ENGM250: Finite Element Analysis

Semester 1 2015-16

University of Surrey

Authors

Dr Andrew Viquerat (MES)

Prof. Andy Crocombe (MES)

Document compiled on
December 13, 2015

Contents
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . .
Lectures and Tutorials
Reading List . . . . .
Assessment . . . . . .
Office Hour . . . . . .

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i
1
1
1
2
2

1 Line Elements
1.1 Bar Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Element Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Element Force Vector . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 Global Stiffness Matrix and Force Vector
1.1.6 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7 Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Beam Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Element Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Element Force Vector . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 Global Stiffness Matrix and Force Vector

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3
3
4
5
6
7
7
8
10
12
13
15
16
16

2 Area Elements
2.1 Triangular Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Element Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Element Force Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4 Global Stiffness Matrix and Force Vector . . . . . .
2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Element Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Global Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Quadrilateral Elements in Fracture Mechanics (non-exam.)

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19
19
19
22
23
23
25
25
28
31
31
34

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39
39
40
40
42
43
44

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3 Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

3.1 Lagranges Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Particle Energy and Forces . . . . .
3.1.2 Formulation of Lagrangean . . . . .
3.2 Mass Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Equation of Motion in FE . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendix A Formula Sheet

47

Appendix B Isotropic Linear Elastic Constitutive Equations

B.1 Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.2 Plane Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51
52
53

Appendix C Summary of FE Derivation Approach

55

ii

Introduction
Finite element (FE) methods are used to model fluid flow, heat transfer, and even the propagation of electric and magnetic fields. The method was first developed in the early 1940s to
model stress and strain in aircraft structures. In this module, we will focus on the stress analysis
applications of the finite element method.
While many situations in stress analysis do not require the use of FE methods, there are
occasions when finding an analytical solution for a given problem is either impossible or impractical. This might be because a structures geometry is too complicated, because it is constructed
from a variety of materials, or because the material properties themselves are complicated and
stress/strain dependent. FE is a very powerful method, and an understanding of the underlying
principles is essential in order to make the most of the software tools available, and to interpret
and assess the accuracy of the results produced by those tools.

Lectures and Tutorials

There will be three hours of lecture per week. There will be one hour of tutorial per week, taking
place immediately after the Monday lecture.
Lecture 1
Tutorial 1
Lecture 2
Lecture 3
Lecture 4
Tutorial 2
Lecture 5
Lecture 6
Lecture 7
Tutorial 3
Lecture 8
Lecture 9
Lecture 10
Tutorial 4
Lecture 11
Lecture 12

Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week
Week

7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11

Mon 15:00
Mon 16:00
Thurs 13:00
Thurs 14:00
Mon 15:00
Mon 16:00
Thurs 13:00
Thurs 14:00
Mon 15:00
Mon 16:00
Thurs 13:00
Thurs 14:00
Mon 15:00
Mon 16:00
Thurs 13:00
Thurs 14:00
Mon 15:00
Mon 16:00
Thurs 13:00
Thurs 14:00

TB20B
TB20B
TB22
TB22
TB20B
TB20B
TB22
TB22
TB20B
TB20B
TB22
TB22
TB20B
TB20B
TB22
TB22
TB20B
TB20B
TB22
TB22

Bar Elements
Bar and Beam Elements
Bar Elements
Bar Elements
Beam Elements
Bar and Beam Elements
Beam Elements
Triangle Elements
Triangle Elements
Tri and Quad Elements
Triangle Elements
Quad Elements
Quad Elements
Tri and Quad Elements
Quad Elements
TBD
Reserve lecture
Reserve tutorial
Reserve lecture
Reserve lecture

Reading List
There is no set text for this module, but there are a number of books on the recommended
reading list:
Astley, R.J. (1992). Finite elements in solids and structures. An introduction. Chapman
& Hall (Springer)
Cook, R. (2002). Concepts and applications of finite element analysis. Wiley, New York,
4th edn
Fagan, M. (1992). Finite element analysis: theory and practice. Longman Scientific &
Technical London

 Ross, C. (1996). Finite element techniques in structural mechanics. Elsevier

All of these books are available in the university library.

Assessment
The Finite Element component of ENGM250 will contribute 1/3rd of the total marks for the
module.
Assessment
Type
Coursework
Examination

Unit of Assessment

Date

2 in-class tests (approx.

15 mins each)
Examination (2 hours)

Thurs, Week 8
Thurs, Week 10
TBD

Weighting %
5
5
33% of 70%

Office Hour
One hour per week will be set aside for drop-in questions or discussion of the module content.
This will be in office 15 AB 03 between 11:00 and 12:00 on Fridays during term time.

Line Elements

The first family of elements we will consider are one-dimensional, or line elements. Within this
group, we will look in detail at:
Bar elements, which can only carry compressive and tensile loads.
Beam elements, which carry compressive, tensile, and bending loads.
Line elements can experience a number of different forces:
Body forces act throughout the structure, and are often used to represent the effect of gravity,
or some other form of acceleration.
Traction forces are also distributed forces, but act only on the surface of the elements.
Point loads act only at discrete locations. Point loads are usually assumed to act directly on
a node within the structure.
Point loads are the easiest forces to model in an FE system, so we will focus primarily on them.

1.1

Bar Elements

Consider the simple two bar element system shown below:

L1

u1

L2

u2

u3
A2

A1
x, u

As shown, each element has only two nodes (some element types can have more). The longitudinal displacement of points along the structures length from their initial unloaded position
is clearly a continuous function of x: u(x). Using this displacement function, it is possible to
determine the strain within the structure:
du
dx

(1.1)

= E

(1.2)

=
and hence also the stress:

1. Line Elements

1.1 Bar Elements

Instead of trying to find the continuous displacement function, we will attempt to find the
displacements at the nodes only: u1 , u2 and u3 .
The method we will be using to find the nodal displacements is essentially equivalent to the
Rayleigh-Ritz energy minimisation method covered in ENG3171.
Example
Consider the figure above, and assume that:
A1 = 2A2 = 2A
L1 = L2 = L
u1 = 0
The stiffness of each bar is:
ki =

EAi
L

and the strain energy in each bar is:

1
1
Ui = ki L2 = ki (uj ui )2
2
2
making the total strain energy:


E
2Au22 + A(u3 u2 )2
2L
while the loss of potential energy due to the action of the applied load is:
U=

V = F u3
The total potential energy is given by:


E
2Au22 + A(u3 u2 )2 F u3
2L
To find the displacement of the two nodes u2 and u3 we compute:
=U +V =

EA
(4u2 2(u3 u2 ))
=0=
u2
2L
EA
=
(3u2 u3 )
L
u3
u2 =
3

EA
=0=
(u3 u2 ) F
u3
L
3 FL
u3 =
2 AE
1 FL
u2 =
2 AE
/

1.1.1

Nodes

Every element has a number of nodes which are used as reference points within the element. The
nodes are the only part of an element whose location and displacements are tracked. Each node
is assigned a local number, and a global number. In the figure above, there are two elements,
each with two nodes. However, two of the nodes overlap, and are only counted as a single global
node. The mapping between global and local node numbers can be summarised in a connectivity
table. Connectivity tables like this can be used for any element type.

1. Line Elements

1.1 Bar Elements

Nodes

Elements

(local nodes)
(global nodes)

1.1.2

Shape Functions

Shape functions are used to model the displacement field within each element. The simplest
shape functions are linear, although much more complex forms are possible. First, define a new
intrinsic or natural coordinate with origin at the centre of the element:
i

xi

Global coordinates

xj

Intrinsic coordinates
= 1

= +1

The two types of coordinate are related by:

=

2(x xi )
1
xj xi

(1.3)

Two shape functions are assigned to the element:

1
2
1+
Nj () =
2
Ni () =

1
Nj

Ni

(1.4)

0.5
0

0.5
0

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

These shape functions can be used to express the variation in displacement across the element:


 ui

= Nq
(1.5)
u() = Ni ui + Nj uj = Ni Nj
uj
u()

ui

uj

1. Line Elements

1.1 Bar Elements

The strain in the element is given by:

du
du d
=
dx
d dx


d
d 2(x xi )
1
=
(Ni ui + Nj uj )
d
dx
xj xi
ui + uj
=
xj xi

=

If we define a new matrix called the element strain-displacement matrix :

B=

1
1
[ 1 1 ] = [ 1 1 ]
xj xi
le

(1.6)

then the strain can be written as:

 = Bq

(1.7)

and similarly the stress within the element is:

= EBq

(1.8)

Looking at Equations 1.5, 1.7 and 1.8, it can be seen that linear shape functions allow for a
displacement u which varies across the element, while the stress and strain are constant within
the element. In order to produce elements with varying stress and strain, higher order shape
functions would be required. For example, to produce a bar element with linearly varying strain,
quadratic (degree 2) shape functions would be required.

