Example:

SERIES ANALYSIS
SIGMA NOTATION and the TELESCOPING TECHNIQUE
- a convenient way of writing sums uses the Greek letter (capital
sigma, corresponding to our letter S) and is called sigma notation.

1. Evaluate:

12 22 32 992 1002
Solution:
The sum (S) can also be expressed in the form
n

i2
i 1

First we obtain a closed-form formula for this kind of sum using the
telescoping technique:
STEP 1:
DEFINITION: If am, am+1, , an are real numbers and m and n are
integers such that m n, then

i 1

i 13 i3

ai am am1 am 2 an1 an

c cn m 1

(b)

i m

(c)

i m

i m

i m

i m

i m

cai c ai

ai bi ai bi

i 1

2.

k 1

k 1

k 1

i 1

i 1

i 1

i 1

i 1

3.

i 13 i3 3i2 3i 1
nn 1
n
2

3k 1

STEP 2:

n 13 13 n3 3n2 3n 3S 3 n2 5 n

k 3 k 1
n

k 1

3
5
3S n2 n
2
2
STEP 3:

i2 3i 1 3S 3

i2 12 22 32 42 30
n

Examples:
1.

n 1 1 n 3n 3n
3

PROPERTIES:
(a)

23 13 33 23 4 3 33 [(n 1) 3 n 3 ]

i m

2 2 2 2 2 8

i 2
i 1

i 1

2n 3n n nn 12n 1

6
6
3

Thus, going back to the problem:

TELESCOPING TECHNIQUE
- this method is very powerful in obtaining a closed-form formula
for a sum with great extent (or sometimes infinite) number of
terms. This technique is also called collapsing technique in
which the main process lies on collapsing the terms between the
first and the last terms of the sum.
In obtaining a closed-form formula for the sum (S)
n

100

12 22 32 992 1002

i 1

100101201
12 22 32 992 1002
338350
6
2. Evaluate:
n

lim

i 1

i 1

Solution:
n

i 1
n

3 i

n n
n

i k 1k 2k 3k n 1k nk

We follow these three steps:

STEP 1
Express the telescoping sum:

i2

k 1

i k 1

i 1

in closed-form using the basic definition of summation notation.

You will notice that the sum collapses, meaning to say, terms
between the first and the last terms cancels each other.
STEP 2
Expand first the term in the telescoping sum, in this case, the term

i 1k 1 i k 1 , then apply Property (c) given above.

STEP 3
Equate the results from steps 1 and 2 and obtain the closed-form
formula for S.

3 i

n n
n
lim

i 1

3 2 3
i
1 lim
3
n
n
i 1 n

n
3 n
3
lim
i2
1

n
n n3
i 1
i 1

3 nn 12n 1 3
lim
n
6
n
n n3

1 n n 1 2n 1
lim

3
n 2 n n n

1
1
1 1
lim 1 2 3 1 2 3
n
n 2
n 2
n

3 i

n n
n
lim

i 1

1 4

TRIGONOMETRY
ADDITIONAL TRIGONMETRIC FORMULAS
SUMMATION OF SINE and COSINE
n 1x
nx
n
sin
sin
2
2
(a)
sin ix
x
sin
i 1
2

(b)

n 1x
nx
n
sin
cos
2
2
cosix
x
sin
i 1
2

For any triangle with side lengths a, b and c with corresponding

opposite angles A, B and C respectively, we have these basic formulas:
(a) SEMIPERIMETER (s)

(b) SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES

A B C 180

(c) SINE LAW

a
b
c

2R
sin A sin B sin C

Example:
1. Find all possible solutions for x from the equation

sin x sin 2x sin 3x cos x cos2x cos3x

where R is the radius of the circumscribing circle (EXTENSION OF

SINE LAW).
(d) COSINE LAW
a 2 b2 c 2 2bc cos A

in the interval 0,2 .

b2 a 2 c 2 2ac cos B

Solution:
Using the given formulas above, we can express the problem as:
3

i 1

i 1

sin ix

i 1

i.

SSA CASE

cosix 0

i 1

3x
3x
sin
sin 2 x sin
cos 2 x
2
2

0
x
x
sin
sin
2
2

So we must solve these two equations:

3x
0
2
ii. sin 2x cos2x 0
i. sin

Equation (i) has solutions equal to

has solutions equal to

2
4
and
while equation (ii)
3
3

only. Therefore, there are a total of three

8

solutions for this problem, namely

2 4
,
,
3 3 8

GEOMETRY
TRIANGLES SIDE-ANGLE RELATIONS

1
ab sin C
2
1
ac sin B
2
1
bc sin A
2

ii. ASA CASE

3x

sin sin 2 x cos 2 x 0

2

c 2 a 2 b2 2ab cosC

(e) AREA FORMULAS

sin ix cosix
3

abc
2

a 2 sin B sin C
2 sin A
b 2 sin A sin C
2 sin B
c 2 sin A sin B
2 sin C

iii. SSS CASE (HERONS FORMULA)

