in the target language what
they have heard the knower said.
(d) Students assist each other and they use the teacher when
there is a need. The knower provides translation only
when someone signals by raising his/her hand.
(e) Color coded signals are used. If red is flashed, an error
has been made. If amber, there is a more suitable idiom
and a better way. If green, the utterance is acceptable.

5.

the commands. They are

required to respond both
individually and
collectively.
Students respond to the
commands physically.
No verbal response is
necessary.

Blue indicates native expertise.

8. Students developmental stages:
(a) The Embryonic Stage ()
Students are totally dependent on the teacher.
(b) The Self-assertion Stage()
The student-clients begin to show some independence and
tries out the language.
(c)IThe birth Stage ()
The students speak independently. They are most likely to
resent what they feel unnecessary assistance from the knower.
(d) The Reversal Stage()
They are secure to take correction.
(e) The Independent Stage()
Interruptions are infrequent. They occur for enrichment
and improvement of style.

The Silent Way

Suggestopedia / Suggestology

Gattegno/ 1972

Lozanov/ 1978

Let students use the target language to express

their own thoughts and feeling independently
and develop the ability to correct their errors by
themselves

Conduct the many negative suggestions

or fears which inhibit learning feelings of
incompetence and fear of making mistakes,
and make students learn the target language
in a relaxing atmosphere.

Proposer/
advocato
r
Goals

Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language

Features

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Both mother tongue and the target language

Learning is facilitated if the learner

1.
discovers or creates rather than remembers
and repeats what is to be learned. The
learners should develop independence,
autonomy and responsibility.
Learners in a classroom must cooperate
with each other in the process of solving
language problems.
Teachers provide single-word stimuli, or
2.
short phrases and sentences once or twice,
and then students must refine their
understanding and pronunciation
3.
themselves.
Teachers utilize a set of Cuisinere rods
small colored wooden rods of varying
lengths to introduce vocabulary, verbs and
syntax, especially about the spatial
relationships and related prepositions as
well as every aspect of language ranging
from comparisons to tense, the conditional 4.
and the subjunctive.
Teachers use a series of colorful wall charts
to introduce pronunciation models,
grammatical paradigms.
The teacher is silent as much as possible, 5.
and make students work out solutions
themselves.
Four language skills are emphasized and 6.
students are encouraged to read and write
the sentences they have heard and spoken.

In a relaxing atmosphere with carpeted

floor, easy chairs and classic music
Baroque, integrated the use of music,
the element of lecture and theater,
through the reputation of the method
and the instructor, students language
competence, confidence and wills to
communicate are reinforced.
Students are encouraged to be as
childlike as possible, yielding all
authority to the teacher.
Every student is provided a new name
and a new role within the target
language on the first day of class. They
live with a new identity rather than
struggle with a foreign language. The
new names also contain phonemes from
the target language culture that learners
find difficult to pronounce.
The dialogues are presented to the
students in three phases:
(a) explicative reading
(b) intonational reading
(c) concert
Students engage in interaction activities
to review the material and involve new
utterances as much as possible.
The teacher maintains a solemn attitude
towards the session and shows absolute
confidence in the method.

8.

Students correct the errors themselves and

teachers view these errors as the responses
to the teaching and give students some
hints and help.

Merits

1.

Students interact not only with teachers but 1. Students are willing and able to
also with each other.
communicate in the target language and
students learn the target language in a
relaxing atmosphere.
2. Easy grammatical explanation helps
students learn the target language more
easily.

Limits

1.

Teachers must know their teaching

objectives clearly and make use of the
teaching aids effectively.
Students may be confused with the
symbols of the colored wooden rods.
Students waste too much time struggling
with a concept that would be easily
clarified by the teachers direct guide.
It is difficult for teachers to evaluate
students progress in their learning process.

2.
3.

4.

1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

Teaching Aids Cuisinere rods, phonic charts, transparencies

Students dont concentrate on the

language learning because eof the
music.
Students speech is somewhat
inaccurate grammatically and
phonologically.
All students need to share a common
native language.
Teachers must be proficient not only in
the target language but also I students
native language.
Not all teachers are skilled in acting,
singing and choosing the appropriate
music and not all students can
appreciate the music.

A carpet, sofas, classic music tapes, flowers

and pictures

Grammar-Translation Method (G-T)

Direct Method (Natural Method)

1840~1940

Proposer/
advocator
Goals

To learn a language in order to read its

literature or in order to benefit from the
mental discipline and intellectual
development that result from foreign
language study.