1.1.3

Element Stiffness Matrix

The total potential energy of the one dimensional system is given by:
X1Z
XZ
XZ
X
=U +V =
A dx
ufe A dx
uTe dx
Fn un
2 e
e
e
e
e
e
n

(1.9)

where fe is a body force per unit volume applied to element e, Te is a traction per unit length,
and Fn is a force applied to (global) node number n. The strain energy in each element can be
expressed in terms of some of the vector forms developed in the previous section:
Z
1
A dx
Ue =
2 e
Z
1
=
qT BT EBqA dx
2 e
Making the substitution:
xj xi
le
d = d
2
2


Z 1
1
Ae le Ee T
Ue = qT
B B
d q
2
2
1
dx =

leads to:

Performing the integral (

R1

1 d

= 2) and substituting for B from Equation 1.6 leads to:




1 T Ae le Ee 1 
1 1 q
Ue = q
2
1
2
le


1 T Ae Ee
1 1
= q
q
1 1
2
le
1
= qT kq
2

1. Line Elements

1.1 Bar Elements

where the stiffness matrix is:

Ee Ae
k=
le

1.1.4

ui

uj

1
1

1
1

ui

(1.10)

uj

Element Force Vector

The other terms in Equation 1.9 can be assembled into vector form. Starting with the second
(body force) term of Equation 1.9:
Z
Z
ufe A dx = Ae fe Ni ui + Nj uj dx
e
Ze
= Ae fe Nq dx
e Z
T
NT dx
= Ae fe q
e

1
Z 1
le
2
= Ae fe qT

d
2 1 1 +
2
 
Ae le fe 1
= qT
1
2
The body force vector is:
 
Ae le fe 1
1
2
Following a similar approach, the traction force vector is:
 
Te le 1
T=
1
2

(1.11)

f=

(1.12)

The point loads will be treated next when we assemble the global stiffness matrix.

1.1.5

Global Stiffness Matrix and Force Vector

The simple two-element structure we have been using as an example has two elements with two
nodes each, and a total of three global nodes. We first define a vector of global displacements:

u1
Q = u2
u3
Then, using the connectivity table, the global stiffness matrix is assembled:
u1

" 1
E1 A1
K=
1
l1
0

u1
E1 A1
l1
E1l1A1

u2

1
1
0

u3

0 #
0
0

u2
E1 A1
l1
E1 A1
E2 A2
l1 + l2
E2l2A2

u1

"
E 2 A2 0
+
0
l2
0

u1
u2
u3

u3

u1

E2l2A2
E2 A2
l2

u2

u3

u2

0
1
1

u3

0 #
1
1

u1
u2
u3

1. Line Elements

1.1 Bar Elements

The global force vector is:

1
0
1
0
F
A1 l1 f1 A2 l2 f2 T1 l1 T2 l2 1
1 +
1 +
1 +
1 + F2
F=
2
2
2
2
0
1
0
1
F3
The total potential energy in the system (Equation 1.9) can now be expressed in matrix form
as:
1
= QT KQ QT F
(1.13)
2
From this point, we may apply the Rayleigh-Ritz method and differentiate the total potential
energy with respect to the unknown displacements. This is equivalent to taking the gradient
of the scalar function with respect to the unknown displacements. In that case that K is
symmetric (guaranteed for our applications), this can be found as:
Q = KQ F = 0
or alternatively:
KQ = F

(1.14)

However, this expression must be used with caution. If boundary conditions are applied (just as
we did in the first example where the fixed displacement u1 was removed from the calculation)
then some terms in the matrices above must be modified.
Another commonly used method of deriving stiffness and force matrices is the Galerkin
approach, which will not be covered here.

1.1.6

Boundary Conditions

There are two main ways of applying boundary conditions to FE problems: the elimination and
the penalty methods. Penalty methods are useful for applying complex boundary conditions
involving enforced relationships between node displacements, but will not be covered here.
Consider a three node system:

K11 K12 K13

u1
F1
K21 K22 K23 u2 = F2
K31 K32 K33
u3
F3
Now assume that one of the three displacements is fixed to a particular value: u
. Quite often u

will be set to zero to enforce an absolutely fixed condition on the node. Assuming that it is the
first node to which the boundary condition is applied:

K11 K12 K13

u

F1
K21 K22 K23 u2 = F2
K31 K32 K33
u3
F3
(1.15)


K12 K13 
F1 K11 u

u2

K22 K23
= F2 K21 u
u3
K32 K33
F3 K31 u

The second and third rows of the equation above can be used to find the unknown displacements
u2 and u3 :


 

K22 K23
u2
F2 K21 u

=
K32 K33
u3
F3 K31 u

(1.16)

 
1 

u2
K22 K23
F2 K21 u

=
u3
K32 K33
F3 K31 u

1. Line Elements

1.1 Bar Elements

The original first equation can now be used to find the reaction force F1 required to keep node
1 at its enforced displacement u
:
F1 = K11 u
+ K12 u2 + K13 u3

(1.17)

Example
Re-solve the first example using the FE method. The figure is repeated here for convenience.
L1

u1

L2

u2

u3
A2

A1
x, u

First, recall that we have:

A1 = 2A2 = 2A
L1 = L2 = L
u1 = 0
Next, find the element stiffness matrices:


2EA
1 1
1 1
L


EA
1 1
k2 =
1 1
L

k1 =

Assembling this into the global stiffness matrix we get:

1 1 0
0 0
0
2EA
EA
1 1 0 +
0 1 1
K=
L
L
0
0 0
0 1 1

2 2 0
EA
2 3 1
=
L
0 1 1
The global force vector is simply:

0
F= 0
F
and the boundary condition at node 1 is just
therefore:

2 2 0
EA
2 3 1
L
0 1 1

u1 = u
= 0. Equation 1.14 for the system is

0
0
R
u2 = 0 + 0
u3
F
0

1. Line Elements

1.1 Bar Elements

where R is the reaction at the fixed node 1. We can now use Equation 1.16 directly with
u
= F2 = 0:

 

1 

EA
u2
3 1
0
=
u3
1 1
F
L



L 1 1 1
0
=
F
EA 2 1 3
 
FL
1
=
2EA 3
which is the same result as that obtained in the first example. Finally, we can check the reaction
force at the fixed root of the system. Using Equation 1.17 gives:
R = K11
u
+ K12 u2 + 
K
13 u3
2EA F L
=
L 2EA
= F
as might be expected.

1.1.7

Trusses

So far we have only considered bar elements deforming in one dimension. It is reasonably
straightforward to adapt what we have already developed to a multi-bar structure (truss) in
two, or even three dimensions. Consider the bar below which has been rotated by an angle
from the horizontal:
vj

u
j
uj

y
x

u
i = ui cos + vi sin
u
j = uj cos + vj sin

x
vi

u
i
ui

i
Its longitudinal nodal displacements u
i and u
j can be expressed in terms of the horizontal and
vertical components as:
u
i = ui cos + vi sin
u
j = uj cos + vj sin
or, using the traditional shorthand l = cos and m = sin :
u
i = lui + mvi
u
j = luj + mvj

10

1. Line Elements

1.1 Bar Elements

We now update the displacement vector q as:

ui
vi

q=
uj
vj


=
q

u
i
u
j

The relationship between these two forms can be expressed as:

= Lq
q
where:


L=

(1.18)

l m 0 0
0 0 l m


(1.19)

This can be used to adapt the element stiffness matrix of Equation 1.10:
= Ee Ae
k
le

u
i

u
j

1
1

1
1

u
i
u
j

into the stiffness matrix for a bar element of a truss:

k = LT kL

ui
l2

Ee Ae lm
=
le l2
lm

vi

uj

lm
m2
lm
m2

l2
lm
l2
lm

vj

lm
m2

lm
m2

ui

(1.20)

vi
uj
vj

Example
Calculate the global stiffness matrix for the two-bar truss below, and determine the deflection
of node 2:
2

A1 = A
A2 = 2A
L1 =
L
L2 = 3L

60

30

For element 1 we have l = cos(60) = 1/2 and m = sin(60) =

u1

1
EA
3

k1 =

4L
1

v1

3
3

3
3

11

u2

3
1
3

3/2. For this element we have:

v2

3
3

3
3

u1

v1
u2
v2

1. Line Elements

1.2 Beam Elements

and for element 2, l = cos(30) =

3/2 and m = sin(30) = 1/2:

u2

v2

EA 3
k2 =
2 3L
3
3

u2

2 3
EA 2

=
4L 2 3
2

u3

3
1
3
1

3
3

v2

u3

2/ 3
2
2/ 3

2 3
2

2 3
2

v3

3
1

3
1

u2

v2
u3
v3

v3

2
2/ 3

2/ 3

u2
v2
u3
v3

These can be assembled into the global stiffness matrix:

u1

EA

K=
4L

1
3
1

3
0
0

v1

3
3

3
3
0
0

u2

v2

3
3
3
2
3 + 2/ 3
2
2/ 3

3
1+ 2 3
3
2
2 3
2

u3

v3

0
0
2 3
2

2 3
2

0
0
2
2/ 3
2

2/ 3

u1
v1
u2
v2
u3
v3

The global force vector is simply:

0
0

F
F =

0
0

u1
v1
u2
v2
u3
v3

Since global nodes 1 and 3 are fixed, we can remove all the rows and columns corresponding to
the displacement of those nodes. What remains is:



 

EA 1 + 2 3
3
2
u2
F

=
v2
0
3 2 3 + 2/ 3
4L
This can be solved to give the displacement of node 2 as:




FL
u2
33 + 2
=
v2
8AE 2 3 3
/

1.2

Beam Elements

Beam elements are permitted to carry shear forces and bending moments. This means that, in
addition to translational displacements of nodes, we must also account for rotations.

