Simulación de 21 y 87L Con Simulink

Distance and Differential Protection Simulation for Transmission Line and Components Using Matlab/Simulink
Distance and Differential Protection Simulation for

Power Transmission Line and Components Using
Matlab/Simulink
Prepared for:
K. Awodele
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Cape Town
Prepared by:
Zosuliwe P. Ndlondlwana
Undergraduate Electrical Engineering
October 2008
This thesis was prepared in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Bachelor of
Science degree in Electrical Engineering at the University of Cape Town.
Declaration
I, Zosuliwe P. Ndlondlwana, hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my
own and references have been made in acknowledgement of the work of others.
Signature:
_____________________
Date:
_____________________
Acknowledgements
If I have seen further than others, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.
-Sir Isaac Newton
I would like to thank the following giants:
God for knowing my destiny and implanting potential in me.
My family, especially my late mother for encouragement. I hope to make you proud.
My friends for being there for me and making varsity a wonderful experience.
Eskom for their financial contribution towards my undergraduate studies.
My supervisor Mrs Kehinde Awodele for the opportunity of increasing my

knowledge and sharing it with my fellow students.
Terms of Reference
In June 2007, Mrs. K. Awodele proposed a simulation program to demonstrate distance
and differential protection for power system components. The simulation had to use
Matlab/Simulink and would be used by students.
Mrs. Awodeles instructions were to:

1.
Investigate ways of producing the simulations.
2.
Write code or have a model simulation for the demonstration.
3.
Produce a manual and/or lab sheet to introduce students to the concepts of

distance and differential protection.
Abstract
Background to the thesis
A need exists in the electrical engineering department, particularly power engineering, to

engage students in more interactive tasks, laboratory exercises and demonstrations, so
as to improve students understanding of the fundamental principles of power systems
operation. There already exists a protection simulation panel, constructed in 1995 by C.
Hoyle et al demonstrating OC protection and grading. In 2007, a basic protection panel
was built by Bonga D. Ntshangase demonstrating OC, undervoltage and transformer
protection (oil and gas, and differential protection).
This thesis project arose as a result of the need to display other protection schemes,
namely distance and differential protection.
Probe into practical protection literature
Theoretical models of distance and differential protection are relatively simple. A simple
radial system may use over current relays for protection. However as in practice, power
systems are seldom simple. With an increase in system complexity, over current
protection may be the unviable option especially in terms of coordination. The time delay
for the relay close to the source may become excessively long. The concept of
protective zones thus becomes important. Protection zones can be defined for:
Generators
Transformers
Buses
Transmission and distribution lines
Zones are overlapped, with circuit breakers located in the overlap regions.
Transmission and distribution lines are commonly protected by impedance relaying.

Each relay is configured to have three elements. The first element (zone 1) is set to a
reach of 80% and operates instantaneously as primary protection to a line. The second
element (zone 2) is set to a 120% reach, operating at typically 0.2 to 0.3 seconds, and
offers backup protection to the line. Zone 3 extends to the next zone and acts as remote
backup protection with a time delay of between 0.6 and 1 second offering secondary
backup to the adjacent line and remote backup the protected line.
Many factors however contribute to the malfunction of distance relays. These include
composite circuit lines, series compensation and the infeed effect. There are various
methods that are practically used to try and mitigate these problems. For composite
lines, an RCL model is used in conjunction with signal processing methods in order to
get the correct reach for the relay. For a thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)
compensated line, Directional comparison blocking (DCB), Permissive overreaching
transfer trip (POTT) and Directional comparison unblocking (DCUB) is used.
Busbars and transformers are protected by means of differential protection. CTs of the
differential protection may saturate leading to relays tripping. In order to avoid this,
methods such as harmonics-based restraining and third difference function algorithm are
employed. The transformer core itself may become saturated due to magnetic inrush or
overexcitation. This may also destabilize relay discrimination. Several methods for
stabilization are explored, such as harmonic-based methods, flux restraining methods,
compensated differential current and even the use of neural networks.
Generator protection methods investigated include the employment of a wavelet

transform-based partial differential protection scheme, which uses the presence of high
frequency currents generated during internal faults.
Choice of Simulation
The requirement of this thesis was to use MATLAB/Simulink for the simulation. Several
options were investigated, but the following were the viable options:
For distance protection, the theoretical model with three zones was used. The
practical methods could not be used due to IEEE restrictions as well as their
complexity given the time frame. A graphical user interface was chosen based
on the fact that uniformity wanted to be achieved with the ProtectionIntro
program. The idea of an interactive program while learning something new was
appealing.
For differential protection, a compensated-current differential relay was chosen.

This was prompted by the need to introduce something practical, a saturable
transformer. A chance to expand ones knowledge on Simulink as well as expose
other students to it was a good option, while noting the components that Simulink
possesses that could be used.
Simulation scenarios and results
On completion of the coding and modeling phase, the simulations were run.
For the distance protection simulation, four scenarios were investigated.
A 345kV network was chosen. The protected line positive sequence impedance was
8+50i and the adjacent line positive sequence impedance was 5.3+33i. CT and VT
ratios were set as 1500:1 and 3000:1 respectively. It can be assumed that these are
practical values as they were obtained in [1].
Case 1: Normal condition with the correct settings, where relays operate correctly.
Normal current was set at 500A.
Case 2: Steady condition with incorrect settings, where relays malfunction. Fault current
was set at 3000A.
Case 3: Fault condition with the correct settings, where relays operate correctly. Normal
current was set at 2800A.
Case 4: Fault condition with incorrect settings, where relays malfunction. Fault current
was set at 2000A.
For each case, the program displays the appropriate messages, whether relays trip or
restrain. Where relays operate correctly, the user will know that the entered values and
settings could work. Where relays trip or restrain unnecessarily means that protection is
either too sensitive or insensitive. The user will then have to change the input currents
and/or CT or VT ratios. This demonstration shows how changing settings affect the
impedance diagram.
A real life fault on the Koeberg-Stikland 400kV line was also investigated, using
DigSilent Power Factory software and comparing the results to the proposed simulation.
Positive sequence impedances of the lines were used.
For the differential protection simulation:
A Y-Y 154kV/23kV, 55MVA saturable transformer was used for the case study. The
offset current was chosen to be 15A, a practical value, while K was set at 0.3. The aim
was to test and observe the effect of transformer core saturation on the conventional
differential relay.
The transformer parameters were set such that R 1 = 0.002 p.u, X l1 = 0.08 pu, R 2 =
0.002 p.u, X l 2 = 0.08 p.u, core-loss resistance (referred to as R m in Simulink) was 500
p.u. These values were the default values in the simulation. However the initial flux was
chosen to be 1.2 p.u, which is a value for high saturation.
Various values for the initial flux could be used, all showing the effect of saturation on
exciting current. It was observed that the higher the level of saturation (initial flux) the
higher the exciting current. The conventional differential relay would trip, whilst the
compensated-current differential relay would restrain for all values of saturation.
For fault conditions both relays operated correctly.
Conclusions
Based on the results of the final design product, the following conclusions can be made:
1) The objectives were achieved in terms of the fulfillment of the aim. Various
MATLAB/Simulink tools were used. Although more could have been incorporated
into the programs, the foundation was satisfactorily set. A lab sheet will supplement
the simulations where certain concepts need to be demonstrated that the simulation
did not include, such as the effect of an infeed in distance relaying.
2) There was a discrepancy between the DigSilent results and the simulation results in
that the simulation showed some underreaching, diagnosing the fault as zone 2
instead of zone 1. However, incorporating the
3 factor into the currents and
obtaining correlating results with the pair of the simulations suggests that the current
in DigSilent was measured as delta. Hence to obtain the line current required for the
distance protection simulation, the current had to be multiplied by
3 thus having an
input fault line current of 77.121kA.

