8-1

CHAPTER 8
SUBSAHARAN AFRICA
You should know these locations:
Administrative Divisions Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Namibia,
Republic of South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Tanzania, Rwanda, Kenya, Uganda, Somalia,
Chad, Sudan.
Physical Features Sahara Desert, Sahel Region, Fouta Jalon Mountains, Drankensberg Mountains, Mt. Kilimanjaro, Rift
Zone, Niger River, Congo River, Zambezi River, Nile River, Congo Basin, Namibian Desert.
Cities Timbuktu, Lagos, Johannesburg.

Introduction to Region
This region encompasses all the countries of Africa to the south of the Saharan Desert. For that
reason, it is referred to as Subsaharan Africa. These countries, while sharing a continent with the
Saharan countries, are very different in terms of their history, economy, and culture. Many of the
Subsaharan countries were never conquered by Islam and were therefore able to progress along
somewhat different cultural pathways, as did the countries of northern Africa. Indeed, numerous
kingdoms and civilizations developed in Subsaharan Africa prior to 1400 CE.
Major Physiographic Features
Sahara Desert - worlds largest desert extending 4000 miles across northern Africa.
Sahel - semi-arid region extending along the southern margin of the Sahara. During rainy years extensive areas of green
grass and shrubs cover much of the Sahel. However, during dry periods the grass dries and many areas become little
more than dunes of blowing sand.
Namibian Desert - extremely dry region in southwestern Africa.
Fouta Djallon Mountains - mountain range is neither impressive in terms of its elevation or ruggedness, but it has been
important for thousands of years because of the large quantities of gold which have been mined in them.
Drankensberg Mountains - reach elevations of 11,000 feet and extend along the southeastern coast of the Republic of South
Africa. They are quite rugged.
Rift Zone - zone of elongated lakes, valleys, and volcanoes, extending from the Republic of South Africa northward to the
Red Sea. It is called the Rift Zone because the Earths crust is being pulled apart by convection cells in the mantel. The
island of Madagascar has already been pulled from Africa, as has the Arabian Peninsula. The rift continues northward
into the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee of Israel. Several high volcanoes (Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro) are formed
from lava, which made its way up from the mantle.
Niger River - originates in the Fouta Djallon Mountains and flows across the Sahel into Nigeria.
Congo River - drains the Congo Basin (an area five times larger than Texas). It is used for transportation.
Zambezi River - originates in south central Africa and flows towards the Indian Ocean.
Nile River - has been important for a variety of civilizations since 3000 BCE, originates in the rain forests of central Africa,
and flows northward 4100 miles until it reaches the Mediterranean Sea.
Major Climates
Highlands Rift Zone and the Highlands of Ethiopia.
Humid Subtropical - portions of the Republic of South Africa.
Marine West Coast - the far southwestern corner of the Republic of South Africa.
Mediterranean - in the southern portion of the Republic of South Africa.
Subtropical Desert - the Saharan and Namibian Deserts.
Subtropical Steppe - the Sahel.
Tropical Monsoon West Africa.
Tropical Wet - most of central Africa.
Tropical Wet and Dry - much of central Africa (outside of the Congo and the Rift Zone Basin).

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Patterns of Natural Vegetation
Desert Vegetation - the deserts of Subsaharan Africa.
Mediterranean Woodland - the southern Republic of South Africa.
Steppe along southern fringe of Sahara, and in eastern Republic of South Africa.
Subtropical Forest - the Ethiopian Highlands and central Madagascar.
Tropical Deciduous Forest - central Africa (outside of the Congo Basin).
Tropical Rain Forest - central Africa.
Tropical Savanna - most of East Africa, and along the Sahel.
Tropical Scrubland Angola and northeastern Africa.

Historical Geography
The Origins of Humans
Any discussion of the historical geography of Subsaharan Africa obviously needs to begin with a
brief explanation of the origin of humans. According to all reliable archaeological evidence, humans
originated in Africa. Furthermore, geneticists have identified genetic linkages (especially using
mitochondria DNA, which supply energy to cells, and which are 99.9% inherited from the mother)
between the various races of humans around the world, and these suggest that all living humans are
descended from a small group of people in eastern Africa. The following section outlines some of the
major events leading up to the development of modern humans (Homo sapien sapien).
Figure 1: Proposed genealogy of humans.