12

1. Line Elements

1.2 Beam Elements

vj

vi
vi0

vj0
i

Here the displacement vector consists of the transverse nodal displacements v, and the beam
v
element slopes v 0 = x
:

vi
vi0

q=
vj
vj0
Note that we are now not considering the longitudinal displacements of the beam nodes.

1.2.1

Shape Functions

For bar elements we used linear shape functions to describe displacements as a function of
location within the element. In order to account for the variable slope within beam elements, it
is necessary to use higher order shape functions. Defining the four Hermite shape functions in
terms of the intrinsic coordinates:
1
Ni1 = (1 )2 (2 + )
4
1
Ni2 = (1 )2 ( + 1)
4
1
Nj1 = (1 + )2 (2 )
4
1
Nj2 = (1 + )2 ( 1)
4
with the transverse displacement:
v() = Ni1 vi + Ni2



dv 
dv 
+ Nj1 vj + Nj2
d i
d j

The shape functions are look like:

13

(1.21)

1. Line Elements

1.2 Beam Elements

1
Ni2

Ni1

0.5
0.5

0
0
1

0.5

0.5

-0.5
1

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5
0

Nj2

Nj1

1
0.5

-0.5
0
1

0.5

0.5

Note how each shape function is designed to have either a zero or unity value or slope at each
node. The intrinsic coordinate is related to the global coordinate x in the same way as bar
elements:
2(x xi )
=
1
xj xi
meaning that again:
dx =
so:

le
d
2

dv
dv dx
le dv
=
=
d
dx d
2 dx

(1.22)

Using this, Equation 1.21 can be re-written as:

v=

Ni1

le
2 Ni2

le
2 Nj2

Nj1

vi
 vi0

vj = Nq
vj0

It is also possible to find an expression for the strain through the beam thickness:

14

(1.23)

1. Line Elements

1.2 Beam Elements

The strain is given by:

=

z
d2 v
= z z 2
R
dx

and from Equation 1.23 we have:

v = Nq
d2 N
q
dx2
dx2
Differentiating Equation 1.22 allows this to be re-expressed in terms of :

d2 v

d2 v
4 d2 v
=
dx2
le2 d 2
4 d2
= 2 2 (Nq)
le d


4 d2 N
q
= 2
le d 2
where:


d2 N  3
le
le
= 2 31
32 3+1
2
2
2
2
2
d
The strain through the beam thickness can therefore be represented as:
 = Bq
where:
B = z

1.2.2

4 d2 N
le2 d 2

(1.24)

Element Stiffness Matrix

The strain energy stored in the beam is (from ENG3171):

 2 2
Z
1
v
U=
EI
dx
2
x2
and the potential energy in the beam is given by:
 2 2
X1Z
XZ
X
X
v
=U +V =
EI
dx

pv
dx

F
v

Mn vn0
n
n
2
2
x
e
e
e
e
n
n

(1.25)

where p is a load per unit length, Fn is a point load at location n, and Mn is a moment applied
at location n. The strain energy in each element can now be written as:
 2 2
Z
1
v
U=
EI
dx
2 e
x2
 2 T  2 
Z
1
d N
d N
T 16
=
EIq 4
q dx
2
2 e
le
d
d 2
T  2 
Z 
4EI T 1 d2 N
d N
= 3 q
d q
2
le
d
d 2
1

3
3
9 2
94 2
4
8 (3 1)le
8 (3 + 1)le
Z 1
3 (3 1)le (3 1)2 le2 /16 3 (3 1)le (9 2 1)le2 /16
4EI
8
8
d q
= 3 qT
9 2
3
9 2
3

(3

1)l

(3
+
1)l
le
e
e
1
4
8
4
8
3
3
2
2
2
2
8 (3 + 1)le (9 1)le /16 8 (3 + 1)le (3 + 1) le /16

15

1. Line Elements

1.2 Beam Elements

Integrating each term in the matrix with respect to gives:

1
U = qT kq
2
where k is the element stiffness matrix:
vi

12
EI 6le
k= 3
le 12
6le

1.2.3

vi0

vj

6le
4le2
6le
2le2

12
6le
12
6le

vj0

6le
2le2

6le
4le2

vi
vi0

(1.26)

vj
vj0

Element Force Vector

We first treat the distributed load p across the beam. Its contribution to the total potential
energy of the element is:
Z
Z
ple 1
pv dx =
N d q
2 1
e
= f Tq
= qT f
where the contribution to the element force vector due to the distributed load is:
ple /2
ple2 /12
f =

ple /2
2
ple /12

vi
vi0

(1.27)

vj
vj0

The contribution of external shear forces and moments applied at nodes must simply be
placed in the correct locations in the global force vector:

F =

1.2.4

..
.
Fn
Mn
..
.

vn
0
vn

Global Stiffness Matrix and Force Vector

The elements of the global stiffness matrix and force vector for a beam based system are assembled in exactly the same manner as the bar/truss system.
Example
Find the displacement of the centre of the first element in the two-element beam below:

16

1. Line Elements

1.2 Beam Elements

v
1

2
x

I1 = 2I
I2 = I

p
2L

Using Equation 1.26, the element force matrix for the first element is:
v10

v2

3L
4L2
3L
2L2

3
3L
3
3L

v1

3
EI 3L
k1 = 3
L 3
3L

v20

3L
2L2

3L
4L2

v1
v10
v2
v20

while for the second element it is:

v20

v3

6L
4L2
6L
2L2

12
6L
12
6L

v2

12
EI 6L
k2 = 3
L 12
6L

v30

6L
2L2

6L
4L2

v2
v20
v3
v30

For the first element the load vector due to the distributed load p is (from Equation 1.27):

pL
2
pL /3
f1 =

pL
pL2 /3

v1

v10
v2
v20

No load is applied to element 2, so we do not need to calculate its element force vector.
The beam has an encastre boundary condition, also called built-in or just clamped at both
ends. This means that the beam displacement and slope at nodes 1 and 3 will be zero. We
can therefore save time in constructing the global stiffness matrix and global force vector by
summing only those components corresponding to node 2:

Kelim

EI
= 3
L

v2

v20

15
3L

3L
8L2

v2

v2
v20

and:
Felim =

pL
pL2 /3

v20

which gives:
EI
L3

15 3L
3L 8L2



v2
v20

17


=

pL
pL2 /3

1. Line Elements

1.2 Beam Elements

Inverting this gives:



v2
v20




L3 1
8L2 3L
pL
=
pL2 /3
EI 111L2 3L 15


L
9pL3
=
111EI 8pL2


9pL4 /(111EI)
=
8pL3 /(111EI)

Finally, find the displacement of the centre of the first element ( = 0). From Equation 1.23:
v1 ( = 0) = Ni1
v
v10 + Nj1 ( = 0)v2 + LNj2 ( = 0)v20
1 + LNi2 
L 8pL3
1 9pL4
+
2 111EI
4 111EI
13 pL4
=
2 111EI
=

18

Area Elements

In this topic we will be examining two types of area, or two-dimensional elements:

Three-noded triangular elements
Four-noded quadrilateral elements
These elements can be subjected to point, body, and traction forces.

2.1

Triangular Elements

The type of element we will be constructing has three nodes, and will use linear shape functions.
This type of element is sometimes called a constant strain triangle because the strain does not
vary across the surface of a particular element.
vk
uk

vi
ui

vj

uj

Each of its nodes has a vertical and a horizontal component of displacement. Note that the
nodes are normally numbered in a counter-clockwise direction.