3) The chosen aspects of simulation were well demonstrated in that:
For the distance protection simulation:

a)
Four different scenarios that a student may encounter have been

investigated, with the program responding accordingly.
b)
The simulation demonstrates how communication channels between

relays can isolate a line at both ends.
c)
The impedance diagram provides a good visualization for the

protection concept.

a)
A concept which may be new to students was introduced together

with the knowledge of how in practice saturation of a transformer core
is a problem to protection, and the solution to that.
10
Recommendations
As the outcomes of this thesis were aimed at students and the increase of their
knowledge, the following recommendations can be made:
1)
There should be adherence to the program requirements. For the distance

protection simulation, voltages should be line-to-line and current values are
line currents (phase and line currents should be the same, else employ
the 3 factor). Attention should be paid to units, particularly those in per unit
used in the differential protection simulation.
2)
Adding some material to the syllabus, such as factors and situations that
affect protection in practice.
3)
An investigation into real line data (impedances) and CT and VT ratios should
be made. The simulation just demonstrates the principle behind distance
protection.
4)
This thesis is only a foundation on which improvements and adaptations can

be made, hence further research needs to be undertaken, in order to obtain
more ideas in improving learners understanding and knowledge.
11
Table of Contents
Declaration
Acknowledgements
ii
Terms of Reference
iii
Abstract
iv
List of Figures
xiii
List of Tables
xiv
List of Acronyms
xv
List of Symbols
xvi
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
1.2
Objectives of thesis
1.3
Methodology
1.4
Scope and limitations of the thesis
1.5
Thesis layout
Chapter 2
Literature review
2.1
Power system protection philosophy
2.2
Overcurrent protection schemes
2.3
Line protection using distance relays

2.3.1 Radial system and a line fed from both ends
2.4
2.3.2 Line with an infeed
13
Differential protection for generators, buses and transformers
14
Chapter 3
3.1
Theory development
Distance protection
3.1.1 Distributed generation
15
3.1.2 Composite circuits
16
3.1.3 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
17
3.2
Differential protection
3.2.1 Busbar differential protection
19
3.2.2 Transformer protection
21
3.2.3 Generator protection
23
3.2.4 Transmission line protection
24
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
5.2
Coding
Distance protection simulation code

4.1.1 Decision-making process
25
4.1.2 How the simulation works
26
Differential protection simulation

30
31
Chapter 5
5.1
12
Simulation cases and results
Distance protection
5.1.1 Case 1: Normal condition with correct settings
34
5.1.2 Case 2: Fault condition with correct settings
35
5.1.3 Case 3: Normal scenario with a high steady state current
36
5.1.4 Case 4: Fault scenario with too low a current
37
5.1.5 Koeberg-Stikland 400kV line fault
37
5.2.1 High saturation with no fault
41
5.2.2 High saturation with a fault
43
Chapter 6
Conclusions and recommendations
6.1
Conclusions
45
6.2
Recommendations
46
References
47
13
Appendix A: Manual for running demo1.m
48
Appendix B: Exercise sheet for distance protection
49
Appendix C: Manual for running differential.mdl
51
Appendix D: Koeberg-Stikland 400kV line fault report
55
14
List of figures
Figure 1: Time-current curve for time delay OC relay
Figure 2: Illustration of protective zones
Figure 3: R-X diagram for non-directional impedance relay
Figure 4: Zone partitioning for distance relaying
Figure 5: Impedance relay with directional restraint for CB12 and CB32
respectively
Figure 6: Modified impedance relay for CB12
8
9
Figure 7: Diagram showing connection for single line-to-ground fault and its
equivalent Thevenin network
11
Figure 8: Diagram showing connection for line-to-line fault and its equivalent
Thevenin network
11
Figure 9: Diagram showing connection for double line-to-ground fault and its
equivalent Thevenin network
12
Figure 10: System with an infeed
13
Figure 11: Illustration of differential current protection concept
14
Figure 12: Composite circuit model
16
Figure 13: TCSC module
17
Figure 14: Per phase transformer model
22
Figure 15: Obtaining flux at t0
23
Figure 16: Obtaining magnetizing current
23
Figure 17: Compensated differential current model
32
Figure 18: Normal scenario with correct settings
34
Figure 19: Fault scenario with correct settings
35
Figure 20: Normal scenario with incorrect settings
36
Figure 21: Fault scenario with too low a fault current
37
Figure 22: Single line diagram of affected network

Figure 23: Setup for compensated-current differential protection on a
38
saturable transformer
38
Figure 24: Large exciting current in a saturated transformer
39
Figure 25: Differential current in a conventional relay
40
Figure 26: Restraining compensated-current relay
40
Figure 27: Operating conventional differential relay
41
Figure 28: Operating compensated-current differential relay
15
42
List of Tables
Table 1: Sequence of events for Koeberg-Stikland fault
38
Table 2: Line data for Koeberg-Stikland line
39
16
List of acronyms
OC
overcurrent
CT
current transformer
VT
voltage transformer
DG
distributed generation
FIR
finite impulse response
TCSC
thyristor controlled series capacitor
SSR
subsynchronous resonance
TCR
thyristor controlled reactor
DCB
directional comparison blocking

Transmit a block trip signal by a reverse looking element, with or without
non-directional overcurrent start. Trip when blocking signal is not
received and with supervision from a local terminal forward overreaching
element.
POTT
permissive overreaching transfer trip

Transmit from an overreaching element, trip upon receiving permission
with supervision from a local terminal overreaching element.
DCUB
directional comparison unblocking

Send a blocking signal continuously, switch to permission from a forward
overreaching element. Trip upon receiving permission, or temporarily
after the loss of reception of the blocking signal, with supervision from a
local terminal forward overreaching element.
UHV
ultra high voltage
GUI
graphical user interface
List of Symbols
Z o , Z1, Z 2
zero-, positive and negative sequence impedance
Zf
fault impedance
Vf
prefault voltage
[I abc ]
phase components of the current
[I 012 ]
sequence components of the current
[A]
symmetrical components transformation matrix
phasor a = 1 120 o
V LN
line-to-neutral voltage
IL
line current
Z r1 , Z r 2 , Z r 3 zone 1, zone 2 and zone 3 impedance relay settings