Highlights in Early History

3.5 million years ago An early ancestor of humans (Australopithecus), fossils have been found near Hadar, Ethiopia.
2.4 million years ago Oldest stone tools date from this period, also in Hadar, Ethiopia.
1.8 million years ago Homo erectus, who descended from Australopithecus, made its way into Southeast Asia.
1.6 million years ago First archaeological evidence of humans using fire as a tool in Kenya and South Africa (may have
also used it to clear forests for grazing lands).
1 million years ago Homo erectus made its way into Europe.
230,000 to 150,000 years ago Homo sapien neanderthalus evolve from Homo erectus in Europe because it is adapted to a
colder climate.
135,000 years ago Homo sapien sapien evolved from Homo erectus in Ethiopia.
90,000 years ago Homo sapien sapien expanded into the Middle East.
75,000 years ago It was too cold in Europe, so the Homo sapien sapien made their way into East Asia instead.
40,000 years ago Homo sapien sapiens are found in Australia and in Europe (they had finally learned strategies for
survival in harsher climates).
28,000 years ago the Homo sapien neanderthalus became extinct, most likely because they were out-competed by the
Homo sapien sapiens.

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Rise of African Civilizations

Racing forward a few thousand years, we find that much of Africa was settled by hunting and
gathering groups of humans (Homo sapien sapien) by 18,000 BCE. At that time, much of Africa entered
a drier period (as the Earth came out of the most recent Ice Age). Conditions, especially in northern
Africa, have become even drier than they were 20,000 years ago. The desiccation of the Sahara and the
Sahel acted to isolate Subsaharan Africa from the Mediterranean region, and the remainder of the settled
world. For example, the Iron Age, which began in Turkey about 1200 BCE, arrived in the Nile region
about 600 BCE, in Nigeria and Kenya by 250 BCE, and in southern Africa by 1 CE.
In addition, between 3000 BCE and 500 CE the Bantu ethnic group expanded out of their
homeland in Nigeria. They advanced across much of central and southern Africa, becoming the
dominant ethnic group in the region.
About 1 CE sea-faring Austronesians made their way from the islands of Southeast Asia to settle in
Madagascar. These people spoke a language that is closely related to the large number of languages
spoken in Southeast Asia and Polynesia.
Early civilizations developed in the western Sahel (Nok) by 500 BCE, and in Ethiopia (Kush) by
700 BCE. These civilizations developed sophisticated trade networks and were characterized by
significant guild specialization. Other civilizations included Ghana (100 CE-1100 CE) and Songhai
(1300 CE-1500 CE), both in the western Sahel. The Ghana kingdom benefited from its dominance of the
Saharan caravan trade routes, until the arrival or Arab armies in the 800s CE. Nubia (500 CE-900 CE)
and Axum (600 CE-1500 CE) were both Christian kingdoms originating in Ethiopia. The dominant
kingdom in southern Africa was Zimbabwe, which ruled the region from about 1100 CE until 1400 CE
(small stone ruins are scattered across Zimbabwe).
Furthermore, the Guinea States came to power along the coast of West Africa in the 1400s CE
primarily as a result of their involvement in the slave trade with Europeans. Once the slave trade was
limited or outlawed in the early 1800s the Guinea States began to collapse.

