Chapter

11

Discussions and
Conclusions

Summarizing
Explaining
Examining Implications
Suggestions for the Future
Our Emerging Literacy Orientation
Practice Makes Perfect

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"X P L O R I NG

EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH

DISCUSSIONS

LITERACY

After researchers have presented their results, then one final task remains. Results
have to be put into meaningful contexts.
There are a number of directions that researchers can take when they are
exploring and explaining their results. Results can be summarized or compared
with researcher predictions, and any and all discrepancies between predictions and
reality can then be examined. Complex or unusual or unexpected results can be
explained. Implications of the findings in relation to existing theories and practices
can be discussed, and limitations of the current research can be examined as well
to help put the findings into contexts. Directions for future research can also be
mapped out. These are only some of the moves and efforts that can be made.
We will start by looking at examples of each of the four main discussion tasks
in turn. It makes sense to start with the simplestsummarizing the main findings.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

AND

CONCLUSI

A relationship exists between working memory capacity and pupils'

performance.
A relationship exists between extent of field dependency and chemistry scores.
It is possible to bring working memory and field dependency measures together.
It is postulated that the size of the available working memory space is
a critical factor in success in learning chemistry at this stage.
Using teaching materials which were specifically designed to minimize
the impact of limitations in working memory space increased pupil
performance.
When re-designed materials were used in several topics, it was found
that they enhanced pupil performance significantly and the impact of
the new materials did not depend on any teacher effects.

Summarizing
Sometimes, the most effective way to discuss findings is to simply summarize them.
If the findings are clear-cut and easy to understand, then all the researchers need
to do is to remind readers of what has happened. Also, if the research is ongoing,
then researchers need to be careful about overstating their findings. Both of these
considerations seem to be in play with the Davidson article. As an action research
study, the results were presented as part of the ongoing narrative of the process.
Therefore, at the end, there was little need to do more than summarize:
Initial data indcate that the character education classes were quite successful.
Attendance was high at the outset and was maintained throughout the program.
Children did well on oral quizzes on the class material. Most importantly, behavior patterns began to change. Follow up data collection will be conducted to see
if these behavioral changes persisted through the summer months, when the
children were not in school together, and stayed in place the next school year.
At the very end of the Asimov article there is also a summary, in a fashion that is
similar to the abstract at the very beginning. The purpose of this summary is to
rstate the key points and findings, and then point the reader toward the need and
possible nature of future research:
In summary, this study has uncovered and examined an existing enclave similar to those discussed at a theoretical level in the literature. This enclave operates outside of the existing school system, but that fact makes it no less formal
or structured. In addition to its formal properties, this enclave also functions
as a social entity, held together by a strong leader and guide. Further research
needs to look for more of these sorts of enclaves, and to see if the principies
manifested here are unique to this experience, or if they are necessary for
educational endeavors such as these to survive and thrive.
Sometimes, the summary can be very detailed and explicit. For instance,
Danili and Reid offer a very comprehensive set of six summary conclusions. They

Other times, the list of summary points can be more narrative in nature, as we find
in Klein's article:
Two factors were identified as principal contributors to the level of meeting
effectiveness. One was the quality of prior planning and the manner in which
the meeting was conducted. . . . The second was the balance in the session
between the requirements for cooperative endeavour and the individual needs
of each teacher. The interviews revealed the need for consideration at meetings of the manner of distribution of institutional tasks.
Other criteria for productivity included (a) early and methodical planning of
meetings; (b) avoidance of last minute notification unless urgent issues arise;
(c) orderly, cultured and focused discussions in which all present listen to each
other; and (d) generally accepted decisin making procedures.

Explaining
Results do not interpret themselves. Sometimes, the chief purpose of a Discussion is
to look at results carefully, and interpret and clarify them. This is clearly illustrated
in the Cassatt article. He starts off by showing that the actual results are quite substantial from a statistical perspective:
Simply completing a higher number of practice problems appeared to correlate
highly with midterm scores. Roughly half of the variance in these data could
be accounted for by this comparison. Given all the other possible sources of
variation, from class and regional differences, to background and IQ differences among students, along with many other possibilities, this is a very powerful finding.
These findings however lead to questions of their own. Within the limitations of his
method, Cassatt lays out three plausible explanations for his findings. Note that he
does not choose among these possibilities. The unstated implication is that further