Z 12
impedance on line 1-2
17
Introduction
1.1
18
A need exists in the electrical engineering department, particularly power engineering, to

engage students in more interactive tasks, laboratory exercises and demonstrations, so
as to improve students understanding of the fundamental principles of power systems
operation. Emphasis of this thesis is placed in the area of power systems protection.
There already exists a protection simulation panel, constructed in 1995 by C. Hoyle et al,
in the Power Engineering Laboratory which demonstrates the operation of over current
(OC) relays. Students are able to configure relay settings to observe grading: the coordination of different relays of a feeder to ensure effective back-up protection, while still
ensuring sensitivity and selectivity. That protection panel, however, is limited as its
functionality only demonstrates one type of protection scheme.
In 2007, a basic protection panel was built by Bonga D. Ntshangase as a thesis project
to solve the problem of limited exposure of students to practical protection practices. The
panel demonstrates OC, under voltage and transformer protection (oil and gas, and
differential protection).
Other protection schemes need to be investigated. This thesis will, in addition to

previous efforts, assist students in enhancing their understanding by taking advantage of
the availability of simulation tools such as MATLAB/Simulink. Students will be able to
simulate fault conditions on components where distance and differential protection is
used, so as to observe the reaction of protection schemes.
1.2
Objectives of the thesis
The objectives of this thesis are to:
19
Demonstrate an understanding of protection systems, particularly distance and

differential protection schemes.
Provide MATLAB codes and Simulink models for simulation, as well as a

laboratory sheet to be used as a supplement to the simulations.
1.3
Draw conclusions and make recommendations.
Methodology
To achieve the set objectives, a literature review shall be undertaken to understand the
fundamentals of power system protection. From there the simulation code will be written,
having reviewed MATLAB coding literature [12], as well as the Protection Intro
Simulation program.
1.4
Scope and limitations of the thesis
Although the area of power systems protection is investigated, the outcome of this thesis
is limited to the field of distance and differential protection schemes on power system
components. The software to be used is MATLAB/Simulink, as this is coding many
students are familiar with. The practical results were limited due to the lack of test
equipment. Many papers were also inaccessible due to IEEE membership constraints or
had to be purchased. Time also became a constricting factor in providing the
deliverables.
1.5
Thesis layout
Chapter 2:
This chapter presents the theoretical literature review.
Chapter 3:
20
Additional practical approaches to distance and differential protection

problems and their solutions.
Chapter 4:
MATLAB coding and the process of obtaining the code is documented in

this chapter.
Chapter 5:
Results of the simulations are presented here.
Chapter 6:
Interpretation, conclusions and recommendations.
Chapter 1
2 Theory Literature Review
21
In order to gain a deeper understanding of this thesis, literature concerning protection

schemes was read and surveyed. This chapter begins with an overview of the protection
philosophy. Various protection schemes are examined, and why they are used. As
previously mentioned, direction is towards distance and differential protection schemes
and their theoretical models.
2.1
Power system protection philosophy
Short circuits or faults in power systems occur as a result of equipment insulation failure
due to system overvoltages, caused by lightning or other natural causes, switching
surges, insulation contamination or simply of mechanical causes. These faults can
damage system components if not quickly removed. The core idea behind protection is
to establish undesirable conditions, and note the difference between permissible and
undesirable conditions. These differences can be sensed by relays. From hereon the
faulted equipment is isolated by means of circuit breakers, while maintaining supply to
as much of the healthy system as possible.
There are certain qualities by which a protection scheme is assessed [1]. These are:
Reliability: The scheme should operate dependably at all times.
Selectivity: Unnecessary trips should be avoided, meaning protection should only

operate in fault conditions.
Speed: In order to minimize damage to components and ensure safety of

personnel, reaction time is critical.
Economy: Maximum protection should be offered at minimum cost.
Simplicity: The minimization of protection equipment and circuitry is desirable.
2.2
Overcurrent relay protection schemes
Faults in a system cause a steep increase in current magnitude. When a current

threshold is exceeded, action is initiated by overcurrent relays to clear faults. They are
22
often applied to radial systems, where relatively high currents need to be cleared quickly.
Two types of overcurrent relays can be observed, namely:
I. Instantaneous OC relays
These respond to the magnitude of an input current, operating on a trip or block
system. Where the input current is less than the threshold, relay action is
restrained (block), else the relay operates (trip).
II. Time delay OC relays

These relays operate similarly to instantaneous OC relays, but with an intentional
time delay which is dependant on the magnitude of the input current relative to the
pickup or threshold i.e. the larger the input current, the shorter the time delay.
Figure 1 below illustrates this concept.
Figure 29: Time-current curve for time delay OC relay
Overcurrent relays are effective for simple radial systems. As a system becomes more
complex, there are challenges that are prevalent. Co-ordination of time delay OC relays
becomes difficult for radial systems as the time delay for the breaker closest to the
source is very long. The concept of protection zones is thus necessary [1], also for nonradial configurations. Protection zones can be defined for:
Generators
Transformers
Buses
Transmission and distribution lines
Zones are overlapped, with circuit breakers located in the overlap regions.
Figure 30: Illustration of protective zones
2.3
Line protection using distance relays
2.3.1 Radial system and a line fed from both ends
23
24
Distance relays respond to a voltage-to-current ratio. When a three phase fault occurs
on a line, the current increases and the voltage at the bus closest to the fault decreases.
This means the voltage-to-current ratio or impedance decreases. These quantities are
measured by means of current and voltage transformers, also known as instrument
transformers. For a radial system, the relay will operate for impedances less than the
threshold setting i.e. for |Z|<|Z relay |.
Figure 31: R-X diagram for non-directional impedance relay
Due to inaccuracies in CT and VT ratios (whether by saturation or non-linearity of CTs

or tolerances of both instrument transformers) and line parameter data uncertainties, the
relay cannot detect faults for 100% of the line (reach) [2]. It is thus common practice to
use three elements in each distance relay as seen in figures 4& 5. Using CB12 as an
example, although each breaker in the system is configured in a similar manner, the first
element (zone 1) is set to a reach of 80% and operates instantaneously as primary
protection to line 1-2. The second element (zone 2) is set to a 120% reach, operating at
typically 0.2 to 0.3 seconds, and offers backup protection to CB23 (which would have
tripped instantaneously). Zone 3 extends to the next zone and acts as remote backup
protection with a time delay of between 0.6 and 1 second offering primary backup to
CB23 and remote backup to CB12.
25
Figure 32: Zone partitioning for distance relaying
For a system where there is more than one direction for the flow of current, nondirectional relays are inadequate. Directional relays need to be used. There are two
ways of including directional capabilities, namely:
Using an impedance relay with directional restraint, by adding a directional relay

in series to an impedance relay (figure 5)
Using a modified impedance relay (mho relay), where the center of the
impedance circle is offset from the origin (figure 6)
Figure 33: Impedance relay with directional restraint for CB12 and CB32 respectively
26
Figure 34: Modified impedance relay for CB12
Figure 4 shows a line fed from both ends. CB12 and CB23 detect faults to their right,
while CB32 and CB21 detect faults to their left.
For a fault occurring on line 1-2, CB12 and CB21 should open, while for a fault on line 23 CB23 and CB32 should open. This means that a zone 1 fault for CB12 is a zone 3 fault
for CB32, and a zone 3 fault for CB12 is a zone 1 fault for CB32. Adaptive relaying is
used to achieve the coordination of the opening of circuit breakers. This is achieved by
means of communication channels.
In order to obtain the relay settings for CB12, the secondary impedance viewed by the
relay is calculated using the equation
Z = (V LN /VT ratio) / (I L /CT ratio)