The Arrival of Europeans

The most important social impact in Africa since the end of the Ice Age is undoubtedly the arrival
of Europeans along its western shores in the 1400s and the subsequent incorporation of Africa into the
European colonial system. Indeed, who knows what pathways would have been taken by African
societies if this pattern had not emerged.
It was the Portuguese who first made extended voyages along the coast of Africa (although the
Vikings had conducted some raiding and trading operations along the West Coast of Africa in the
1000s). In the mid 1400s the Portuguese were seeking a maritime route to the Orient around Africa.
They established small re-supply stations and forts along the coast (many were on small islands), and
these were used to prevent Spanish contact with the Orient. Indeed, the Spanish Crown threw its support
in favor of Christopher Columbus because he proposed a maritime route to the Orient by going westward
rather than around Africa. The Portuguese, and the Spaniards, paid very little attention to Africa until
the early 1600s when they were in need of slave labor to replace the massive decline of Amerindians in
the New World.
European Perceptions of Subsaharan Africa (Very limited migration to Africa for each of these periods)
1400s Portuguese viewed it as an obstacle.
1500s to early 1800s source for slaves.
Mid-1800s to mid-1900s mineral extraction, colonial spheres.

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The first group of Europeans to make a serious attempt at land colonization in Africa was the
Dutch, who came as immigrant families to South Africa in 1652. They were attracted by the mild
climate and good soils of the region, despite the fact that it was already occupied by native Africans
(including the Zulu). The Dutch soon gained territory and established a farming lifestyle much like what
they had back home (they came to be known as Afrikaners or Boers).
Most European countries were so actively involved in colonization in the Americas, Asia, and
Australia, that they scarcely paid attention to Africa until well into the 1800s. Most of these
governments believed that Africa offered little in the way of resources, except for the slave trade (and
even that was already in decline by the 1800s). However, once most of their colonies in the Americas
became independent in the mid-1800s these countries began looking at Africa more seriously.
Explorations into its interior in the mid-1800s revealed extremely rich mineral resources.
In response to the growing interest in Africa, the Emperor of the recently united Germany (1871)
called for a conference to be held in Berlin in the winter of 1884-1885. After the conference, the major
powers of Europe advanced into the territories assigned to them at the Berlin Conference. Indeed, the
years from 1885 to the beginning of WWII (1914) was referred to as the Scramble for Africa.
Table 1: European colonial activity.
Period
1400s-1900s
1500s-1800s
1600s
1700s-1900s
1700s-1900s
1885-1910s
1885-1910s
1885-1910s

Colonial Power
Portugal
Spain
Netherlands
Britain
France
Germany
Italy
Belgium

Main Focus in Africa

West coast islands, So Tome, Angola, Mozambique.
Northwest coast.
South Africa.
South Africa, Rhodesia, Nigeria, Kenya, Egypt.
West Africa, Madagascar.
Togo, Kameroon (Cameroon), Tanganyika (Tanzania.)
Libya, Somalia.
Congo.

Each colonial power developed its own peculiar system for administering its colonies in Africa,
and these basic contrasts eventually led to differences in the process of decolonization. For example, the
British managed by what was called Indirect Rule. Local African leaders were kept in power, but were
answerable to the British governor of the colony. The French preferred Direct Rule, in which the
colony became an integral part of France. Local people were directly under the control of the
government in Paris. The Portuguese established a system similar to that of France. The other countries
(Italy, Germany, and Belgium) had little time to develop a well-organized colonial system for Africa.

The African Slave Trade

Probably the best-known aspect of European colonial activity in Africa is the history of the African
slave trade. It is also one of the lowest points in human history, along with the subjugation of Native
Americans, and the Holocaust of Nazi Germany. During the colonial period (1630 and 1830)
approximately 12 million Africans were kidnapped by coastal African groups, sold to European slave
traders, and transported to the New World to work as slaves for the remainder of their lives (350,000 to
the United States, 4 million to the Caribbean, and 5 million to South America). The majority of these
were shipped by the Portuguese because of their access to extensive colonies in Africa (So Tome,
Angola, Mozambique). Typically, the Portuguese would buy (in their seaport cities) slaves who had
been captured from the interior of Africa by coastal African groups during periods of inter-tribal warfare.
The British became actively involved in the trade in the mid-1600s and became the second most
important trafficker. A significant number of Africans (approximately 2 million) were taken from the
east coast of Africa to the Muslim countries of the Middle East (including Iraq, Syria, Saudi Arabia, the
Persian Gulf region, and Persia) by Islamic slave traders. Unlike slaves taken to the Americas, the
Muslim practice of castration (to create eunuchs) minimized natural growth of the slave population in