empirical research needs to be conducted to see which of these possible explanations work the best when compared directly with each other:
Why did simply completing these problems seem to be so highly related to
higher midterm grades? Given that this was a correlational study, that answer
cannot be directly inferred from these data and findings. There are a number
of possibilities to consider. Here are just a few. First of all, it could be the case
that the brightest students worked quicker, and so were able to both complete
more problems and do better on the midterm. On the other hand, it could be
the case that the extra practice and effort liad a positive impact on student
learning, which showed up on midterm scores. Finally, it could be the case that
the more highly motivated students both did more practice problems and also
tried harder on the midterms. Given that all of these students were talented,
motivation might have been the key here.
In the Cassatt article, the researcher started from a position of testing the claims
that practice might help test performance. In the Picasso study, however, there is
no specific set of claims being tested. Picasso is instead looking for possible differences among valedictorians. Are there more males or females, or are they about
the same? What are the career plans for valedictorians from differing sociocultural
backgrounds, if any?
Once Picasso has her findings, though, they need to be interpreted as well.
She starts by listing her most prominent findings:
There appears to be solid evidence for differences in anticipated early career
plans between Suburban and Inner City valedictorians, as well as more indirect evidence of gender differences among these groups, at least in relation to
early career plans. Overall, very few of these valedictorians, in either group,
plan to eschew further education and go directly to work. Furthermore, there
are no gender differences between those who choose to work as opposed to
those who are going on with more education.
Picasso goes on to look deeper into her findings, to see what they might mean:
Sociocultural and gender differences are present, however, in terms of where
and how these students will further their education. Very few Inner City males
plan to go to college, especially when compared to Inner City females. Nearly
equal numbers of Suburban males and females plan to go on to college. On the
other hand, many more Inner City females plan to go to vocational school when
compared to their Suburban counterparts.
As these findings are compared to each other, Picasso starts to arge for a
bigger picture of matters. The picture for suburban students appears to be one of
equality and a preponderance for moving on to college, while inner city students
are less balanced along gender lines and seem much more likely to go on to vocational training. She has no data to explain these differences, so she speculates on
possible causes. Such speculation by its very nature almost demands a cali for more
research:

D I S ^ S S I O N S AND

C O N C LU S

An overall picture seems to be emerging. For Suburban valedictorians, there

are nearly equal numbers of males and females. The vast majority of these
Suburban valedictorians plan to go to college (23 out of 30). There appear to
be no gender differences at all between Suburban male and female valedictorians. For Inner City valedictorians, another picture seems to be emerging.
While overall gender differences were not significant, most of the Inner City
valedictorians were female (22 out of 30). Unlike the Suburban valedictorians, who were almost all going to college, the Inner City valedictorians were
pretty much evenly split between college and vocational school. There were
no gender differences in this split. In summary, it seems that Inner City valedictorians are much more likely to go to vocational school than their Suburban
counterparts. Possible reasons for this difference need to be explored. Some
of these possible reasons might include the fac that Inner City students come
from a more practical background, they might have less money available for
college, or they might be more likely to be guided n a vocational direction by
their school career counselors. The apparent lack of male Inner City valedictorians, even though this gender difference was not significant, is suggestive
enough to warrant more extensive research to see if this is indeed the case.

In ield research, findings are usually woven within a set of complex and interactive contexts. Researchers often give simple labels to these contextual concepts,
in order to study and describe them. It then becomes one of the tasks of the Discussion section to "unpack" these contexts. The key concept in the Asimov article was
the notion of "enclave." Asimov first studied and described one such enclave. In the
final discussion, he then reflects upon what he has learned, and how it fits in and
extends prior understanding:
First, and most importantly, this study demonstrates that enclaves of learning,
as predicted in the literature, can and do arise within poor neighborhoods and
settings. On the surface, the enclave looks like an informal gathering between
motivated students and a volunteer tutor. Upon closer inspection, however,
its true nature is shown to be more formal and more complex. Students must
pass an interview process in order to be allowed to join. Once they become
members, they are expected to put in at least six hours a week into the meeting process. This does not include the extra time involved with reading and
practice outside of the meetings. Given the increasing demands of school and
community on these children, this is a remarkable investment of time for a
project where they get no formal credit or recognition.
Ynce Asimov compares this example of an enclave with the general notion from the
"terature, he goes on to discuss the nature of this particular enclave in more depth:
Another aspect of the formality of the enclave is the fact that it adheres to a
set of operational rules. Perhaps the most important rule is the principie of a
consensus of understanding. All participants understand that no point is finished unless everyone understands it. While this might appear to slow down
the progress of the group, this is considered okay. The resulting cohesin is
well worth the extra investment of time and energy, and besides, there is no