= Z / (CT ratio/VT ratio)
(1)
From here the zone relay settings were obtained as follows:
Z r1 = 0.8 * Z(line 1-2)
(2)
Z r 2 = 1.2 * Z (line 1-2)
(3)
Z r 3 = 1.0 *Z(line 1-2) + 1.2 * Z(line 2-3)
27
(4)
Where Z(line) is the positive sequence secondary impedance for that line
Distance to the fault was calculated as a percentage of the line using the equation
D = (Z * (CT ratio/VT ratio)) / Z(line 1-2)) * 100
A three phase system is normally balanced, and remains symmetrical even after the
occurrence of a three phase fault. However, other types of unsymmetrical faults do
occur, such as single line to ground and double line to ground faults, which make use of
the other sequence components. This also complicates relay settings.
A quick review of sequence networks and fault current calculation:
A three phase network is represented by its sequence networks, which are the positive-,
negative- and zero sequences. These can be used as a powerful tool to determine the
state of a network, particularly during fault conditions.
Since fault current is an important value, the symmetrical components pertaining to

currents will be examined. The relationships among the currents of a balanced system
can be expressed in matrix form as:
[I abc ] = [A][I 012 ] or
[I 012 ] = [A] 1 [I abc ]
Where [I abc ] are the phase components of the currents i.e. currents in phases a, b and c.
[I 012 ] are the sequence components of the current.
1 1
[A] = 1 a 2
1 a
1
a
a 2
and
[A]
1 1
1
=
1 a
3
1 a 2
1
a 2
a
a = 1 120 o
28
Depending on the type of fault that occurs, the sequence networks will vary thus
affecting the current in the system. Z o , Z 1 , Z 2 denote the zero-, positive- and negative
sequence network impedances at the fault location. Z
is the fault impedance, while V
is the prefault voltage.
Single line-to-ground fault:
Figure 35: Diagram showing connection for single line-to-ground fault and its equivalent Thevenin
network
Ib = Ic = 0
and
I 0 = I1 = I2 =
Vf
Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 + 3Z f
Line-to-line fault:
Figure 36: Diagram showing connection for line-to-line fault and its equivalent Thevenin network
Ia = 0 ;
29
I b = -I c
I 1 = -I 2 =
Vf
I0 = o
Z1 + Z 2 + Z f
Double line-to-ground fault:
Figure 37: Diagram showing connection for double line-to-ground fault and its equivalent Thevenin
network
Ia = 0
I1 =
Vf
Z 1 + [ Z 2 || ( Z 0 + 3Z f )
Z o + 3Z f
Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f
I 2 = - I1
Z2
Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f
I 0 = - I1
Three phase fault:

I0 = I2 = 0
and
I1 =
Vf
Z1
30
For simplicity, only bolted three phase faults will be considered in the simulation i.e.
Z f =0. Positive sequence impedance is used, because during a three phase fault, there
is only positive sequence current flowing in the system. The zero and negative sequence
impedances are uncoupled and thus do not contribute to fault current.
The impedance to the fault is then calculated using equation (1) where I L is substituted
with the fault current. It is noted that the relays discussed thus far use line-to-neutral
voltages and line currents. These relays are ground fault relays and respond well to the
aforementioned faults. However, line-to-line faults may occur, hence the need for line-toline voltage and current measurements. In practice both ground fault relays and phase
relays are used.
2.3.2
Line with an infeed
The reach of a relay is affected when there is a source of fault current within the
operating zone of the distance relay, for example a line fed from both ends. Figure 10
below shows a phase of a line with an infeed.
Figure 38: System with an infeed
Z apparent = Z 12 + Z 24 +
Z actual = Z 12 + Z 24
I 32
Z 24
I 12
31
In the case of an infeed, underreaching of the relay occurs. This is called the infeed
effect. The apparent primary impedance seen by the relay for CB12 is larger than the
actual impedance, and the effect is worsened by a strong infeed i.e. the larger the infeed
current contribution I 32 to fault current, the larger the apparent impedance resulting in
greater underreaching. A fault close to bus 4 might go undetected by CB12, thereby
rendering remote backup for line 2-4 at CB12 ineffective.
2.4
Differential
protection
for
generators,
buses
and
transformers
The principle of differential protection lies with the comparison of currents on both sides
of the equipment under protection, whether it is a generator, a busbar or transformer.
Under normal conditions or for a fault outside the protected zone, the currents I 1 and I 2
are equal hence the secondary currents on the current transformers i 1 and i 2 are equal
(figure 11). The relay will operate for an internal fault where the difference between
these currents exceeds a preset value. Although one relay is shown in the diagram,
three differential relays are needed, one on each phase. The operation of any one would
result in the isolation of all three phases.
Figure 39: Illustration of differential current protection concept
32
Chapter 2
3 Theory development
The previous chapter provided a basic theoretical principle to distance and differential
protection. Distance relaying in transmission and distribution lines is more favourable
than OC relaying, particularly in non-radial systems, or when the complexity of a system
increases. Differential protection is unit protection used for expensive components such
as transformers, generators, busbars and even transmission lines.
In practice protection schemes are imperfect, but relays should operate as accurately as
possible. Research into the methods used to try and imitate the theoretical model of
distance and differential relays is currently being done.
This chapter investigates
practical approaches to problems experienced by current protection schemes. These

methods will be attempted to be incorporated into the simulations where possible.
3.1
Distance protection
3.1.1 Distributed Generation

Existing OC and earth fault protection experiences problems, particularly where
distributed generation is connected to the system. Because of varying source impedance
and bidirectional currents, relay selectivity is difficult to obtain. Excessive clearing times
affect the stability of DG. Adaptive distance relaying is thus used as it has shorter faultclearing times and is less sensitive to impedance variation [6].
33
3.1.2 Composite Circuits

Distance relaying is also commonly used for composite circuit protection. Relay settings
are however complicated by the differing electrical characteristics between cable and
line sections. The model used for relay circuits is the RL model. This model is accurate
when excited by power system frequency voltages and currents i.e. 50Hz. Transmission
lines are also modeled using hyperbolic parameters for higher accuracy. If a wide
frequency range is used, noisy traveling waveforms can be represented, thus slower
operating times or even overreaching is experienced. To remove noise, relays usually
have an internal finite impulse response (FIR) filter, but there is a compromise between
operating time and the effectiveness of the filter. The behaviour of this model is also
different for cable sections.
A new model proposed by [5], suggests the circuit be modeled as a series of RCL
sections as seen in figure 5. Greater reach point accuracy is achieved because of the
more accurate model.
Figure 40: Composite circuit model
The busbar relaying voltage and current signals are applied to the left-hand side of the
circuit model, and then sequentially calculating each section of the model until the reach
point voltage and current values are produced. Digital signal processing techniques are
used.
34
3.1.3 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor

Transmission lines are compensated by TCSC to increase power transfer capability, limit
short circuit currents, and mitigate subsynchronous resonance (SSR), damp power
oscillations and also to enhance transient stability. This however affects relay operation
because of rapid changes in load currents and line impedances. Forward overreach of
the main compensated line and adjacent lines, as well as reverse overreach of the
adjacent line protection is experienced as a result of this compensation attempting to
suppress overvoltages during faults.
Figure 13 shows a TCSC module. This consists of a series capacitor C in parallel with a
varistor, MOV, and thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), L s . The varistor across the
capacitor prevents high capacitor overvoltages. A circuit breaker is used to bypass the
TCSC module during severe faults or equipment malfunction. The current limiting
inductor L d limits the magnitude and frequency of capacitor current during bypass
mode.
Figure 41: TCSC module
The apparent impedance seen by the relay depends on the TCSC mode of operation,
where Z seen = Z actual + R f + Z TCSC .
35
The TCSC module has the following operating modes:
I.
Capacitive boost mode without MOV conduction

In this mode, the protection function of the TCSC is not working because the fault
current is low. Overreaching occurs because of the high impedance perceived by
the relay.
II.
Capacitive boost mode with MOV conduction