2.1.1

Shape Functions

As usual, we seek to find a set of shape functions which can be used to map the displacement
across the element:
u = Ni ui + Nj uj + Nk uk
v = Ni vi + Nj vj + Nk vk
u = Nq
where:


N=

Ni 0 Nj
0 Ni 0

0
Nj

Nk 0
0 Nk

19

q=

ui
vi
uj
vj
uk
vk

2. Area Elements

2.1 Triangular Elements

We need Ni = 1 at node i, and Ni = 0 at nodes j and k, varying linearly in between. It is

interesting to note that such shape functions can be defined geometrically in terms of areas
enclosed between the location of interest {x, y} and the element nodes:
k

Aj

{x, y}

Ai

Ak
i
j
With:
Ae = Ai + Aj + Ak
the shape functions required are:
Ai
Ae
Aj
Nj =
Ae
Ak
Nk =
Ae
Ni =

This time we will find the shape functions directly in terms of the global coordinates x and y,
rather than using a set of intrinsic coordinates to define the shape functions as an intermediate
step (although this can also be done). Proceeding systematically, assume that Ni has the form:
Ni = i + i x + i y
then we need:
i + i xi + i yi = 1
i + i xj + i yj = 0
i + i xk + i yk = 0
or:

1 xi yi
i
i
1
1 x j yj i = Z i = 0
1 xk yk
i
i
0

so clearly:

i
1
i = Z1 0
i
0

xj yk xk yj xk yi xi yk xi yj xj yi
1
yj yk
yk yi
yi yj
=
det Z
xk xj
xi xk
xj xi

xj yk xk yj xk yi xi yk xi yj xj yi
1
yj yk
yk yi
yi yj
=
2Ae
xk xj
xi xk
xj xi

20

(2.1)

2. Area Elements

2.1 Triangular Elements

The final line uses the result that Ae = 12 det Z, with the positive value being taken if the nodes
have been numbered counter-clockwise. From the result above we can immediately construct
the first shape function (Equation 2.1), and can infer the other two as:
1
(xj yk xk yj + (yj yk )x + (xk xj )y)
2Ae
1
Nj =
(xk yi xi yk + (yk yi )x + (xi xk )y)
2Ae
1
Nk =
(xi yj xj yi + (yi yj )x + (xj xi )y)
2Ae
Ni =

(2.2)

The element strains can now be found as:

x
ux

vy
 = y =
xy
uy + vx
In terms of the shape functions, these strains are:
x =

ux =

X Nn

un
x
X Nn
y =
vy =
vn
y
X Nn
Nn
xy = uy + vx =
un +
vn
y
x
for n {i, j, k}
In matrix form this can be written as:

y yk
1 j
0
=
2Ae
xk xj

0
xk xj
yj yk

yk yi
0
yi yj
0

0
xi xk
0
xj xi

xi xk yk yi xj xi yi yj

ui
vi
uj
vj
uk
vk

However, adopting the notation yjk = yj yk and xik = xi xk etc. allows this to be slightly
simplified as:

ui

vi

yjk 0 yki 0 yij 0

uj
1

0 xkj 0 xik 0 xji

(2.3)
=
vj = Bq
2Ae

xkj yjk xik yki xji yij

uk
vk
Finally, to find the stress in the element, we
and strain in a thin plate:

x
1
E

= y =
(1 2 )
xy
0

21

use the plane stress equations relating stress

1
0

0
0
1
2

x
y = D
xy

(2.4)

2. Area Elements

2.1.2

2.1 Triangular Elements

Element Stiffness Matrix

The total energy in the element is:



Z
Z
X
1
fx
T
t dA
(Fxn un + Fyn vn )
 Dt dA [ u v ]
=U +V =
fy
2 e
e
n

(2.5)

where the first term represents the strain energy in the element, the second term is due to body
forces acting on the element, and the final term is due to point loads with x and y components
Fxn and Fyn acting at the elements nodes. The strain energy term is:
Z
1
U=
T Dt dA
2 e
Z
1
=
qT BT DBqt dA
2 e
Z
1 T T
dA
= q B DBqte
2
e
1
= qT te Ae BT DBq
2
1
= qT kq
2
from which the element stiffness matrix can be identified as:
k = te Ae BT DB

(2.6)

Using Equations 2.3 and 2.4 in Equation 2.6, it is possible to express the stiffness matrix explicitly
as:

Ete

k=

8Ae (1 2 )

...

ui

vi

uj

2
(1 )x2kj + 2yjk
(1 + )xkj yjk
xik xkj (1 ) + 2yjk yki
2xik yjk + xkj yki (1 )
xji xkj (1 ) + 2yij yjk
xkj yij (1 ) + 2xji yjk

(1 + )xkj yjk
2
2x2kj + (1 )yjk
xik yjk (1 ) + 2xkj yki
2xik xkj + (1 )yjk yki
2xkj yij + xji yjk (1 )
2xji xkj + (1 )yij yjk

xik xkj (1 ) + 2yjk yki

xik yjk (1 ) + 2xkj yki
2
(1 )x2ik + 2yki
(1 + )xik yki
xik xji (1 ) + 2yij yki
xik yij (1 ) + 2xji yki

vj

uk

vk

2xik yjk + xkj yki (1 )

2xik xkj + (1 )yjk yki
(1 + )xik yki
2
2x2ik + (1 )yki
2xik yij + xji yki (1 )
2xik xji + (1 )yij yki

xji xkj (1 ) + 2yij yjk

2xkj yij + xji yjk (1 )
xik xji (1 ) + 2yij yki
2xik yij + xji yki (1 )
2
(1 )x2ji + 2yij
(1 + )xji yij

xkj yij (1 ) + 2xji yjk

2xji xkj + (1 )yij yjk
xik yij (1 ) + 2xji yki
2xik xji + (1 )yij yki
(1 + )xji yij
2
2x2ji + (1 )yij

ui
vi
uj
vj
uk
vk

However, this expression if too cumbersome to use in most hand calculations, so it is recommended that only the terms required for a particular problem are derived directly from Equation
2.6.

22

2. Area Elements

2.1.3

2.1 Triangular Elements

Element Force Vector

The body force term in Equation 2.5 can be expanded as:



Z
Z
fx
[ u v ]
t dA = te ufx + vfy dA
fy
e
e
Z
Z
Z
= ui te fx Ni dA + vi te fy Ni dA + uj te fx Nj dA + . . .
eZ
e
Z
Ze
. . . vj te fy Nj dA + uk te fx Nk dA + vk te fy Nk dA
It can be shown that:

1
Nn dA = Ae
3
e


Z
fx
[ u v ]
t dA = f T q
f
y
e

so:

where the element body force vector is given by:

f
x
fy
t e Ae
fx
f=
3
fy

fx
fy

2.1.4

ui
vi
uj

(2.7)

vj
uk
vk

Global Stiffness Matrix and Force Vector

The global stiffness matrix and global force vector must be assembled in the usual way.
Example
Consider the equilateral triangle below:
L
k

60

60

h = L sin 60 =

Ae =

3L
2

3L2
4

The element is fixed at two points, and has a single horizontal point load F applied to node
i. We are looking for the displacement of node i: {ui , vi }. Note that since there is only a
single element involved in this problem, we will stick with the i, j, k node notation, rather than
introducing global node numbering 1, 2, 3, 4, . . ..
From Equation 2.6 we know that:
k = te Ae BT DB

23

2. Area Elements

2.1 Triangular Elements

where:

1
E

1
D=
(1 2 )
0 0
and:

y
0 yki 0
1 jk
0 xkj 0 xik
B=
2Ae
xkj yjk xik yki

3L/2
0
0
2
0 L
0
=
3L2 L 0
L/2

3 0
0
0
1
0 2 0 1
=
3L 2 0
1
3

So we have:
2
3L T
k = te
B DB
4

te E

=
4 3(1 2 )

te E

=
4 3(1 2 )

0
0
2
0
2
0

3
0
1
0
1
3

3 0
1

0
1 3

0
0
2
2
0
0
3
0
1
3
0
1

3 0
1

0
1 3

0
0
1
2

yij 0
0 xji
xji yij

0
3L/2
0

0
L/2
L/2

3L/2
L/2
3L/2

3
0
0
1

1
3

0 0

0
0
1
2

0
0
0 2
2 0

3 0 3
0
0 1
0
1

1
3
1
3

...
0
2

3
0
3
...
2

1
0
(1 )/2 . . .

2(1 ) 0 . . .
te E

0
4 ...
=

..
.. . .
4 3(1 2 )
.
.
.
Eliminating the fixed rows and columns gives:
te E
K=
2 3(1 2 )

ui

vi

1
0

0
2

ui
vi

The global force vector is simply:

F=

F
0

ui
vi

So we can find the displacements:





 

3(1 + ) 2
ui
0
F
2 3(1 + )F/(te E)
1
=
Q=
=K F=
vi
0 1
0
0
te E
So we see there is no vertical movement at node i.

24

2. Area Elements

2.2

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

While constant strain triangles were relatively easy to formulate, and they can be used to mesh
a wide variety of surfaces, it takes quite a fine mesh to deliver accurate results. In this topic
we will derive the stiffness matrices and force vectors for a four-node quadrilateral element.
Note that it is possible to formulate higher order elements with a greater number of nodes (the
eight-node quadrilateral is quite common). A generic four-node quadrilateral is shown below.
vk
k

uk

vl
l

ul

y
vi
x

vj
ui

uj

As was the case with triangular elements, we will continue to number the nodes in an anticlockwise direction. This element has four horizontal displacements, and four vertical displacements.