D I SCU55I)

schedule to try to adhere to, anyway. The efforts and personality of Mr. Jerry is
another key. Magda and the other children find it hard to imagine the enclave
continuing under the direction of another person, and they worry about his
health and vitality. Perhaps the strength of individuis such as Mr. Jerry is
necessary to counter the milieu of powerlessness that characterizes the environments of the children who are involved.
Sometimes, explanations about cultural issues or reas of specialized knowledge are required to understand results. Klein offers an excellent illustration of just
such a point:
Consideration of the results of this study requires an understanding of the
educational scene in Israel. Unlike administrative personnel, teachers do not
spend the entire school day on the premises. A full time teacher spends 30
hours a week in elementary school classrooms, and 24 weekly hours in high
schools. Teachers are required to be present only for scheduled periods of
instruction and for another few hours dedicated to pupil guidance, consultations with parents, rotational staff tasks and teachers' meetings. Lessons are
prepared in free time at home. From time to time, there are meetings during
the late afternoon or evening. During the school year, two meetings are usually scheduled for intensive parent-teachers' meetings. These conferences are
devoted to prvate discussions with parents of each child with regard to his or
her achievement and methods of promoting progress.

Examining Implications
Another crucial dimensin to the interpretation of findings is the task of determining and examining certain implications of the findings. These implications can take
avariety offorms.
For instance, sometimes implications direct us to possible changes in current
practices. This is well illustrated in the Danili and Red article, as they make suggestions for changing instructional practices in secondary level chemistry:
In light of these results, it is recommended that the design and delivery of
school chemistry courses should take into account the predictions from
information processing models derived from the psychology of learning and
that such changes will bring about improved performance. This may involve
changing the order of presentation and method of presentation. It may involve
the careful use of appropriate analogy and models (remembering that not all
analogies or models will bring about information reduction). It may mean a
more careful linking of new material to previous knowledge and a delibrate
effort in flagging up what is important and what is peripheral.
If assessment is to be fair for all pupils, it should not unnecessarily penaliza
those who happen to have lower working memory spaces and those who tend to
be field-dependent. Working memory space is fxed for an individual although
there is some evidence that field dependency can be enhanced. This can be
achieved by a small group of 'experts' looking at questions and assessing the

A D CO N CL U

working memory demand. Again, it has to be stressed that this is not the same
as difficulty. However, if assessment is to be fair, it must not require working
memory capacities that favour some learners more than others.
Wyss calis for both practical and theoretical change in her list of implications.
First, she lists some practical initiatives:
First, the incidents discussed here highlight the desperate need for comprehensive, age-appropriate sensitivity training of all educational staff and
students in the USA. Second, gender-variant people's lives must permeate
all classrooms, and school libraries should be fully stocked with up-to-date
wrtings on transgender, gender-queer, gayness, lesbianism and bisexuality.
Third, suicide prevention and anti-bullying programs in schools must deal
with the issues faced by LGBTQ young people. . . . Finally, on an institutional level, school boards must pass non-discrimination policies that would
make it a violation of school conduct codes to harass, assault or discrimnate
against students and staff on the basis of actual or perceived gender identity
or expression.
Then, Wyss points out a set of broader and more comprehensive theoretical goals
and implications:
My findings and the theoretical framework of 'doing gender' also indcate reas
for broader cultural change. Despite mounting evidence to the contrary, most
of us continu to assume that there are only two sexes and that each sex has
a gender with which it is inexorably associated (West & Zimmerman, 1987).
. . . In response, I am calling for a radical revisioning of gender, including the
eradication of the binary sex/gender system, a move away from the assumption that there are only two sexes and two genders (Devor, 1997; Wilchins,
2002), and the elimination of all gender hierarchies and other forms of injustice (Calina, 1997).
Picasso also talks about the social implications of her findings. She reminds us
thatvaledictorians are an important cultural resource, and that if some students appear
to unfairly lack opportunities, we need to do more research to make sure this is not the
case. If it turns out to be the case, then societal changes would need to be made:
In conclusin, it is a fact that valedictorians are among the best and brightest
of all our students. If valedictorians from poor reas and impoverished schools
are not getting an equal chance for continued education at the highest levis,
then eventually all society must suffer from this case. Therefore, it is important to continu research along these Unes, to make sure we are not wasting
one of our most precious resources.
Finally, James examines the implications of the research process itself. Given
the recursive and reflective nature of her research study and its emergent processes,
this is a quite appropriate topic for examination:

DISCUSSIONS

Research is a first-hand experience for teachers that brings learning to life.