For high fault currents, MOV operates for the suppression of overvoltages across
C. Z TCSC = TCR||C||MOV in low resistance mode. The relay overreaches but not
to the extent of the previous mode.
III.
Blocking mode
Thyristors are kept in a non-conducting state, thus TCSC behaves like a series
capacitor. The relay overreaches, but less than the capacitive boost mode.
IV.
Bypass mode
Thyristors are triggered continuously and the TCR branch conducts. TCSC acts
as a parallel combination of the series capacitor with the inductor in the thyristor
branch. Z TCSC is a pure inductance with a small value. The distance relay thus
underreaches slightly.
V.
Circuit breaker bypass mode

This mode is only used for backup protection should primary protection fail to
respond in time. The circuit breaker then closes. Z TCSC is approximately zero
because the series inductance is a small value. The relay operates correctly.
The aforementioned over- and underreaching problems can be mitigated by the

modification of:
Directional comparison blocking (DCB)
Permissive overreaching transfer trip (POTT)
Directional comparison unblocking (DCUB)
36
These methods can be implemented by using inputs, outputs and trip-logic equations of
numerical relays [7].
3.2
Differential Protection
3.2.1 Busbar differential protection

Saturation of current transformers may cause the malfunction of differential relays,
disabling the discrimination of a protection scheme between internal and external faults.
The operating current threshold is thus set larger than the differential current that arises
from CT saturation. Low internal fault currents however are then undetected. Various
methods of CT saturation detection have been developed namely:
I.
Harmonic-based restraining method

This method relies on the idea that relay operation will be inhibited if harmonics
in the differential current are larger than the threshold. Stability for external faults
is ensured at the cost of a time delay on an internal fault, because the DC
component must decay to a low value.
II.
First difference function of the current

This method assumes that current immediately collapses to zero when a CT
enters saturation. Problems are encountered when a low value is not obtained.
III.
Solid state busbar protection relay

Saturation detection is made possible by the detection of the collapsing of current
to a low value, then shunting the current away from the operating circuit.
However, operating time is delayed.
IV.
37
Microprocessor-based busbar protection relay including a countermeasure for CT

saturation
The assumption that differential current is approximately between periods
corresponding to CT saturation, is the basis of the wave discriminating element
(WDE). A comparison between the change in differential current to the
restraining current is made, where relay restraint is exercised in the case of the
latter being much larger than the former. The WDE is unable to determine which
CT is saturated and the blocking scheme may delay relay operation.
V.
Impedance-based CT saturation detection algorithm

Assuming that current decreases during saturation hence impedance increases,
this method can be employed. Impedance at the relaying point is calculated and
compared with the source impedance. A blocking signal is issued where the
impedance is greater than the source impedance: this corresponds to saturation.
This method however is only valid after fault occurrence where change in
impedance is negligible until saturation starts. It is difficult to detect saturation
when impedance increases significantly after fault occurrence.
A CT saturation detection algorithm based on the third difference function was proposed
by [3]. At the start and end of saturation, the magnitude of the third difference function is
significantly larger than normal or in the period where there is no saturation. The relay
discriminates between internal and external faults by means of a logic system. A
blocking signal is issued during saturation and for one cycle after. For internal faults that
cause saturation the relay operates before activation of the blocking signal.
38
3.2.2 Transformer protection

During magnetic inrush or overexcitation, saturation of the transformer core occurs. This
saturation causes a large excitation current to be drawn. Differential relays may perceive
this as a fault, and thus trip unnecessarily. In order to stabilize the relay, various signals
derived from current, voltage and flux are used in different restraining methods mainly:
a) Harmonic-based methods, but delay operating time if harmonics are seen in the
differential operating current. These methods also fail for some modern core
materials, where contrary to the belief that higher second harmonic components are
generated during magnetic inrush than internal faults, the opposite is true: higher
second harmonic components are generated during internal faults than magnetic
inrush for modern core materials.
b) Flux restrained current differential relays: They calculate the core flux using primary
voltage. Where magnetizing current and flux comply with the OC magnetization
curve, relay operation is inhibited. Remanent flux causes a deviation from the
magnetization curve, creating problems.
A method proposed by [4] is the use of a compensated-current differential relay. This

relay derives a modified differential current that compensates for the excitation current.
A conventional differential relay operates as follows:

The differential current is calculated as I d = | I 1 -a I 2 |.
The restraining current is calculated as I r =
a = N2/N1
| I 1 + aI 2 |
.
2
The differential current is set such that I d I offset + I r .

Provision for excitation current is not made in the conventional differential relay.
The compensated-current differential relay operation is as follows, based on the per

phase model in figure 14:
39
Figure 42: Per phase transformer model
I d (t) = I 1 (t) - aI 2 (t) - I e (t)
(5)
I e (t) = I c (t) + I m (t)
(6)
Where
V 1 (t) = R 1 I 1 (t) + L l1
dI1 (t )
+ e 1 (t)
dt
Rearranging this, we obtain e 1 (t) = V 1 (t) - R 1 I 1 (t) - L l1
I c (t) =
e1 (t )
Rc
(7)
dI1 (t )
dt
(8)
Before saturation I d (t) = I 1 (t) - aI 2 (t) - I c (t). If the differential current exceeds the
threshold, saturation is detected. This differential current is regarded as the magnetizing
current I m (t), used to estimate (t 0 ) from the magnetization curve (figure 15).
Figure 43: Obtaining flux at t0
40
Figure 44: Obtaining magnetizing current
The flux can then be obtained by the equation:

t
(t) =
e (t )dt + (t
1
(9)
t0
From there the magnetizing current, I m (t), can be obtained from the magnetization curve
as seen in figure 16.
More modern schemes suggest the use of neural network based protection [9].
3.2.3 Generator protection

Wideband signals are produced during a fault in a generator. These signals are often
outside the reception of protection. A wavelet transform-based partial differential
protection scheme is suggested by [11], which uses the presence of high frequency
currents generated during internal faults.
41
3.2.4 Transmission line protection

With the increase in voltage and length of power lines, distributed capacitance current
arises particularly in UHV lines. This distributed capacitance current is a major factor
affecting selectivity and sensitivity of current differential protection. Several methods
have been employed to reduce the effects of distributed capacitance, namely:
a) Shunt reactor. This method only partially compensates the power frequency steady
state capacitive current but fails in the event of transient capacitive current.
b) Capacitive current compensation. At present phasor-based algorithms are a good
option but operate slowly during faults.
A capacitive current compensation algorithm which can compensate both transient and
steady capacitive current without the increase in sampling rate or telecommunication
traffic is needed. Time-domain compensation in conjunction with a phaselet algorithm
was proposed by [8]. The calculation is done in the following steps:
1) Sampled data is processed through a low pass filter.