Mother Tongue
Limits

Students can understand the target language

without translation

Both mother tongue and the target

language
1
2

No mother tongue

Students learn the target language

1.
indirectly.
Students just learn the knowledge of
books not the common language, so
they may have trouble applying their
knowledge to the real social
2.
situations.
Students have poor listening and
3.
speaking ability because they seldom
practice listening and speaking.

4.

Merits

With translation of the native

language, students can read and write
the target language I an easy and
meaningful way.
Students can learn the grammars of
the target language with a systematic
and correct way.

Teaching Aids Textbooks and grammar books

Features

1.

2.

Reading and writing are the major

focus; little or no systematic
attention is paid to speaking or
listening.
Vocabulary is based on the reading

1
2
3
4

It overemphasizes and distorts the

similarities between naturalistic first
language learning and classroom foreign
language learning and it fails to consider the
practical realities of the classroom.
It lacks a rigorous basis in applied linguistic
theory.
It requires teachers who are native speakers
or who have native like fluency in the
foreign language. It is largely dependent on
the teachers skill, rather than on a textbook,
and not all teachers are proficient enough in
the foreign language to adhere to the
principles of the method.
Sometimes a simple brief explanation in the
students native tongue would have been a
more efficient route to comprehension.
Students can learn the target language
directly and systematically.
Students can pronounce correctly.
Students can learn to use both the written
form and oral form of the target language.
Students can have interest in learning.

Pictures and articles related to the textbooks

1.
2.
3.

Classroom instruction is conducted

exclusively in the target language.
Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are
taught.
Oral communication skills are built up in a

3.
4.
5.
6.

text used, and words are taught

through bilingual word lists,
dictionary study and memorization.
The sentence is the basic unit of
teaching and language practice.
4.
Accuracy is emphasized.
Grammar is taught deductively.
5.
The students native language is the
medium of instruction.
6.
7.
8.

carefully graded progression organized

around question and answer exchanges
between teachers and students in smallintense classes.
New teaching points are introduced orally
before students see the written form.
Concrete vocabulary is taught through
demonstration objects and pictures; abstract
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
Both speech and listening comprehension
are taught.
Correct pronunciation and grammar are
emphasized; grammar is taught inductively.
Students have to offer the interesting
materials to draw students curiosity to learn
the target language.

Proposer/
advocator
Goals

The St. Cloud Method

Microwave Device

?/1951

Stevick/1964

To learn target languages in a situation

presented by various media

To organize the power of the structure,

vocabulary and communication of the target
language in a short-term intensive language
program.

Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language

Features

1.

2.

3.
4.

5.
Merits

1.

2.
3.

4.

Limits

1.
2.

Not limited

A carefully structured course in which 1.

students are immersed in multi-media
language presentations.
Cultural, situational and nonverbal
2.
component should permeate the
presentation.
The Direct Method is employed.
Initially students watch a picture
sequence, then repeat the material
3.
chorally. Students dont see the written
language until after sixty hours of
instruction.
Communication depends on asking
questions and answering.

This device is like a microwave cycle. It

consists of an utterance which includes a
question and 4 to8 replies.
The cycle of instruction includes an M
phase (mimicry, manipulation and
mechanics) and a C phase
(communication, conversation and
continuity).
It should play a supporting role , or at
most a co-starring role in language
materials.

Because courses and related media are 1.

designed well, it is appreciated by nonnative teachers who are not completely 2.
secure in the language they are
teaching.
It produces better phonological than
communicative competence.
It has proven more satisfactory with
younger students than with those of
college age.
The meaning of the pictures or films
and the goal of course are easy to
know.

Because of the different learning goals,

students can learn different materials.
Students can communicate with others in
the accurately structured target language
in a short time.

Students communicative competence

and performance are not good.
It is difficult for teachers to evaluate
students progress in their learning
process.

It just supplies variable activities instead

of a complete course.
It sacrifices the practices of reading and
writing to reinforce the listening and
speaking competence.

1.
2.

3.
4.

It wastes too much time speaking and

listening without writing.
Its difficult to get the teaching media
and appropriate teaching materials.

Teaching Aids Film strips are the dominant medium and

pictures are supplement.

Variable materials for different special

purposes

Proposer/
advocator
Goals

1.

3.

4.
1.
2.

3.