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captivity and therefore necessitated a constant re-supply of new slaves from Africa. Jewish or Christian
surgeons who lived within Islamic societies normally created these eunuchs.
The slaves suffered horrendous conditions during transport to the Americas, and throughout their
lives in the New World working on plantations and in mines. No one really knows how many died in
journey or how many were killed while trying to escape his or her captors. What is certain is that the
institution of slavery reached a new low point with the introduction of Africans into the labor-poor New
World. Of course, slavery was not new to the colonial period. Indeed, slavery had existed among
African groups for thousands of years prior to the colonial period, as it had existed in most societies
(including Europe, the Middle East, the Roman Empire, India, China, Southeast Asia, and the
Americas). In fact, it would be logical (but immoral) for any powerful group of people to force a weaker
group to do work for them, and as such it must trace its roots to the earliest foundations of human
history.
Table 2: Establishment of slave trade.
Date Established
mid-1500s
mid-1500s
1606
1672

Region
Spanish Colonies
Portuguese Colonies
French North America
Most of British North America

That said, the short-term and long-term impacts of the African slave trade are tremendous. In the
short-term, it led to major wars and conflicts in Africa itself as coastal groups took advantage of rival
interior groups (who were also suffering through a drought period). Many tribal groups were completely
annihilated during the raids for slaves; never to recover. The long-term impacts are still being felt today,
especially in the psychological imprint that slavery has had on many societies in the New World. People
of African ancestry have generally been considered to be inferior and have received unfair treatment in
most countries of the Western Hemisphere. Indeed, many African Americans in the United States still
bear the cumulative emotional scars of slavery, Jim Crow laws, and embedded racism. Hopefully, with
time the long term impacts will also be minimized.
Finally, the ideas and accomplishments of the Age of Enlightenment (starting in the 1700s)
began to take root on the minds of European and American leaders. One by one these countries began to
first prohibit their citizens from engaging in the capture and transportation of Africans to the New World
(referred to as the slave trade). Later, once the economic advantage of slavery became less important
they also outlawed slavery within their territories and set the remaining slaves free (called
emancipation).

The Independence Era

Beginning in the Twentieth Century several important things changed with regard to relations
between Europe and its African colonies. These changes led to the decolonization of Africa, which
began with the independence of Ghana in 1957, and ended with the independence of Portuguese colonies
in 1975. The decolonization process can be attributed to changes brought on by World War II. The
inherent dangers of shipping caused by German submarines led to a reduction in the quantity of
European-manufactured goods being shipped to African colonies. Instead, the colonies were forced to
become more self-sufficient. In addition, many European countries drafted Africans into their armies to
fight in WWII. This exposed the African soldiers to the weaknesses of their colonial powers. During
the war many Africans were placed into leadership positions in the colonies because of a withdrawal of
forces back to Europe during the war. Following the war, many citizens of the European countries began
to demand more liberal, anti-colonial style governments.

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In the end, it was the economic, political, and military instabilities brought on by WWII that
ultimately led to a weakening of colonial authority in Africa. Unfortunately, independence did not bring
the immediate benefits long hoped for by Africans. Instead, most of the last 50 years have been
characterized by severe military dictatorships and ethnic infighting in most African countries. Only 20%
of the countries have some form of democratic rule. In addition, the living conditions for most people in
the region have remained unimproved under their new national governments. Political oppression and
economic subjugation have been common throughout the region, with the gap between the poor and the
wealthy getting larger with the arrival of the Industrial Revolution in the middle 1900s. Indeed, the
majority of Subsaharan countries are currently under some form of military dictatorship. The primary
causes for this pattern are discussed later. A growing problem in Zimbabwe, and now, in the Republic
of South Africa, is the murder of white farmers. The phenomenon, which began in Zimbabwe, is usually
associated with government-sponsored land occupations.