K ss a s bs c

(f) RADIUS OF INSCRIBED and CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLES

K
s

abc
4K

TRIANGLES MOST COMMON CEVIANS

There are so many ways we can incorporate a line segment in a
triangle. The most common is the CEVIAN. But what is a cevian?
CEVIAN a line segment which connects one vertex to the opposite
side (or its extension) of the triangle.
Generally speaking, the length of a cevian is determined using
STEWARTS THEOREM.
Let be given a triangle ABC and a point D on AB such that m = AD,
n = BD, and x = CD. Then Stewart's theorem, states that:

c a

m n
Length of Angle Bisectors:
a 2 m b 2 n x 2 c cmn

On this handout, we will tackle the three most popular and special types
of cevian. These are the ALTITUDE, MEDIAN and the ANGLE BISECTOR.
(a) ALTITUDE
Altitude also known as height. It is a cevian drawn from one
vertex perpendicular to the opposite side of the triangle. The three
altitudes of a triangle meet at a common point called
ORTHOCENTER.
Length of Altitudes:

2K
b

hc

2K
c

1
2

C
2

ab[a b 2 c 2 ]

tc H a,b cos

2ab cos
ab

bc

ac

ab

BC 11 and mACB 60 .

b
c

1
ma
2 b2 c2 a2
2

mc

ac[a c 2 b2 ]

bc

1. Find the height of the triangle ABC drawn to side BC if AC 7 ,

Length of Medians:

1
mb
2

B
2ac cos
B
2
tb H a,c cos
2
ac

2bc cos

Examples:

(b) MEDIAN
Median is a cevian drawn from one vertex to the midpoint of the
opposite side of a triangle. The three medians of a triangle meet at a
point called CENTROID.

2a
2a

bc[b c 2 a 2 ]

TAKE NOTE : H(x,y) is the Harmonic Mean of x and y. Recall that

Harmonic Mean is the reciprocal of the average of the reciprocals
of two numbers.

2K
ha
a
hb

A
2

ta H b,c cos

b2

Herons Formula for Medians

We can actually compute for the area (K) of the triangle if we
are given the length of the three medians. Take note of the formula,
it somehow resemble of that of Herons Formula:
If triangle ABC has medians ma, mb, and mc and
m mb mc
m a
2
then, the area of the triangle is found by the formula:

4
mm ma m mb m mc
3

(c) ANGLE BISECTOR

Angle Bisector is a cevian drawn from one vertex bisecting the
vertex angle to the opposite side of the triangle. The three angle
bisectors of a triangle meet at a common point called INCENTER.
Euclids Angle Bisector Theorem

Solution:
The height drawn to BC is found by the formula:
hBC

But K

2K
BC

1
1
77 3
AC BC sin 60 711sin 60
s.u. thus:
2
2
4

77 3

2
4 7 3

hBC
11
2

2. Find the length of the median of a triangle ABC drawn to side BC if

AB = 5, AC = 4 and BC = 3.
Solution:
If we let a 3 , b 4 and c 5 , then:

ma
ma

1
1
2 b2 c2 a2
2 4 2 52 32
2
2
73
2

3. A triangle has side lengths 5, 6 and 7. How long is the angle bisector
drawn to the side of the triangle with length 6?
Solution:
Let a 5 , b 6 and c 7 , then the length of the angle bisector
drawn to side b is:

tb

tb

ac[a c 2 b2 ]
ac

5 7[5 72 62 ]
57

105
2

The angle bisector BD of an angle in a triangle ABC divides the

opposite side in the same ratio as the sides adjacent to the angle.

CALCULUS
WEIERSTRASS SUBSTITUTION
- devised by the German mathematician Karl Weierstrass in
converting any rational function of sin x and cos x into an ordinary
rational function.
Draw a right triangle with legs of lengths 1 and t with t opposite the
angle

x
x
so that t tan in the interval x . By derivation:
2
2
sin

; cos

1 t

1
1 t2

This point P(a,b,c) also determines a rectangular box as shown

below. If we drop a perpendicular from P to the xy-plane, we get a
point Q with coordinates (a,b,0) called the projection of P on the
xy-plane. The same thing can be said on points R and Q on the figure.