Limits

Hall/1978

Winitz & Reeds/1973

Learn to discriminate the vocabulary,
inflection, phonology and syntax by a
visually-cued listening approach.

Not limited

2.

Merits

Aural Discrimination Method

Be able to use the target to communicate in

the real situations

Mother Tongue
Features

Situational Reinforcement Method

1.

2.
3.

Not limited

Discard the sequenced grammatical

1.
approach.
It involves students in authentic
communication.
Its built in cognitive choices in order to
avoid mere mechanical repetition.
Students may analyze language and use it 2.
effectively in the new situations.
Students learn concrete objects before
they learn abstract ideas.

Teachers introduce vocabulary four or

five times as fast as possible. Students
listen to teachers pronunciation and
then from four pictures select the one
which best represents what they have
heard.
Students dont speak until they have
mastered the basic structures and
vocabulary of the target language.

Students enjoy the realistic situations

1.
which enhance students willing to learn.
By simulating the realistic language
situations, students can understand what a 2.
language is and why to learn it.
Students learn to communicate with these
materials quite soon and they can use the
materials even outside the classroom.

Its interesting and meaningful to utilize

pictures as teaching media, and they
attract students attention easily.
Students have the opportunities to think
about the messages by judging the
different pictures according to what
they heard.

Teachers have to spend lots of time and 1.

energy creating the real situation and not
every situation can be simulated well.
Excessive repetition is in the lesson
2.
format.
The unstructured-unsequenced material
can give students the feeling that they are
not making any real progress.

Students just can learn the concrete

objects; they cannot learn the abstract
ideas.
It focuses on listening competence, and
ignores speaking, reading and writing.
As a result, students listening ability is
good, but their three other language
abilities are poor. Therefore, it just can
be seen as an assistant method rather
than as a major teaching approach.
It lacks the variety of some methods
and the relevance inherent.

3.
Teaching Aids Authentic languages

Pictures, tapes, and video tapes

Proposer/
advocator
Goals
Mother Tongue
Features

Stylized Mnemonics

Structured Tutoring

Lipson/1971

Harrison/1976

In order to learn the target language by

recalling the memory of the drawings
Both mother tongue and the target language
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Make students learn the target language in

an individually structured course.
Both mother tongue and the target language

Use translation at the outset of instruction. 1.

A corpus of sentences is learned through
choral repetition and translation, but
drawings replace translation almost
immediately.
2.
Interesting and culturally relevant
vocabulary is combined in exotic
situations to teach the target language.
3.
Some grammatical explanation are
presented but the emphasis is on
communication
4.
The situations become more and more
involved, new combinations of language
are constantly generated.
5.

6.

7.

Merits

1.
2.

Limits

1.
2.

Initially, this approach is used to teach

disadvantaged children how to read. It
involved volunteer tutorsadults or
peers.
It focuses on reading and writing, even
introduces to beginners during the
second week of instruction.
It is an informal remediable course
designed for the low-achievement
students.
The courses are well structured.
Students cannot learn the next unit until
they reach the goals of the last unit.
Tutors spend 80 percents of their time
on grammar during seven out of the
eight units.
The tutors should be volunteers, and
their mother tongue is the target
language. Before they start to help the
students, they have to be trained.
The students who must be literate
native tongue, receive one-hour tutorial
visits a week and work four to six hours
on their own.

This approach is cognitive, culturally

1.
oriented, systematic and interesting.
Variable comprehensible drawings as cues 2.
to introduce vocabulary are interesting to
students and can help them memorize the
new vocabulary more easily.
3.

Students can reach the learning objects

in a short period of time.
It includes the negligible cost involved
simply administrative and material
charges.
Students get the needed help, so the
good will is generated in their hearts.

This approach requires bilingual teachers. 1.

Not all teachers are artists; not every
teacher can draw pictures well.
2.

Its difficult to find volunteer nativespeaking tutors overseas.

Some experienced teachers think their

3.
4.

Initially students should be linguistically

homogeneous at least.
The bizarre situations of the drawings
3.
may create an amuse detachment on the
part of learners.
4.
5.

Teaching Aids Pictures with explanatory words

teaching skills are bound under the

tightly controlled tutorial materials.
It overemphasizes reading and writing,
students speaking competence is
ignored.
Its boring with the one-by-one
teaching.
Students may feel bored with the
overemphasis on the grammar teaching.

Well structured teaching materials