2.2.1

Shape Functions

Deriving shape functions for a general four-node quadrilateral would be quite difficult. Instead,
we start with a master element with coordinates {, }.
l
{1, 1}

k
{1, 1}

{0, 0}

{1, 1}
i

{1, 1}
j

25

2. Area Elements

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

It is quite simple to derive shape functions for an element like this. The Lagrange shape functions
are:
1
Ni = (1 )(1 )
4
1
Nj = (1 + )(1 )
4
(2.8)
1
Nk = (1 + )(1 + )
4
1
Nl = (1 )(1 + )
4
Note that the shape functions have a unity value at their corresponding node, and are zero at
all other nodes. The nodal displacements can be used to find a displacement anywhere in the
element in the usual way:
u = Ni ui + Nj uj + Nk uk + Nl ul
v = Ni vi + Nj vj + Nk vk + Nl vl
u = Nq
where:


N=

Ni 0 Nj
0 Ni 0

0
Nj

Nk 0 Nl 0
0 Nk 0 Nl

The term isoparametric is used to describe elements of this type because the same set of shape
functions are used to describe both the displacements within the element (as we are used to
doing), as well as the coordinates of a point within an element. Note that we were also able to
do this with the bar elements in the first topic. The coordinates of the original element can be
expressed using the same shape functions as:
x = Ni xi + Nj xj + Nk xk + Nl xl
y = Ni yi + Nj yj + Nk yk + Nl yl

(2.9)

In order to be able to find the strains within the original element, we need to find the
derivatives of the displacements with respect to the original coordinates (x = u/x etc).
Starting with the first shape function:
Ni x Ni y
x
y
Ni
=
+
= Nix
+ Niy

x
y

Ni
Ni x Ni y
x
y
=
+
= Nix
+ Niy

x
y

where the second subscript represents a partial differentiation. In matrix form:

x y 



Ni
Nix
= x y
Niy
Ni



Nix
=J
Niy

(2.10)

where the elements of the Jacobian J matrix can be found by differentiating the terms of
Equation 2.9:
 P
 

P
N
x
N
y
J
J
11
12
n
n
n
n
n
n
P
J= P
=
(2.11)
J21 J22
n Nn xn
n Nn yn

26

2. Area Elements

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

The Jacobian can be written explicitly in terms of the intrinsic coordinates as:
1
J=
4

(1 )xi + (1 )xj + (1 + )xk (1 + )xl

(1 )xi (1 + )xj + (1 + )xk + (1 )xl

(1 )yi + (1 )yj + (1 + )yk (1 + )yl

(1 )yi (1 + )yj + (1 + )yk + (1 )yl

Inverting the J matrix in Equation 2.10 gives:





Ni
Nix
1
=J
Ni
Niy



1
J22 J12
Ni
=
Ni
det J J21 J11

(2.12)

This equation will hold for all shape functions Ni , Nj , Nk and Nl . Note that an area infinitesimal
between the original and master elements can be related using:
dx dy = det J d d

(2.13)

Example
Find the global shape function derivatives at the centre ( = = 0) of the following element:
2
l

xi = 2

yi = 0

xj = 2

yj = 0

xk = 1

yk = 4

xl = 1

yl = 4

Starting with Equation 2.8, the partial derivatives are:

1
4
1
=
4

1
4
1+
=
4

1+
4
1+
=
4

1+
4
1
=
4

Ni =

Nj =

Nk =

Nl =

Ni

Nj

Nk

Nl

So, setting = = 0 we have:

1
4
1
=
4

1
4

Ni =

Nj =

Ni

Nj =

1
4

1
4
1
=
4

Nk =

Nl =

Nk

Nl =

1
4

1
4

Note that the values above are actually valid for all elements. We can use this to construct the
Jacobian at the centre of the element using Equation 2.11:
 P



P

1 6 0
N
x
N
y
n
n
n
n
n
n

P
J|{0,0} = P
=

4 0 8
n Nn xn
n Nn yn
{0,0}

27

2. Area Elements

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

so we have:
det J = 3
and:
J1 {0,0}


1
=
6

4 0
0 3

This can be used to find the shape function derivatives. For example, for shape function Ni :





 1 
 
1 4 0
1
Nix 
Ni 
4
4
1
=J
=
=
Niy {0,0}
Ni {0,0} 6 0 3
14
24 3
/
Next, we must find the element strains:

x
x

 = y =

xy
u v
+
y x

P
Pn Nnx un

= P
n Nny vn
n Nny un + Nnx vn

Nix
0 Nj x
0
Nkx
0
Nlx
0
Nj y
0
Nky
0
= 0 Niy
Niy Nix Nj y Nj x Nky Nkx Nly

Nly

Nlx

ui
vi
uj
vj
uk
vk
ul
vl

(2.14)

= Bq
where the elements of the element strain-displacement matrix B can be found using Equation
2.12. Note that unlike the constant-strain triangle, the values in the strain-displacement matrix
will vary across the element.

2.2.2

Numerical Integration

In calculating the stiffness matrices for bar, beam and triangle elements, we have been able to
start with integral expressions for the strain energy, and perform analytical integrations to find
each of the components of the stiffness matrix. The terms in these matrix equations can be
evaluation in two ways:
1. Analytically
each of the terms in the matrix can be calculated and integrated between the limits
for the four-node quad anything other than a rectangular element makes this process
quite difficult.
2. Numerically

28

2. Area Elements

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

the integral is calculated approximately as the weighted sum of the integrand evaluated at various locations within the domain
this represents a significant computational saving.
While it is possible to find analytical expressions for the corresponding integrals that arise in
finding the quadrilateral elements stiffness matrix, it is faster to approximate the integrals using
an approach called Gaussian Quadrature. The integral is approximated as:
Z 1
N
X
f () d
wn f (n )
(2.15)
1

n=1

where wn are the weights and n are the Gauss points. The value and location of these weights
and points are carefully chosen such that they will give the exact answer for a polynomial of a
degree up to 2N 1.
For the case of a polynomial of degree 1 (f () = a0 + a1 ), we can simply use the midpoint
rule to get:
Z
1

f () d = 2f (0)
1

so clearly:
w1 = 2

1 = 0

To find the weights and points for higher degree polynomials, we can use an error minimisation
approach.
Example
Find the weights and Gauss points for a two-term approximation (N = 2). This means we are
looking for an approximation:
Z 1
f () d w1 f (1 ) + w2 f (2 )
1

There are four unknown parameters to solve for, so it can be assumed that an exact solution
can be attained for a degree 3 (cubic) polynomial with its four coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 and a3 :
Z 1
a0 + a1 + a2 2 + a3 3 d = w1 f (1 ) + w2 f (2 )
1

a0 +

a1 2 a2 3 a3 4 i1
+ +
= w1 (a0 + a1 1 + a2 12 + a3 13 ) + w2 (a0 + a1 2 + a2 22 + a3 23 )
2
3
4
1
2a2
2a0 +
= a0 (w1 + w2 ) + a1 (w1 1 + w2 2 ) . . .
3
+ a2 (w1 12 + w2 22 ) + a3 (w1 13 + w2 23 )

Collecting terms for the polynomial coefficients gives:

2
a0 (w1 + w2 2) + a1 (w1 1 + w2 2 ) + a2 (w1 12 + w2 22 ) + a3 (w1 13 + w2 23 ) = 0
3
This must hold true for any set of values of the polynomial coefficients, hence we get four
independent equations:
w1 + w2 = 2
w1 1 + w2 2 = 0
2
w1 12 + w2 22 =
3
w1 13 + w2 23 = 0

29

2. Area Elements

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

These equations have the solution:

w1 = w2

=1

2 = 1

1
= = 0.57735
3

/
The weights and Gauss points to be used in Equation 2.15 for a value of N up to 6 are given
below:
N
1
2
3
4
5

n
0.0

1/ 3 = 0.5773502692
0.7745966692
0.0
0.8611363116
0.3399810436
0.9061798459
0.5384693101
0.0
0.9324695142
0.6612093865
0.2386191861

wn
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.8
0.3478548451
0.6521451549
0.2369268851
0.4786286705
0.568
0.1713244924
0.3607615730
0.4679139346

2N 1
1
3
5
7
9

11

The same set of points can be used for two-dimensional problems. starting with:
#
Z 1Z 1
Z 1 "X
N
wn f (, n ) d
f (, ) d d
1

N
X
m=1

n=1

wm

N
X

(2.16)
wn f (m , n )

n=1

For example, with N = 1, then w1 = 2 and 1 = 1 = 0, so:

Z 1Z 1
f (, ) d d (2)(2)f (0, 0) = 4f (0, 0)
1

and for N = 2, then w1 = w2 = 1 and 1 = 1 = 1/ 3, 2 = 2 = 1/ 3, so:

Z

2
X




 
1
1
+ f m ,
wm f m ,
f (, ) d d
3
3
1
m=1








1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1

=f
,
+f
,
+f
,
+f
,
3
3
3 3
3
3
3 3

30

2. Area Elements

2.2.3

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

Element Stiffness Matrix

The strain energy in the element is given by:

Z
1
T Dt dA
U=
2 e
Z
1
= te qT BT DBq dx dy
2
e
Z 1Z 1
1
qT BT DBq det J d d
= te
2
1 1
Z 1Z 1
1 T
= q te
BT DB det J d d q
2
1 1
1 T
= q kq
2
where D is again:

1
E
1
D=
(1 2 )
0 0

0
0
1
2

and the element stiffness matrix is given by:

Z 1Z 1
k = te
BT DB det J d d
1

(2.17)

For now we will leave the stiffness matrix in integral form, and find the terms using numerical
integration as they are needed.