2) The sampled electric quantities, at both terminals of the model, are converted
to modules using the Karenbauer phase-mode transform.
3) Instantaneous values of compensated capacitive current are calculated in ,
and components.
4) Using KCL, instantaneous line current values are calculated after the capacitive
current is offset by , and module components.
5) Instantaneous currents in three phases are obtained after compensation, by
taking the inverse Karenbauer phase-mode transformation.
Where transmission lines are tapped, [10] proposes a wavelet transform-based

protection scheme.
42
Chapter 4
4
Coding
This chapter contains the design processes of obtaining the code or models used. The
choice of the simulation type is explained. Sections of code are also included. MATLAB
7.0.1 was used.
4.1
Distance protection simulation code
Type of protection
Distance with direction
What MATLAB
programming could be
used?
Command line prompt
Simulink
Graphical User Interface
Why?
Learn something new

Most interactive
Simple and compact
Visuals can be added
Can be used in conjunction with
ProtectionIntro
43
A GUI (graphical user interface) was chosen as this is the most user interactive and
compact method as compared to command line prompt type programming. Another
reason that prompted the use of a GUI was to create uniformity in terms of the existing
Protection Intro program. This program can be viewed as a sister program.
This
thought process can be explained in terms of the flowchart above.
Simulink was considered, but found not to be viable due to the unavailability of current
transformers in the toolbox.
There are many ways for determining the distance to the fault under various conditions.
These have been discussed in chapter 3. As time was a limiting factor, distance
protection in a radial system was chosen as the basis for the simulation, assuming the
line is not series compensated or experiences practical problems such as mutual
coupling or high fault resistance. This code demonstrates the theoretical principle of
distance relaying. As was also mentioned in the scope and limitations of the thesis, IEEE
restrictions caused the unavailability of relay settings literature pertaining to a system
with an infeed, but demonstration of the effect of an infeed is included in the laboratory
sheet in Appendix C.
As was previously mentioned, for simplicity and owing to time and membership
constraints, bolted three phase faults will be the basis of the simulation.
44
Start
User Inputs
System voltage (V)

Normal current (A)
Fault Current (A)
Positive sequence line
impedances ()
VT ratio
CT ratio
Simulate state
(normal/fault)
Return relay settings,

impedance to fault and
comments
When a GUI is initiated in MATLAB, a skeleton code M-file is generated automatically

according to the elements that have been placed in the layout editor, of which the
programmer must insert code in the relevant areas to perform the intended functions.
The portion of code demonstrates the function as illustrated in the figure above.
The current entered must be the line current, while the voltage is line-to-line.
%read in user values

handles.normalI = str2num(get(handles.edit6,'String'));
handles.faultI = str2num(get(handles.edit7,'String'));
handles.sys_voltage = str2num(get(handles.edit8,'String'));
handles.impedance_12 = str2num(get(handles.edit9,'String'));
handles.impedance_23 = str2num(get(handles.edit10,'String'));
45
temp = get(handles.listbox1,'String');
temp = char(temp(get(handles.listbox1,'Value')));
handles.vtratio = str2num(temp);
set(handles.listbox2,'Value',15);
temp = get(handles.listbox2,'String');
temp = char(temp(get(handles.listbox2,'Value')));
handles.ctratio = str2num(temp);
%calculate relay settings according to equations

handles.zprime = (1/handles.vtratio)/(1/handles.ctratio);
handles.zr1 = abs(0.8*(handles.zprime)*(handles.impedance_12));
handles.zra =
(180/pi)*angle(0.8*(handles.zprime)*(handles.impedance_12));
handles.zr2 = abs(1.2*(handles.zprime)*(handles.impedance_12));
handles.zrb =
(180/pi)*angle(1.2*(handles.zprime)*(handles.impedance_12));
handles.zr3 = abs(1*(handles.zprime)*(handles.impedance_12) +
((1.2)*(handles.zprime)*(handles.impedance_23)));
handles.zrc = (180/pi)*angle(1*(handles.zprime)*(handles.impedance_12)
+ ((1.2)*(handles.zprime)*(handles.impedance_23)));
Depending on whether the normal condition or fault condition is chosen, the voltage-tocurrent ratio will be calculated.
%calculate impedance for normal condition

handles.impedance =
(handles.sys_voltage/(sqrt(3)*handles.normalI))*handles.zprime;
%calculate impedance for fault condition

handles.impedance =
(handles.sys_voltage/(sqrt(3)*handles.faultI))*handles.zprime;
46
The impedance diagram will be plotted with the given information, using this portion of
code below. The relay settings are plotted on the assumption that the relays used are
those with directional restraint.
%plot directional impedance diagram

axes(handles.axes2);
semi_zr1 = handles.zr1*exp(2*i*[1:180]*pi/360);
plot(semi_zr1,'r')
hold on
plot(semi_zr2,'y')
hold on
plot(semi_zr3,'g')
axis('equal')
hold on
plot(handles.impedance,'o')
It should be noted that the code shown here pertains to CB12 in the simulation.
Under normal conditions when the allowable current is flowing in the system, impedance
is high thus protection should not operate, or during fault conditions, impedance is low
and protection should operate. At times the settings entered by the user may cause the
relay to malfunction. Suitable comments are also made for the user to take note of.
if (handles.impedance < handles.zr3)

set(handles.edit14,'String','Protection too sensitive');
set(handles.edit18,'String','Trip');
if handles.impedance > handles.zr3

set(handles.edit14,'String','Protection too insensitive');
set(handles.edit18,'String','No tripping');
The user must then make changes either to the current, CT and/or VT ratios.
4.2
47
Differential protection simulation
Type of protection
What MATLAB
programming could be
used?
Differential - transformer
Command line prompt
Graphical User Interface
Simulink
Why?
Wanted to implement the

compensated differential current
protection
Has most of the tools needed (e.g.
saturable transformer) and scope
probes can be used to view some
elements
Other methods are dull or not
viable
Learn something new in addition
to GUIs
Differential protection can be applied to many components such as busbars, generators

and even transmission lines. The busbar simulation was not viable due to current
transformers not being available on Simulink. Due to the complexity of the methods used
in practice, with time being a constraint, transformer differential protection was chosen
as the basis for this simulation.
In addition to that, this simulation will demonstrate the effect of transformer core
saturation on differential protection which is a phenomenon observed in practice, which
would otherwise cause the malfunction or delay of relay operation.
4.2.2 How the model works
Start
User Inputs
Transformer rating (MVA)

Transformer parameters
V1(V), R1(pu), X1(pu)
V2(V), R2(pu), X2(pu)
Core-loss resistance (pu)
Initial flux (pu)
a = V2/V1 & k
Run the
program
View
differential current
setting
conventional diffential
current Id
compensated
differential current
Observe
how transformer
doesnt trip from
saturation
how a fault will cause
differential protection to
act
48
49
Figure 45: Compensated differential current model
Figure 17 shows the Simulink model for the chosen simulation. All the parts that are
green in colour (a, K and I_offset) are the user inputs, as well as the inputs to the
saturable transformer model, which the user inputs by double clicking the component
and editing the relevant sections as will be explained by the laboratory sheet in Appendix
B. The scopes may also be used to view the state of the system by double clicking on
them.
50
Chapter 5
5
Simulation cases and results
Base cases or simulation scenarios were chosen for both the distance and differential
simulations so as to showcase the outcomes of running the programs. A real life fault
scenario was also tested using the program.
5.1
Distance protection
A 345kV network was chosen. The protected line positive sequence impedance was
8+50i and the adjacent line positive sequence impedance was 5.3+33i. CT and VT
ratios were set as 1500:1 and 3000:1 respectively. It can be assumed that these are
practical values as they were obtained in [1].
Relays with directional restraint were used as explained in Chapter 2, figure 5.
51
5.1.1 Case 1: Normal condition with correct settings

Figure 46: Normal scenario with correct settings
As can be seen from figure 18 above, the impedance marked with an o or x lies
outside the relay settings, hence no tripping of any relay occurs. The relay settings for
CB12 are returned.
52
5.1.2 Case 2: Fault condition with correct settings

Fault current was set at 3000A.
Figure 47: Fault scenario with correct settings
As can be expected, the impedance marked by o and x falls within the relay settings
zone and thus the relays operate correctly. For CB12 zone 1 on the impedance diagram
is red, zone 2 is yellow and zone 3 is green. The impedance marked with an o falls in
zone 3 hence the time delay comment stating that CB12 trips after 1 second. CB12
communicates to CB32 to trip. The x mark shows the impedance as viewed by CB32.
53
5.1.3 Normal scenario with a high steady state current