Political Conflict since Independence

Primary Causes for Conflict
Scholars have debate for decades about the root causes of the widespread violent confrontation that
characterizes much of Subsaharan Africa. Most scholars agree that the conflict stems from a
combination of pre-colonial and colonial factors. Firstly, Subsaharan Africa has hundreds of major
ethnic groups, and about 1600 minor ethnic groups each occupying a small piece of territory dating back
thousands of years. This delicate balance was first modified in a major way by the Bantu migrations,
and later by the activities of the European powers. Most of the newly independent countries were
created from geometrically designed colonial boundaries and they do not reflect the ethnic diversity on
the landscape.
These differences were augmented during the colonial period as European governments based their
colonial capitals in the territory occupied by certain ethnic group (usually near the coasts). Through
time, those Africans who lived in the colonial capitals and their environs gained experience in colonial
government. They worked as civil servants, police, and military. Through time they came to dominate
other African groups who lived in more peripheral regions of the colony. Once the colonies became
independent the ethnic groups most experienced with government came to dominate the politics, and
more importantly, the military of the new independent countries. This pattern bred discontent, especially
if the dominant group only represented a minority in the overall population of the country. Civil war
emerged as a reaction to this concentration of power in particular ethnic groups.
Figure 2: Typical political and ethnic circumstances during colonial and national periods.

Furthermore, unlike the countries in the Americas and many in Asia, African countries have had
very little time to work out their political problems. One should keep in mind that most Subsaharan
countries are less then 60 years old, whereas most countries in the New World are at least 160 years old.

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In addition, most Subsaharan African countries have poorly developed systems of education,
welfare, health care, agriculture, infrastructure, and industry. They served as peripheral regions while
Europe (and the United States) developed, in many cases with the resources extracted from Africa. This
has led to major socio-economic and political problems within these countries (most are under the rule
of a military or civilian dictatorship).
Table 3: Selected conflict areas.
Countries
Sudan
Zaire (Congo)
Eritrea
Nigeria
Burundi
Mozambique
Angola
Somalia
Uganda
Ethiopia
Liberia
Rwanda

Time Period
1955-1972, 1983-present
1960-1964, 1977-1978, 1997
1962-1991
1967-1970
1972, 1993-present
1974-1992
1974-1995
1977-present
1979-1982
1985-1991
1989-1997
1994

Conflict in Sudan
A centuries-old ethnic struggle also exists in neighboring Sudan. The northern part of the country
has been dominated by Muslim Arabs since their invasion in the 900s CE. The southern half of the
country is controlled by Christian Nilo-Saharan ethnic groups who were actually the original inhabitants
of most of the country (prior to the Arab invasions).

Conflict in the Horn of Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia, and Eritrea)

Somalia, which is also located in the Horn of Africa, is characterized by ethnic struggles dating
back for decades (if not longer). During the late 1980s and 1990s these groups began to use food
supplies in the drought-ridden country as a tool for achieving political goals. In some cases, food
supplies were merely withheld from certain regions in order to cause the starvation and suffering of rival
ethnic clans. United Nations and U.S. troops attempted to reduce armed conflict in the country and to
keep food moving to the people who needed it. Unfortunately, the situation has appeared futile to most
outside observers.

Maritime Piracy near Somalia

It is appropriate to say a few words about the problem of maritime piracy off the Horn of Africa.
For the last few years media reports have made the general public aware of East Africans involved in a
number of pirate attacks in this region. Modern piracy in this region increased dramatically after the
collapse of a centralized government in Somalia in 1991. Without a navy or coast guard, there has been
no local authority to hinder the development of piracy. It is important to recognize the motivations for
piracy in this particular region. First, most of the pirates are Somali fishermen who have noticed a
decline in fishing stocks as a result of foreign ships operating in those waters. This was made possible
because there were no Somali government vessels to prevent foreign incursions. Second, there is good
evidence that several corrupt foreign companies (some owned by the Calabrian Mafia) dumped toxic
waste in the shallow waters along the Somali coast in the 1990s (for the same reason). These conditions,
coupled with abject poverty, were used as justification for the Somali pirates in their assaults on ships
passing near their coastline. Indeed, 70% of the coastal population reportedly supports this pirate
activity for a number of reasons; most notably because of their economic dependence on the activity.