This study showed me that young people interact in astonishing ways as they
seek to solve the endless problems that surround them
Teachers engaging in research are taking a step into the unknown, as they begin an uncertain
and hazardous journey, possibly isolated from a research community.
Her final implications are intensely personal:

Sometimes, Suggestions for the future do not direct themselves toward more research
but for a new and better visin of the future. Such a visin is offered by Wyss:
In setting out to accomplish these goals, however, we can begin to make our
schoolsand our societysafe for all youth (Human Rights Watch, 2001; Safe
Schools Coalition of Washington, 1995). Not only will trans and genderqueer
young people then be able to learn in school instead of just trying to survive,
but LGB-identified youth, sissy-acting straight boys, butch-looking heterosexual girls and teens who in other ways defy the strict gender standards of our
culture will feel more secure in their own lives and will find education a much
less traumatic experience.

Suggestions for the Future

Further work needs to be carried out to explore whether the benefits of the
approach adopted here bring specific benefits to those with lower working
memory spaces and those who are more field-dependent.
Cassatt finishes his article with a cali for further research, which was implied
in the discussion of possible explanations above. Finally, there is the realization that
this study was descriptive in nature, while changes in practice in real schools should
be based on causal data. Therefore, this study should be seen as opening the door
for a whole program of research that can then nail down these effects in a more solid
fashion. Cassatt is on solid ground here, since the tradition of moving from descriptive to causal research is a strong one in quantitative inquiry:
In conclusin, this correlational study has shown that it is reasonable to assume
that there is some relationship between practice and good grades in this safflple. Further research will be needed to control some of the factors descrbed
above, as well as others, in order to see if higher practice rates has a causal
impact on grades, or not.
With some forras of research, the cali for more work is sometimes blurre
the nature of the research itself . This is often seen in action research, in particulai .
Davidson concludes with a simple statement about the nature of action research m
general, and what she would like to see transpire in this study over time. Her las

CONCLUS

One of the key tenis of action research is for the researcher to leave things in
better shape than she found them (Bunting, 2002). At least for the school year
under question, this seemed to be the case at Garfield Elementary. Time will
tell, whether these changes lead to lasting change, or were only a brief bright
spot in a declining social milieu.

This is why I believe teacher research is so important, causing a change of

perspective that has so many benefits for everyone concerned.... As I reflect
on my learning I am aware that the more I see the more there is to understand:
children hold a wealth of surprises. One of the most valuable lessons for me
is that I have learned to become attuned to children's play: to listen to their
voices and respond to their interests and concerns.

Suggestions for future research are not all that common in educational research
articles. However, when they are present, they often reflect reas of great importance to the researchers.
Danili and Red make a fairly traditional sounding cali for more research to be
done in the rea they explored in their article:

AND

Our Emergi'ng Literacy Orientaran

Researchers begin their articles by introducing their topics and raising some questions. They end their articles by reflecting on the answers to those questions, and by
considering how these answers change our knowledge and understanding of those
topics of interest.
It is important to remember that articles may end, but there are no real endings
to research. In a real sense, doing empirical research is like running a middle leg in a
relay race. Chances are that we did not start the process but rather picked up a direction within a field of ongoing research. Even more surely, we will not finish the race
either. It may be trite and a clich, but every answer only raises many more questions.
A good discussion section brings some momentary closure and reflection to one set
of questions, but in the process opens up new directions for research as well.

Practice Makes Perfect

It is now time to practice some of the nsights and skills you have explored in this
chapter:

First of all, there are four training articles and four real articles whose discussions have not been examined. You can also look at the discussion section in
the three or four articles you chose to examine.
Try your hand at looking at these discussion sections. How do the researchers
interpret what they found? How do they summarize? Are there problems with
their findings that need to be explained? What implications do they draw? Are
there Suggestions for future research? Compare your results with those of your
classmates.