Figure 48: Normal scenario with incorrect settings
When the steady state current is too high for the settings selected, malfunction of the
relay can occur. Figure 20 shows a comment for CB12 displaying the tripping of a relay
because the settings entered are too sensitive. The user will have to then change either
the normal current to a lower value, and/or the CT and VT ratios and re-run the
simulation.
54
5.1.4 Fault scenario with too low a fault current

Fault current was set at 2000A.
Figure 49: Fault scenario with too low a fault current
When the situation in figure 21 occurs, the relays do not detect the fault as the settings
are too insensitive. Again, the user will have to reconfigure their settings to obtain the
correct response of the relays during fault conditions.
5.1.5 Koeberg-Stikland 400kV line fault

On 13 October 2008, a fault was registered on the Koeberg-Stikland 400kV line. This
was caused as a result of a sagging line being pulled by a truck.
55
Figure 50: Single line diagram of affected network
The network in figure 22 is a 400kV network. The three lines from Koeberg Station are
protected in such a way that should a fault occur, all three phases are isolated by means
of circuit breakers. This was an ideal situation as the distance protection simulation
assumes a three phase fault.
As was mentioned, a fault occurred on the Koeberg-Stikland line, which is the line of
interest. The sequence of events is as follows: (The complete sequence is in Appendix
D)
TIMESTAMP
Parent
DESCRIPTION
13/10/2008
Stikland S/S
Stikland/Koeberg Supervisory
05:42:47
13/10/2008
Operation type
STATUS
Tripped
400kV bkr
Koeberg S/S
05:42:48
Koeberg/Stikland Supervisory
400kV bkr
Table 1: Sequence of events for Koeberg-Stikland fault
Tripped
56
From the above table, it can be seen that the fault was a zone 2 fault according to the
Koeberg S/S Koeberg-Stikland breaker relay settings, tripping a second later than its
counterpart.
The distance protection simulation agrees with the sequence of events. It could not be
determined however what the conditions were in terms of fault current and impedance to
the fault, as data was unavailable at the time of this investigation. It was then proposed
to model a fault on the line so as to relate as closely as possible to the actual event.
The line data was obtained from [14] using DigSilent software.
Line
Length
R1
X1
Three phase fault phase
km
current at 50% of the line kA
Koeberg-Stikland
19.4
0.461
6.172
44.526
Stikland-Muldersvlei
16.3
0.418
5.161
45.68
Table 2: Line data for Koeberg-Stikland line
The data in table 2 was used in the simulation, where Koeberg-Stikland was line 1-2,
while Stikland-Muldersvlei was line 2-3. Normal current was set at 1 704A, which is the
rated current for both lines. Fault current was set at 44 526A which is the fault current for
line 1-2. VT and CT ratios were set at 3000:1 and 1500:5 respectively.
Having run the simulation for both normal and fault conditions, the following results were
obtained:
The relay did not trip under normal conditions, meaning the program responded
correctly.
Under fault conditions, the relay operated, but saw the fault as a zone 2 fault with
the distance to the fault from CB12 being 83.83% instead of a zone 1 fault at
50%.
It was noted that when the input currents were first multiplied by 3 , the program
restrained for normal conditions, and saw the fault as a zone 1 fault at 48.38% of
the line. This value is close to the desired value of 50%.
5.2
57
A Y-Y 154kV/23kV, 55MVA saturable transformer was used for the case study. The
offset current was chosen to be 15A, a practical value, while K was set at 0.3 [4]. The
aim was to test and observe the effect of transformer core saturation on the conventional
differential relay. Figure 23 shows the simulation window.
The transformer parameters were set such that R 1 = 0.002 p.u, X l1 = 0.08 pu, R 2 =
0.002 p.u, X l 2 = 0.08 p.u, core-loss resistance (referred to as R m in Simulink) was 500
p.u. These values were the default values in the simulation. However the initial flux was
chosen to be 1.2 p.u, which is a value for high saturation.
Figure 51: Setup for compensated-current differential protection on a saturable transformer
58
5.2.1 Case 1: High saturation with no fault

As mentioned in Chapter 3, a highly saturated transformer will draw large exciting
current. This fact is illustrated in figure 24, with a maximum at 500A. A conventional
differential relay would malfunction, perceiving this as a fault as seen in figure 24, where
there is an imbalance between primary and secondary current as determined by the
turns ratio.
Figure 52: Large exciting current in a saturated transformer
59
Figure 53: Differential current in a conventional relay
The compensated-current differential relay however makes provision for this exciting
current, and thus does not trip on the basis of saturation. This is illustrated in figure 26,
where a 0 value denotes a restraint in relay operation.
Figure 54: Restraining compensated-current relay
60
5.2.2 Case 2: High saturation with fault

As can be expected, the conventional relay will operate in fault conditions as seen in
figure 27 below, as there is an extremely large differential current in the order of 60MA.
Figure 55: Operating conventional differential relay
The compensated-current differential relay also operates during fault conditions as

shown by figure 28, where a value of 1 denotes operation of protection.
Figure 56: Operating compensated-current differential relay
61
62
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1
Conclusions
The aim of this thesis was to produce distance and differential protection simulations for
transmission lines and components using MATLAB/Simulink. These simulations would
be used for demonstration or laboratory exercises. Based on the results of the final
design product, the following conclusions can be made:
4) The objectives were achieved in terms of the fulfillment of the aim. Various
MATLAB/Simulink tools were used. Although more could have been incorporated
into the programs, the foundation was satisfactorily set. A lab sheet will supplement
the simulations where certain concepts need to be demonstrated that the simulation
did not include, such as the effect of an infeed in distance relaying.
5) There was a discrepancy between the DigSilent results and the simulation results in
that the simulation showed some underreaching. However, incorporating the
factor into the currents and obtaining correlating results with the pair of the
simulations suggests that the current in DigSilent was measured as delta. Hence to
obtain the line current required for the distance protection simulation, the current had
to be multiplied by
3 thus having an input fault line current of 77.121kA.
6) The chosen aspects of simulation were well demonstrated in that:
For the distance protection simulation:

a)
Four different scenarios that a student may encounter have been

investigated, with the program responding accordingly.
b)
The simulation demonstrates how communication channels between

relays can isolate a line at both ends.
c)
63
The impedance diagram provides a good visualization for the

protection concept.

a) A concept which may be new to students was introduced together with
the knowledge of how in practice saturation of a transformer core is a
problem to protection, and the solution to that.
6.2
Recommendations
As the outcomes of this thesis were aimed at students and the increase of their
knowledge, the following recommendations can be made:
5)
There should be adherence to the program requirements. For the distance

protection simulation, voltages should be line-to-line and current values are
line currents (phase and line currents should be the same, else employ
the 3 factor. Attention should be paid to units, particularly those in per unit
used in the differential protection simulation.
6)
Addition of some material to the syllabus, such as factors and situations that
affect protection in practice.
7)
An investigation into more real line data (impedances) and CT and VT ratios
should be made. The simulation just demonstrates the principle behind
distance protection.
8)
This thesis is only a foundation on which improvements and adaptations can

be made, hence further research needs to be undertaken, in order to obtain
more ideas in improving learners understanding and knowledge.
64
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[1]
J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S. Sarma & Thomas J. Overbye. Power System
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[2]
Prof C.T. Gaunt and A.K. Awodele. EEE4089F Class Notes
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[4]
Y.C. Kang, E.S. Jin, S.H. Kang & P.A. Crossley. 2004. Compensated-current
differential relay for protection of transformers. IEE Proceedings Generation,