It follows that
sin x

2t
1 t

; cos x

1 t2

; dx

1 t2

2dt
1 t2

Example:
1. Find

3sin x 4 cos x .
dx

Solution:
Applying Weierstrass substitution to the problem we get:
2dt

dx

3sin x 4 cos x

dt
1 t2
2
32t 4 1 t 2
2t 1 t 2
4
3
2
2
1 t 1 t

2t 2 3t 2

2t 1t 2 5 2t 1 5 t 2 dt

1
1 2t 1
ln 2t 1 ln t 2 c ln
c
5
5 t2

dt

dx
1
ln
3sin x 4 cos x 5

dt

The Cartesian product x, y, z x, y, z is the set of

all ordered triples of real numbers and is denoted by 3 . We have
given a one-to-one correspondence between points P in space and
ordered triples (a,b,c) in 3 and this is called a three-dimensional
rectangular coordinate system. In two-dimensional analytic geometry,
the graph of an equation involving x and y is a CURVE in 2 . In threedimensional analytic geometry, an equation in x,y and z represents a
SURFACE in 3 .
Distance Formula in Three Dimensions

x
2 tan 1
2
c
x
tan 2
2

VECTOR ANALYSIS
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
To locate a point in a plane, two numbers are necessary. We
know that any point in the plane can be represented as an ordered pair
(a,b) of real numbers, where a is the x-coordinate and b is the ycoordinate. For this reason, a plane is called two-dimensional. To locate
a point in space, three numbers are required. We represent any point in
space by an ordered triple (a,b,c) of real numbers.

The distance

P1 P2 between the points

P1 x1 , y1 , z1

and

P2 x 2 , y 2 , z 2 is determined by the formula

P1P2

x2 x12 y2 y12 z2 z12

VECTOR used to indicate a quantity that has both magnitude and

direction. A vector is often represented by an arrow wherein the tail is
called the initial point and the tip (arrowhead) is called the terminal
point.
VECTOR ADDITION

The coordinate axes and coordinate planes

TRIANGLE LAW
If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point of v is at the
terminal point of u, then the sum u + v is the vector from the initial
point of u to the terminal point of v

Now, if P is any point in space, let a be the (directed) distance

from the yz-plane to P, let b be the distance from the xz-plane to P, and
let c be the distance from the xy-plane to P. We represent the point P by
the ordered triple (a,b,c) of real numbers called the coordinates of P.
This was shown in the figure below.
4

UNIT VECTOR - is a vector whose length is 1. In general, if a 0 , then

the unit vector u that has the same direction as a is

a
a i a2 j a3k
1
a
a12 a22 a32

Examples:
PARALLELOGRAM LAW
If u and v starts at the same point in space, then u + v lies along
the diagonal of the parallelogram with u and v as sides.

1. Find the radius of the sphere with equation

x2 y 2 z 2 4 x 6 y 2 z 6 0

Solution:
A sphere is the set of all points in space whose distance from a fixed
center (C) is r. By completing the square

x2 4x 4 y2 6 y 9 z2 2z 1 6 4 9 1

x 22 y 32 z 12 8
So the radius (r) is equal to
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
If c is a scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar multiple cv is the
vector whose length is |c| times the length of v and whose direction is
the same as v if c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0. If c = 0 or v = 0, then
cv = 0.
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
For most purposes its best to introduce a coordinate system and
treat vectors algebraically. If we place the initial point of a vector a at
the origin of a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system, then
the terminal point of a has coordinates of the form (a1,a2,a3) as shown
below:

r2 8 r 2 2

2. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector

2i j 2k
Solution:
The given vector has length
|2i j 2k| 22 12 22 3
So the required unit vector u is
u

2i j 2k 2 1
2
i j k
3
3
3
3

3. A 100-lb weight hangs from two wires as shown below

These coordinates are called the components of a and we write

a a1 , a 2 , a3
we use the notation a1 , a 2 , a3 in referring to a vectors components so

Find the magnitude of the tensions T1 and T2 in both wires.

Solution:
We first express T1 and T2 in terms of their horizontal and vertical
components. From the figure in right:

as not to confuse it with the ordered triple (a 1.a2,a3) that refers to a

point in space.

T1 T1 cos 50 i T1 sin 50 j

Now, given two points Ax1, y1, z1 and Bx2 , y2 , z2 in space, the vector

T2 T2 cos 32 i T2 sin 32 j

a with representation AB is
a x2 x1 , y 2 y1 , z 2 z1
And the length (also called magnitude) of this vector |a| is equal to
|a|

x2 x1 2 y 2 y1 2 z 2 z1 2

Another way of representing a vector a algebraically is by introducing

these three unit vectors, namely
i 1,0,0 ; j 0,1,0 ; k 0,0,1

The vectors i, j and k are called the standard basis vectors. They have
length 1 and points in the directions of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.

The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions counterbalances the weight w

and so we must have

T1 T2 w 100 j

T1 cos50 T2 cos32 i T1 sin 50 T2 sin 32 j 100 j

Equating components, we get

T1 cos 50 T2 cos 32 0

eq.1

T1 sin 50 T2 sin 32 100

eq.2

Solving these two equations simultaneously we have:

T1

50 cos 32
sin 18

T2

100
sin 32

50 sin 50
sin 18 tan 32

a x2 x1 , y 2 y1 , z 2 z1 x2 x1 i y 2 y1 j z 2 z1 k