2.2.4

Global Stiffness Matrix

The global stiffness matrix must be assembled in the usual way. Note that this time we do not
have an explicit expression for the element stiffness matrix k.
Example
Find the vertical displacement of nodes k and l, and find the stress at the centre of the following
element. Use single point numerical integration in the evaluation of the stiffness matrix elements.
F

F
2

xi = 2

yi = 0

xj = 2

yj = 0

xk = 1

yk = 4

xl = 1

yl = 4

31

2. Area Elements

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

Again, assume that D is given by:

1
E

1
D=
(1 2 )
0 0

0
0
1
2

Since we are using a single integration point, we are interested in evaluating Equation 2.17
based on values derived at the centre of the element ( = = 0). Fortunately, we have already
derived a number of expressions at the centre of the element, namely (repeated for ease of
reference):
det J = 3
and:
J1 {0,0}


and:

Nix
Niy

=J

{0,0}

Ni
Ni

1
=
6

{0,0}

1
=
6

4 0
0 3


4 0
0 3



41
14

1
=
24

4
3

And from Equation 2.14 we have:

Nix
0 Nj x
0
0
Nj y
B = 0 Niy
Niy Nix Nj y Nj x

4 0
4
0
1
0 3 0 3
B|{0,0} =
24
3 4 3 4

32

Nkx
0
Nlx 0
0
Nky
0 Nly
Nky Nkx Nly Nlx

4 0 4 0
0 3 0
3
3 4 3 4

2. Area Elements

2.2 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements

We can then find the stiffness matrix, focussing only on the 6th and 8th rows and columns as:
Z 1Z 1
BT DB det J d d
k = te
1 1

= (2)(2)(3)te BT {0,0} D B|{0,0}

0
0
1

12 Ete

0 ... ... ... ... ... 3 ... 3

= 2

24 1
0 0 1
4
4

0 3
2
4

0 3 4

3
3

. . . . .
1 Ete

..

. . . . .
=

.
.
.
.
.
3
.
3

48 1

2(1 )
2(1 )
0 3
4

0 3 4

..
..
..
.
.
.

..
..
..

.
.
.
1 Ete

17

8
+
1
2

48 1

..
..

.
.

8 + 1

17 8

The full stiffness matrix is:

ui

41/2 9/2

6 + 6

9/2 23/2

1 Ete
18 6

k=
48 1 2
9/2
41/2

6
6

9/2 + 23/2
6 18

...

vi

uj

vj

6 + 6
17 8
6 18
8 + 1
6 6
8 17
18 6
8 1

9/2 23/2
6 18
41/2 9/2
6 6
9/2 + 23/2
18 6
9/2 41/2
6 + 6

18 6
8 + 1
6 6
17 8
6 18
8 1
6 + 6
8 17

uk

vk

ul

vl

9/2 41/2
6 6
9/2 + 23/2
6 18
41/2 9/2
6 + 6
9/2 23/2
18 6

6 6
8 17
18 6
8 1
6 + 6
17 8
6 18
8 + 1

9/2 + 23/2
18 6
9/2 41/2
6 + 6
9/2 23/2
6 18
41/2 9/2
6 6

6 18
8 1
6 + 6
8 17
18 6
8 + 1
6 6
17 8

33

ui

vi
uj
vj
uk
vk
ul
vl

2. Area Elements

2.3 Quadrilateral Elements in Fracture Mechanics (non-exam.)

We are only interested in the 6th and 8th rows and columns of this matrix, so:
Ete
K=
48(1 2 )

vk

vl

17 8
8 + 1

8 + 1
17 8

vk
vl

and the global force vector is:

F=

F
F

vk
vl

from which we can get:



vk
vl

=K

8F (1 2 )
F=
3Ete

1
1

Next, lets find the stress at the centre of the element:

|{0,0} = D |{0,0}
= D B|{0,0} q

4 0
4
0 4 0 4 0

1
0 3 0 3 0 3 0
3
= D

24
3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

0
0
0
0
0
vk
0
vl

 
0 0
F (1 2 )
1

=
D 3 3
1
9Ete
4 4

1
0
0
E
F (1 2 )
1
6
0
=
9Ete (1 2 )
0 0 1
0
2

2F
1
=
3te
0
So the components of stress at the centre of this plate are:
x =

2F
3te

y =

2F
3te

xy = 0
/

2.3

Quadrilateral Elements in Fracture Mechanics (non-exam.)

Certain types of finite elements can be used to model the propagation of a crack through a
structure. While fracture mechanics is not always a topic raised in finite element texts, a
good deal of research into using FE to model fracturing has been undertaken. One method of
modelling the stress field near to a crack tip is to use a quarter point element. Consider the
eight-node quadrilateral element below:

34

2. Area Elements

2.3 Quadrilateral Elements in Fracture Mechanics (non-exam.)

k
o
l

p
x
i

The shape functions for this element are:

1
Ni = (1 )(1 )(1 + + )
4
1
Nj = (1 + )(1 )( 1)
4
1
Nk = (1 + )(1 + )( + 1)
4
1
Nl = (1 )(1 + )( + 1)
4

1
Nm = (1 2 )(1 )
2
1
Nn = (1 2 )(1 + )
2
1
No = (1 2 )(1 + )
2
1
Np = (1 2 )(1 )
2

Now consider the case in which the bottom edge of one of these elements ( = 1) is aligned
with the x axis (y = 0). Move the middle node m until it is exactly one quarter of the distance
between i and j from the left hand side:

j
x

L/4

Since this is an isoparametric element, we can express both the nodal displacements and locations
within the element in terms of the same shape functions. Along this bottom edge, the x-location
can be written as:
x = Ni xi + Nm xm + Nj xj
1
1
L 1
= (1 )(2)()(0) + (1 2 )(2) + (1 + )(2)()L
4
2
4
4
L
L
= (1 2 ) + ( + 2 )
4
2
L 2
= ( + 2 + 1)
4
L
= (1 + )2
4

35

2. Area Elements

2.3 Quadrilateral Elements in Fracture Mechanics (non-exam.)

Rearranging this gives:

r
x
1
=2
L
with partial derivative:
 x  1 1

2
=
x
L
L
1
=
xL
The direct strain along this edge is therefore:
du
dx
u
=
x

x =

1
= f (, u)
xL
1

So clearly x as x 0 with r 2 . This enables the modelling of a stress field in a linear

1
elastic material near to a crack tip, where it is assumed that r 2 . The figure below shows
an example of how this type of element could be used:

Nodes moved to 1/4 point

A more realistic representation of the stress field in the vicinity of a crack tip can be obtained
by using degenerate elements in which the three nodes defining one edge of a quadrilateral are
collapsed together, forming a triangular element. Most codes will permit this, and there is
nothing wrong with doing this from a purely mathematical perspective.
L/4

3L/4
k

o
n

i, p, l
m

36

2. Area Elements

2.3 Quadrilateral Elements in Fracture Mechanics (non-exam.)

Note that again, the nodes along opposing edges have been moved to the quarter points. A
number of these elements can be arranged around a crack tip as shown:

The desired stress field now radiates outward in all directions, providing a more accurate representation.

37

38

Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

The previous chapters have dealt with static loading and displacements of elastic structures.
This type of analysis, while extremely powerful and broadly applicable, is not the only use of
finite elements in structural engineering. By assigning mass properties to elements, it is possible
to simulate the dynamic response of structures. Two of the main applications of this technique
are:
Modal analysis: examining the frequency response of a system to a brief or sustained
input;
Dynamic response to inputs: examining the displacements within structures over a time
frame short enough for quasi-static assumptions to be inappropriate.
Non-quasi static analysis, especially of structures undergoing large displacements, is a reasonably
advanced topic. It involves integrating the equations of motion (using either implicit or explicit
methods) of a structure with respect to time. Modal analysis is more straightforward, and is
what we will consider here.

3.1

Lagranges Equations

Before deriving the dynamic equations for an FE system, we will first consider the motion of a
single particle of mass m moving in a plane.
y

q1 , F1

q2 , F2
m

x
The particle has two displacements, q1 and q2 (analogous to nodal displacements), which are
not necessarily aligned with the global orthogonal axes {x, y}. In classical Lagrangian Dynamics
these are called generalised coordinates, and may be curvilinear. The particle is connected to
an elastic support, and subjected to external forces F1 and F2 along directions q1 and q2 .
The particles displacement in global coordinates can be expressed in terms of the two local
parameters as:
x = x(q1 , q2 )
(3.1)
y = y(q1 , q2 )

39

3. Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

3.1 Lagranges Equations

The equations of motion for the particle are simply:

m
x = Fx
m
y = Fy

(3.2)

Where Fx and Fy are the total forces acting on the particle in the x and y directions.