Transmission and Distribution. 151(3)
[5]
P.J. Moore, Z.Q. Bo & R.K. Aggarwal. 2005. Digital distance protection for
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[6]
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[7]
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on wavelet transform. Electric Power Systems Research. 69: 179-186

[12]
Brian D. Hahn. 2002. Essential MATLAB for Scientists and Engineers
[13]
Prof. Komla A. Folly. EEE4090F class notes.
[14]
Sibulele Dlova. Network Security Engineer. Eskom Distribution, Bellville.
65
Appendix A: Manual for running demo1.m

This simulation shows how distance (impedance) relaying works, in terms of zone
partitioning.
2)
Start Matlab
3)
Click File Open Protection folder
4)
Open demo.m
5)
Click Debug Run (You might be required to change the directory)
6)
Fill in information in the Input Data panel only.
7)
Click on Normal condition or Fault condition, whichever you wish to simulate
8)
The results to the simulation will be returned on the Output Data panel and the
Impedance diagram panel.
9)
Where the relay trips unnecessarily or does not trip, change the input currents
and/or CT or VT ratios and observe their effect on the impedance diagram.
66
Appendix B: Exercise sheet for distance protection

Section A:
Given a 345kV system, with positive sequence impedances for line 1-2 being 8+50i
and line 2-3 being 5.3+33i ,
a)
Calculate the relay settings for CB12 when the VT ratio is 3000:1 and the CT
ratio is 1500:1
b)
If a current of 3000A flows in line 1-2, how does CB12 react?
Answer: This is the same as the simulation and students can check their answers by
running the simulation.
Section B:
CB12s relay is set to protect line 1-2 and 2-4. Let the line impedances for line 1-2 be
2, line 2-4 is 8. A fault occurs on line 2-4, 1 from bus 2.
Given that I_12 = 10.95 A and I_32 = 14.51A:

a)
Calculate the apparent impedance seen by the relay at CB12
Answer: Z_apparent = Z_12 + Z_24 + (I_32/I_12)*Z_24

= 2 + 1 + (14.51/10.95)*(1)
= 4.33
b)
What is the actual impedance?
Answer: Z_actual = Z_12 + Z_24

=2+1
=3
c)
Does the relay underreach?
Answer: Underreach because the fault will be seen as a zone three fault.
d)
What is this event called?
Answer: Infeed effect
67
68
Appendix C: Manual for running differential.mdl

This model demonstrates how saturation of a transformer draws a large exciting current.
A conventional transformer may see this as a fault. It is undesirable for differential relays
to trip in this situation; hence methods in practice have been developed to bypass this.
One of these is a compensated-current differential protection scheme, demonstrated by
this simulation.
Some background on the compensated-current differential relay:
A conventional differential relay operates as follows:

The differential current is calculated as I d = | I 1 -a I 2 |.
The restraining current is calculated as I r =
a = N2/N1
| I 1 + aI 2 |
.
2
The differential current is set such that I d I offset + I r .
The compensated-current differential relay subtracts the exciting current during

saturation, thus the relay doesnt trip unnecessarily:
I d (t) = I 1 (t) - aI 2 (t) - I e (t).
Part 1: Simulation without a fault
1)
Start Matlab
2)
Click File Open Differential.mdl
3)
If you wish you can modify the model (although typical values are already there,
but you may wish to see them or even modify them). You do this by:
Double clicking on the AC voltage source and changing the voltage level and
frequency.
69
Double clicking on the saturable transformer and entering the following

information:
Transformer MVA rating and frequency
V 1 and V 2
(R 1 , L 1 , R 2 , L 2 are typical values so perhaps you should not change the
default values)
R m and initial flux
Take note of inputs that require per unit values
(You can try values like 0.2, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6 for initial flux this is a measure of
how saturated the transformer is)
70
Do NOT click on three windings transformer or simulate hysteresis or change

the saturation characteristic.
You may also change other values on the model those that are in green only,
that is I_offset, K and a. Please note that a = N2/N1 or V2/V1.
4)
After you are satisfied with the model, click Simulation Start.
5)
You may double click on the scopes to view what is happening in the system.
Scope 8 shows a conventional differential relay reaction (large differential current =

trip)
Scope 4 shows exciting current drawn in saturation.
Scope shows the compensated-current differential scheme.
71
Part 2: Simulation with a fault
1) Join phase A of the three phase fault block to the transformer, by holding the left
mouse button down and dragging from A to the transformer line.
2) Click Simulation Start

3) Click on the scopes to see whats happening in the system.
Appendix D: Koeberg-Stikland 400kV line fault report

(contained in hard copy)
72

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Distance and Differential Protection Simulation for Transmission Line and Components Using Matlab/Simulink

Distance and Differential Protection Simulation for

I would like to thank the following giants:

God for knowing my destiny and implanting potential in me.

Eskom for their financial contribution towards my undergraduate studies.

My supervisor Mrs Kehinde Awodele for the opportunity of increasing my

Mrs. Awodeles instructions were to:

Investigate ways of producing the simulations.

Write code or have a model simulation for the demonstration.

Produce a manual and/or lab sheet to introduce students to the concepts of

A need exists in the electrical engineering department, particularly power engineering, to

Probe into practical protection literature

Transmission and distribution lines

Transmission and distribution lines are commonly protected by impedance relaying.

Generator protection methods investigated include the employment of a wavelet

For differential protection, a compensated-current differential relay was chosen.

Simulation scenarios and results

For the distance protection simulation, four scenarios were investigated.

For the differential protection simulation:

For fault conditions both relays operated correctly.

3 factor into the currents and

input fault line current of 77.121kA.

For the distance protection simulation:

Four different scenarios that a student may encounter have been

The simulation demonstrates how communication channels between

The impedance diagram provides a good visualization for the

For the differential protection simulation:

A concept which may be new to students was introduced together

There should be adherence to the program requirements. For the distance

This thesis is only a foundation on which improvements and adaptations can

Background to the thesis

Scope and limitations of the thesis

Power system protection philosophy

Overcurrent protection schemes

Line protection using distance relays

2.3.2 Line with an infeed

Differential protection for generators, buses and transformers

3.1.2 Composite circuits

3.1.3 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor

3.2.2 Transformer protection

3.2.3 Generator protection

3.2.4 Transmission line protection

Distance protection simulation code

4.1.2 How the simulation works

Differential protection simulation

4.2.2 How the simulation works

Simulation cases and results

5.1.2 Case 2: Fault condition with correct settings

5.1.3 Case 3: Normal scenario with a high steady state current

5.1.4 Case 4: Fault scenario with too low a current

5.1.5 Koeberg-Stikland 400kV line fault

5.2.2 High saturation with a fault

Conclusions and recommendations

Appendix A: Manual for running demo1.m

Appendix B: Exercise sheet for distance protection

Appendix C: Manual for running differential.mdl

Appendix D: Koeberg-Stikland 400kV line fault report

Figure 2: Illustration of protective zones

Figure 3: R-X diagram for non-directional impedance relay

Figure 4: Zone partitioning for distance relaying

Figure 10: System with an infeed

Figure 11: Illustration of differential current protection concept

Figure 12: Composite circuit model

Z r 3 = 1.0 Z(line 1-2) + 1.2 Z(line 2-3)