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Conflict in Central Africa

Central Africa has a great deal of ethnic diversity and due to the lower levels of economic
development in the region, ethnic conflict is also widespread and deeply rooted. Of special concern are
the countries of Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Ethnic fighting erupted
in the early 1990s between Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda causing the death of thousands of peasants and
the migration of refugees to neighboring countries.

Apartheid in South Africa (The Geographic Separation of Race)

Probably the best example of the use of a government bureaucracy to maintain a racial system of
inequality is the one designed in the Republic of South Africa during the 1900s. The system was known
by its Afrikaner name, Apartheid. This policy has its roots in the settlement of Europeans in southern
Africa, and their concern about their minority status. They developed Apartheid as means for
maintaining economic and political control in the region despite their relative small numbers. The major
historical events are outlined below. It is important to recognize that race is defined by society, and
that ethnicity is self-defined. There are hundreds of examples of particular ethnic groups have used
political power to maintain their superiority of other racial groups. Indeed, racial conflict is typically
much more intense when resources (such as food, land, water, sexual partners, and jobs) are limited.
Historical Context of Apartheid
1652 - Several thousand Dutch families migrate to the Cape Town region of southern Africa. They began a long war with
native African groups (especially the Zulu) in order to take over farmland. They become known as Boers or Afrikaners.
1795 - Britain took control of the colony from the Netherlands.
1833 - The Afrikaners (Boers) are forced to migrate deeper into South African territory (towards the northeast) by advancing
British immigrants. This migration is known as the Great Trek. They formed the Natal Republic in 1837.
1886 - Gold is discovered in Transvaal, encouraging British migration to the region, and the expansion of labor abuses of
native Africans in the mines.
1902 - The British finally defeated the Boers and all of South Africa becomes a British colony.
1910 - The Union of South Africa is created by a union of Afrikaner republics and the British Cape Colony.
1912 The African National Congress (ANC) was formed as a political party to represent the goals of Blacks.
1948 - The Labor Party (dominated by Afrikaners) won the majority of the national parliament.
1950 - Group Areas Act is passed. It reorganized cities according to the model of the Ideal Apartheid City. Soon after this,
the South African government established Black Townships which were organized to provide labor for major industries
and mines and to help control civil disobedience. The most famous of these townships was SOWETO (Southwest
Township near Johannesburg). These townships became breeding grounds for crime, violence and organized opposition
to Apartheid. The ANC leadership was based in SOWETO (the homeland of Nelson Mandela).
1960s- The South African government also established Black Homelands (or Bantustans) as a technique for removing Blacks
from South African citizenship. Each member of these homelands would be a citizen of these regions and would have to
leave permits in order to work or visit other homelands. The majority of the black population was crammed into these
homelands.
1970s-1980s - Hundreds of companies began to pull their investments out of the Republic of South Africa in order to help
place pressure on the racist regime (this was called divestment). By the mid 1980s international opposition to
Apartheid resulted in economic sanctions to South Africa. Economic difficulties were already undoing the financial
propping of this regime. Rising petroleum prices during the 1970s (South Africa has no petroleum reserves) and falling
precious metal prices during the 1980s, devastated the South African economy that supported this politico-geographic
policy. Apartheid also damaged the economic geography by interfering with normal market forces by restricting free
movement of people and goods.
1986 - Despite a veto by President Reagan, the United States government began economic sanctions against the government
of South Africa. Indeed, 200 of the 280 US companies operating in South Africa sold the majority or all of their ventures
in the country. By 1990, the governments of 27 US states, 90 cities, and even 24 counties had imposed sanctions on
economic relations with South Africa. In the end, it was this divestment which led to the elimination of Apartheid in
South Africa.
1989 The newly-installed president of South Africa, F.W. deKlerk, declared in his inaugural speech his intention to reduce

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apartheid. Soon afterwards he released Nelson Mandela from prison and legalized the African National Congress;
authorizing its participation in elections for the first time in South African history. Both the Democratic Party (DP) and
the New Nationalist Party (NNP) of South Africa supported the reforms and they remain powerful political forces in postapartheid South Africa..
1994 - Nelson Mandela was elected the first Black President of the Republic of South Africa in the first general elections the
country has ever had. He had been a political prisoner from 1964 to 1991.
1998 elections in 1998 replaced Nelson Mandela with the second Black president, Thabo Mbeki.