3.1.1

Particle Energy and Forces

The particle has a kinetic energy:

1
T = m(x 2 + y 2 )
2

(3.3)

It also has a potential energy:






 F1

 k11 k12
1
q1
q1 q2
q1 q2
F2
k21 k22
q2
2
1
= qT kq qT f
2

(3.4)

This is called a conservative system, because the potential energy of the particle does not depend
on the path the particle has taken to arrive at a particular point. Rather, it depends only on
the location of the particle. Note that the total force acting on the particle in directions q1 and
q2 can be found by differentiating the potential energy:

F1 =
= k11 q1 k12 q2 + F1
q1

F2 =
= k12 q1 k22 q2 + F2
q2
These forces can be resolved into their x and y components via:
x
y
F1 = Fx
+ Fy
q1
q1
y
x
F2 = Fx
+ Fy
q2
q2
which implies that (using Equation 3.2):
x
y

F1 = m
x
+ m
y
=
q1
q1
q1
x
y

F2 = m
x
+ m
y
=
q2
q2
q2

3.1.2

(3.5)

Formulation of Lagrangean

Differentiating Equation 3.1 with respect to time gives:

x
q1 +
q1
y
y =
q1 +
q1

x =

40

x
q2
q2
y
q2
q2

(i)

3. Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

3.1 Lagranges Equations

Further differentiating these expressions with respect to q1 and q2 gives the relationships:
x
=
q1
y
=
q1

x
q1
y
q1

x
=
q2
y
=
q2

x
q2
y
q2

Differentiating the right hand side of the first equation in ii with respect to time gives:




d x

x q1
x q2

=
+
dt q1
q1 q1 t
q2 q1 t
2
2
x
x
q1 +
q2
=
q1 q2
q12

(ii)

(iii)

Differentiating the first equation in (i) with respect to q1 gives:

x
2x
2x
=
q

+
q2
1
q1
q1 q2
q12

(iv)

Clearly Equations (iii) and (iv) are equal. The same process can be applied to the other three
equations in (ii) to give:
d x
x
d x
x
=
=
dt q1
q1
dt q2
q2
(v)
y
d y
y
d y
=
=
dt q1
q1
dt q2
q2
Next, take the expression for T in Equation 3.3 and differentiate it with respect to q1 :
T
T x
T y
=
+
q1
x q1
y q1
x
y
= mx
+ my
q1
q1
Substituting in using Equation (ii), this becomes:
T
x
y
= mx
+ my
q1
q1
q1
Using the result of Equation (v), and the product rule, we can find the time derivative of the
above expression as:
d T
x
x
y
y
= m
x
+ mx
+ m
y
+ my
dt q1
q1
q1
q1
q1

(vi)

We next find the derivative of T in Equation 3.3 with respect to q1 :

T
T x
T y
=
+
q1
x q1
y q1
y
x
= mx
+ my
q1
q1
Subtracting Equation (vii) from (vi) gives:
d T
T
x
y

= m
x
+ m
y
dt q1 q1
q1
q1

41

(vii)

3. Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

3.2 Mass Matrices

and using Equation 3.5 this becomes the version of the Lagrangean equation of motion that we
will use:
d T
T

=
dt q1 q1
q1
or more generally:
T

d T

=
(3.6)
dt qi qi
qi
for any degree of freedom qi .
Equation 3.6 can be generalised from a single particle, to a collection of particles, to a larger
conservative system of bodies. If the displacements of the nodes of a finite element model are
taken to be the generalised coordinates qi then we can use Equation 3.6 to derive a set of
equations of motion.

3.2

Mass Matrices

The formulation of the potential energy of an FE system (Equation 3.4) was covered extensively
in the first two topics. The kinetic energy in an element is given by the volume integral:
Z
1
Te =
u T u dV
2 e
The time derivatives of the displacements can simply be found as:
u = Nq
The kinetic energy expression becomes:
Z

1
Te = q T
2

NT N dV q

We can define a consistent mass matrix as:

Z
m=

NT N dV

(3.7)

This matrix can be assembled into a global mass matrix M in much the same way as a global
stiffness matrix is assembled.
Example
Find the consistent mass matrix for a beam element. Recall that we have:
1
Ni1 = (1 )2 (2 + )
4
1
Ni2 = (1 )2 ( + 1)
4
1
Nj1 = (1 + )2 (2 )
4
1
Nj2 = (1 + )2 ( 1)
4

v() =

Ni1

le
2 Ni2

From Equation 3.7, the mass matrix is:

Z

ANT N dx
Z
le 1 T
= Ae
N N d
2 1

m=

42

Nj1

le
2 Nj2

vi
 vi0

vj = Nq
vj0

3. Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

3.3 Equation of Motion in FE

The first element is:

m11 = Ae

le
2

2
Ni1
d

Z
le 1 6
6 4 + 4 3 + 9 2 12 + 4 d
= Ae
32 1
13
= Ae le
35
The complete mass matrix is:
vi0

vj

22le
4le2
13le
3le2

54
13le
156
22le

vi

156
Ae le 22le
m=
420 54
13le

vj0

13le
3le2

22le
4le2

vi
vi0
vj
vj0

/
It is sometimes possible to simplify the analysis of dynamic systems by using a reduced form
of the mass matrix called a lumped mass matrix. In a lumped mass matrix, the total mass of an
element is distributed equally amongst its nodes. For a beam element the lumped mass matrix
is:
vi

vi0

vj

vj0

1
Ae le 0
m=
2 0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0

0
0

vi
vi0
vj
vj0

where it can be seen that half of the elements mass has been apportioned to each of the vertical
degrees of freedom. Using these matrices to predict natural frequencies tends not to be as
accurate as using consistent mass matrices, so a trade-off has to be made.

3.3

Equation of Motion in FE

We now have expressions for both the total kinetic and potential energies in a system:
1 T
T = Q
MQ
2
1
= QT KQ QT F
2
Applying Equation 3.6 to this system gives:
d  
MQ = KQ + F
dt
= KQ + F
MQ
or:
+ KQ = F
MQ

(3.8)

This is the full equation of motion for an undamped system. The nodal displacements and input
forces can be considered as functions of time: Q(t), F(t). This equation can be integrated with
respect to time to find the deflection of the structure at various points in time. There are various

43

3. Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

3.4 Modal Analysis

numerical techniques used to perform this integration (see explicit and implicit methods), and
this step forms the basis of a field of study in itself.
Our derivation of Equation 3.8 made use of the assumption that the stiffness and mass
matrices were not functions of time. It is possible to derive a set of equations for which the
stiffness and mass matrices are functions of time (K(t), M(t)) and then to perform non-linear
simulations in which the stiffness and mass matrices are updated based on the deformed geometry
of the structure at a given time-step. This is particularly useful for structures undergoing very
large deformations.

3.4

Modal Analysis

For now we will restrict our use of Equation 3.8 to modal analysis. We make the following
assumptions:
the structure is undergoing free vibrations F = 0
the stiffness and mass matrices remain constant
the nodal displacements are periodic, and are of the form Q(t) = Q0 sin(t + )
By taking the Laplace transform of both sides of Equation 3.8 (with zero initial conditions and
F = 0) we get:
s2 MQ0 + KQ0 = 0
where s = i. Making the substitution: = 2 , this can be expressed as an eigenvalue problem:
KQ0 = MQ0

(3.9)

Equation 3.9 can be re-written as:

(K M) Q0 = 0
The eigenvalues of this system are the roots of the characteristic polynomial :
det (K M) = 0

(3.10)

In the case that M is invertible (not guaranteed), this can be written in the perhaps more
familiar form:


det M1 K I = 0
Example
Find the natural frequencies of vibration in the following cantilever beam. Use two elements.

3m

3m

v,z
1

44

E = 70 GPa
= 2700 kg/m3
3 A = 0.01 m2
I = 8.33 106 m4

3. Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

3.4 Modal Analysis

First, find the global stiffness matrix. Both elemental stiffness matrices are the same:
v1

12
EI 6L
k1 = 3
L 12
6L
v2

12
EI 6L
k2 = 3
L 12
6L

v10

v2

6L
4L2
6L
2L2

12
6L
12
6L

v20

v3

6L
4L2
6L
2L2

12
6L
12
6L

v20

6L
2L2

6L
4L2

v1
v10
v2
v20

v30

6L
2L2

6L
4L2

v2
v20
v3
v30

where L = 3 m. Assembling the global stiffness matrix and removing the constrained degrees of
freedom v1 and v10 gives:
v2

24
EI
0
K = 3

L
12
6L

v20

v3

v30

0
8L2
6L
2L2

12
6L
12
6L

6L
2L2

6L
4L2

v2
v20
v3
v30

The consistent mass matrix for a beam element was derived in the previous example. Using a
similar process the the assembly of the global stiffness matrix, the global mass matrix can be
assembled as:
v2

312
AL 0
M=
420 54
13L

v20

v3

v30

0
8L2
13L
3L2

54
13L
156
22L

13L
3L2

22L
4L2

v2
v20
v3
v30

We are now in a position to solve Equation 3.10 for the free vibration frequencies of this beam
system. The results are summarised in the table below. The Q0 vectors in the table are unit
Mode
(s2 )
(rad.s1 )
Q0

1
206.286
14.36
0.3092

0.1765
0.9108

0.2090

2
8231.78
90.73
0.4900
0.0492
0.6788
0.5447

3
94164.6
306.9
0.0445
0.5579
0.4377
0.7036

4
793251
890.6
0.0725
0.2484
0.2864
0.9225

eigenvectors which can be used to establish the relationships between the nodal displacements
and rotations for a given vibration mode. This is a linear system, and the magnitude of the
nodal displacements and rotations can simply be scaled up and down to represent vibrations of
different amplitudes. The actual shape of the beam for each mode can be determined by simply
using v = Nq0 , where q0 are the nodal displacements for a given element. The four mode shapes
we have found are represented below:

45

3. Dynamics in Finite Elements (non-exam.)

3.4 Modal Analysis

v
2 = 91 rad/s
1 = 14 rad/s
3 = 307 rad/s

6 x
4 = 891 rad/s

The two element beam allows for four modes of vibration to be determined. Using more elements
would reveal more higher frequency modes. The accuracy of the mode frequency predictions
can be assessed by comparing the results to those derived using Euler-Bernoulli beam theory.
From beam theory the exact solution for the first mode is:
s
EI
2
1 = 1.8751
= 14.3557 rad/s = 2.2848 Hz
AL4
which is remarkably close to the first mode frequency we have determined here. A summary of
results for the first four modes are given in the table below. The first two modes are predicted
Mode
1
2
3
4

fn from FE (Hz)
2.286
14.44
48.84
141.8

fn from beam theory (Hz)

2.285
14.32
40.09
78.56

with a good level of accuracy, but the next two are substantially different.
/
When struck or otherwise perturbed by external forces, elastic structures will vibrate in
several different modes at once. The strain energy associated with the lowest frequency mode
(or natural frequency) is usually substantially lower than that associated with any of the others,
meaning this is the mode most likely to be easily observable.