Table 4: Ethnicity in the Republic of South Africa.

Ethnic Group
Black
White (Afrikaner)
White (English)
Coloured (Mixed)
Asian (Hindu)
Asian (Muslim)

Percent
80.7%
5.8%
2.7%
7.9%
1.8%
1.0%

Today, the system of Apartheid has ended and the country is in the process of redistributing access
to resources, education, farmland, education, and political power more equitably without causing severe
alienation of the countrys 6 million whites. Over 500 US companies are now invested in the country,
and the Republic of South Africa is developing favorable relations with countries in Europe, the
Americas, and Asia.
Several different scenarios are possible in post-apartheid South Africa. Despite unity in
overthrowing apartheid, confrontations now exist between different groups of black South Africans. The
ANC composed primarily of Xhosas and other tribal peoples, has had violent confrontations with the
Inkatha, led by Chief Buthelezi and composed mostly of Zulus. A commission called the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission has granted limited amnesty to human rights abuse committed during
apartheid. While there has been reconciliation between black and white, concern exists among
Afrikaners that retribution will be taken against them. Extremist groups on both sides have continued
violence and there remain difficult challenges to erase the legacy of apartheid. Another issue is the
rampant crime in the country (especially in Johannesburg). As much as 10,000 people are murdered per
year in the country.

Demography
The large size of the African continent and the extensive areas of relatively poor farmland have led
to a general pattern of low population densities per square mile as compared to most other regions of the
planet. Indeed, the population of one billion for the entire continent (including North Africa) is
moderate considering how large the continent. Most Africans live within 100 miles of the coast. In the
interior population is extremely nodal, reflecting a concentration of people in areas of good soils (the
Rift Zone) or in mineral belts. Only 25% of all Africans live in cities of 5,000 or more.
Table 5: Demographic patterns.
Country
Angola
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ethiopia
Nigeria
South Africa
USA

Population 2009
18.5 million
66.0 million
79.2 million
154.7 million
49.3 million
308.7 million

Growth Rate
2.8%
3.2%
2.5%
2.2%
0.6%
0.97%

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Disease in Subsaharan Africa

Health care workers and governments alike have come to classify disease into two general
categories: (1) infectious diseases, and (2) chronic diseases. Infectious diseases are those which are
directly the result of some organism which is attempting to consume human tissue, for example a
parasite, bacteria, virus, or fungus. This type of disease affects all living organisms in varying degrees,
and has been with humans throughout our history on the planet. In most cases, infectious diseases
coupled with accidents and war kept human population growth rates low until the 1800s. Furthermore,
they kept life expectancy low as well (35 years was about maximum).
Chronic diseases, on the other hand, are those caused by a degeneration or inappropriate
functioning of bodily functions inside the human; for example cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and
Alzheimers Disease. These diseases typically affect humans later in life, and were extremely rare
among humans prior to the 1800s. However, due to improved sanitation and health care associated with
the Industrial Revolution people began to live long enough to become victims of chronic diseases.
Today, the More Developed Countries (MDC) focus their health care resources on combating
chronic disease, while countries in the Lesser Developed Countries (LDC) focus their resources on
eliminating infectious diseases.
It is important to note that most infectious diseases that affect humans are found in Subsaharan
Africa and that they have a serious impact on health care issues. Several diseases, including Malaria,
appear to have the origins in Africa, and have been associated with humans and primates for millions of
years. The disease is transmitted by biting insects and is caused by small parasites, which feed on blood
cells. Malaria is widespread across the region and even tourists who visit for just a few days are at high
risk of infection. For example, approximately one million people in Subsahran Africa die each year due
to malarial infections. Indeed, as much as 24.5 percent of the babies born in Burkina Faso are infected
while they are still in their mothers womb. It appears that Sickle Cell Anemia (a hereditary disease)
may actually be a natural adaptation to malaria.
Table 6: Selected infectious diseases.
Disease
Malaria
Yellow Fever
Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness)
Bilharzia (Schistosomiasis)
Hepatitis
Cholera
Dengue Fever
Leishmaniasis
Onchocerciasis (River Blindness)
Botflies
HIV (AIDS)