46

Formula Sheet

Finite Element Equations

 = Bq

= DBq

1
E
1
D=
(1 2 )
0 0

KQ = F

B DB dV

k=

0
0
1
2

NT p ds

f=

Bar Elements
Horizontal bars:
1
2
1+
Nj () =
2
Ni () =

u() =

1
B = [ 1 1 ]
le

Ni Nj

Ee Ae
k=
le

ui
uj

= Nq

ui

uj

1
1

1
1

ui
uj

Trusses:


=
q

u
i
u
j

ui
vi

q=
uj
vj


= Lq
q

L=

ui

l2
Ee Ae lm
k=
le l2
lm

1
B = [ l m l m ]
le

l m 0 0
0 0 l m

vi

uj

lm
m2
lm
m2

l2
lm
l2
lm

vj

lm
m2

lm
m2

ui
vi
uj
vj

Beam Elements
1
Ni1 = (1 )2 (2 + )
4
1
Ni2 = (1 )2 ( + 1)
4
1
Nj1 = (1 + )2 (2 )
4
1
Nj2 = (1 + )2 ( 1)
4

v() =

Ni1

47

le
2 Ni2

Nj1

le
2 Nj2

vi
 vi0

vj = Nq
vj0

vi0

vj

6le
4le2
6le
2le2

12
6le
12
6le

vi

12
EI 6le
k= 3
le 12
6le

d2 N

4
B = z 2
le d 2

vj0

6le
2le2

6le
4le2

ple /2
ple2 /12
f =

ple /2
ple2 /12

vi

vi0
vj
vj0

vi
vi0
vj
vj0

Triangular Elements
1
Ni =
(xj yk xk yj + yjk x + xkj y)
2Ae

1
(xk yi xi yk + yki x + xik y)
Nj =
u=
2Ae
1
Nk =
(xi yj xj yi + yij x + xji y)
2Ae

y
0 yki 0 yij 0
1 jk
0 xkj 0 xik 0 xji
B=
2Ae
xkj yjk xik yki xji yij

Ni 0 Nj
0 Ni 0

0
Nj

Nk
0

Nk

ui
vi
uj
vj
uk
vk

k = te Ae BT DB

Quadrilateral Elements
1
Ni = (1 )(1 )
4
1
Nj = (1 + )(1 )
4
1
Nk = (1 + )(1 + )
4
1
Nl = (1 )(1 + )
4


u=

Ni 0 Nj
0 Ni 0

0
Nj

Nk 0 Nl 0
0 Nk 0 Nl


q = Nq

x y 



Ni
Nix
Nix
= x y
=J
Ni
Niy
Niy

 P
 

P
Nn xn Pn Nn yn
J11 J12
n
P
J=
=
dx dy = det J d d
J21 J22
n Nn xn
n Nn yn

Nix
0 Nj x
0
Nkx
0
Nlx 0
0
Nj y
0
Nky
0 Nly
B = 0 Niy
Niy Nix Nj y Nj x Nky Nkx Nly Nlx
Z 1Z 1
k = te
BT DB det J d d

Numerical Integration
Z

f () d
1

N
X
n=1

f (, ) d d

wn f (n )
1

48

N
X
m=1

wm

N
X
n=1

wn f (m , n )

= Nq

N
1
2
3
4
5

n
0.0

1/ 3 = 0.5773502692
0.7745966692
0.0
0.8611363116
0.3399810436
0.9061798459
0.5384693101
0.0
0.9324695142
0.6612093865
0.2386191861

wn
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.8
0.3478548451
0.6521451549
0.2369268851
0.4786286705
0.568
0.1713244924
0.3607615730
0.4679139346

49

2N 1
1
3
5
7
9

11

50

Isotropic Linear Elastic Constitutive Equations

Consider the element below, subjected to a direct stress x :

z
x
y

The element will elongate in the x direction, but will also change dimension along the axes
perpendicular to the applied stress. The extent to which the dimensions change depends on the
Poissons ratio. The strains which occur due to the application of x are shown below:
x
E

z
x
E

y
x
E

x
E

x
E

If the element is also subjected to stresses y and z , we can use the principle of superposition
to express the total strain in the x direction as:
x y
z

E
E
E
x

=
(y + z )
E
E

x =

51

Similarly:

(z + x )
E
E
z

z =
(x + y )
E
E

y =

The shear strains are simply:

xy
2(1 + )
=
xy
G
E
yz
2(1 + )
=
=
yz
G
E
zx
2(1 + )
=
=
zx
G
E

xy =
yz
zx

Assembling this into a matrix:

x
1
0
0
0
1
y
0
0
0

1
z
1
0
0
0

xy = E 0
0
0 2(1 + )
0
0

0
yz
0
0
0
2(1 + )
0
0
0
0
0
0
2(1 + )
zx
Inverting this gives:

x

y
1

z
E

xy = (1 + )(1 2) 0
0
0

0
yz
0
0
0
0
0
zx

B.1

0
0
0
12
2

0
0

0
0
0
0
12
2

0
0
0
0
0
12
2

x
y
z
xy
yz
zx

x
y
z
xy
yz
zx

(B.1)

(B.2)

Plane Stress

There are a number of situations in which the stress in the z direction can be taken as negligible.
Starting with Equation B.1 and taking z = yz = zx = 0 (and ignoring z and the out-of-plane
shear strains), we are left with:

1
0
x
x
y
y = 1 1
0
(B.3)
E
0
0 2(1 + )
xy
xy
which can be inverted to give:

x
1
E
y =
1
(1 2 )
xy
0 0

0
0
1
2

x
y
xy

(B.4)

or alternatively:
= D

(B.5)

This form of the constitutive equations can be used in situations where stresses are applied only
in the xy plane, and the thickness of the material in the z direction is relatively small.

52

B.2

Plane Strain

Another common situation is one in which the strain in the z direction can be neglected. Starting
with Equation B.2 and taking z = yz = zx = 0 leaves:

0
x
x
E

y =
1
0 y
(B.6)
(1 + )(1 )
12
0
0
xy

xy
2
which can be inverted to give:

1 0
x
x
y = (1 + ) 1 0 y
E
0
0
2
xy
xy

(B.7)

This form of the constitutive equations could be used if the material dimension in the z direction
is very large. A wire or tube with the z axis along its length would be a typical example.

53

54

Summary of FE Derivation Approach

The following general approach is used to derive the stiffness matrices and force vectors for all
the elements addressed in this module.
1. Identify the type of element
How many nodes should it have?
How many, and what type of degrees of freedom should each of those nodes have?
2. Construct shape functions for the element
All shape functions must be 1 at their corresponding node, and 0 at all other nodes
The shape functions are used to describe the displacement of locations within the
element: u = Nq
In the case of isoparametric elements, the same
P shape functions can also be used to
describe the shape of the element itself: x = n Nn xn
Sometimes it is expedient to write shape functions in terms of a locally-centred intrinsic coordinates, sometimes its better to use the global coordinates directly
The degree of the shape function will determine if stress/strain will vary across the
element, and if so, in what way it will vary
3. Use shape functions to find an expression for strain in the element
P Nn
For example, direct strain in the x direction: x = du
n x un
dx =
If intrinsic coordinates have been used to construct the shape functions, then it will
be necessary to construct a Jacobian after first applying the chain rule: x = du
dx =
u
u
x + x
The strain should then be expressed using an element strain-displacement matrix :
 = Bq
4. Find an expression for the stress in the element
For example: = D or = E
5. Find the total strain energy in the element
R
The strain energy is: Ue = 12 e T  dV
6. Find the element stiffness matrix
The stiffness matrix can be found by taking the gradient of the strain energy with
respect to the nodal displacement vector q
R
This can be expressed as: k = e BT DB dV
7. Find the element force vector
Loads applied directly to nodes can simply be inserted into the force vector
DistributedRloads (body forces, traction loads) can be apportioned between the nodes
using: f = NT p ds for load p acting along path ds

55