Organism
Plasmodium
Virus
Protozoan
Filaria (nematode)
Virus
Bacterium
Virus
Filaria (nematode)
Filaria (nematode)
Larvae
Virus

Transmission
Mosquito
Mosquito
Tsetse Fly
Water
Food, Contact
Food, Water
Mosquito
Sand Flies
Black Fly
Botfly
Contact

Other infectious diseases include Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) which can be contracted by drinking,
bathing, or swimming in contaminated water. River Blindness (Onchoceriasis) is present in 25 countries
of central Africa, and is caused by parasites which are found near fast-moving streams, and which
consume nerve tissue, including the spinal nerves, optical nerves, and brain tissues. Sleeping Sickness
(Trypanosomiasis, which is caused by the Tsetse Fly, and which affects mostly livestock, but can also
infect humans) is increasingly common in West Africa, the Congo Basin, and in East Africa. Various
maggot species can find humans as hosts, and they advance through living tissue leaving in their wake
severely damaged muscles and nerves.
In addition, AIDS (which is caused by the HIV, Human Immunodeficiency Virus) appears to be
native to central or eastern Africa, and has become a major epidemic in much of Subsaharan Africa.

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Indeed, Subsaharan Africa is believed to be home to 21 million HIV-positive people, while the United
States has about 900,000, and the world total is about 31 million.
The primary cause of the high infection rates are found in the following three explanations: (1)
AIDS originated in Africa and has had more time to infect the population, (2) the overall lack of concern
for African problems throughout the 1980s by most western countries, and (3) certain social
conditions encourage the spread of the virus, such as migrant males seeking sexual relations in mining,
industrial, and trucking camps, and the general resistance to condom use. Thousands of rural
communities have been decimated by the disease as whole families have been wiped out.
The rates of infection are almost unbelievable, with as much as 40% of the population of some
regions being HIV-positive. The health care costs attributed to this infectious disease are staggering;
leading many scholars to believe that little progress will be made in resolving the problem for another 20
years. Who knows how many more people will perish from the disease prior to that time. A recent
development in most of these areas is the abundance of funeral insurance providers. These providers
sell insurance to cover the cost of funeral expenses to people who are HIV-positive from small shops,
market vendors, and even private homes.
Table 7: HIV infection rates.
Country
Zimbabwe
Botswana
Namibia
Zambia
Swaziland
Mozambique
Republic of South Africa
USA

Percent of Adult Population who are HIV-Positive

26%
25%
20%
19%
19%
14%
13% (5.7 million people)
0.76%

Other diseases of concern are those that appear to be activated by clearing of forest areas,
especially in central Africa, including Ebola virus, Dengue, Cholera, and Rift Valley Fever.

Ethnicity and Language

Today, there are over two thousand native languages still being spoken in Africa (amounting to
about 30% of the world total).
Ethnolinguistic Groups
1. Niger-Congo Language Family (1436 languages scattered across western and southern Africa)
A. Atlantic-Congo Branch Swahili, Yoruba, Kongo, Zulu, Sotho, and 1342 other languages.
B. Kordofanian Branch 31 languages in Sudan and elsewhere in the Sahel.
C. Mande Branch 58 languages in West Africa.
2. Nilo-Saharan Language Family (194 languages in North Africa)
A. Berta Branch 2 languages in Sudan and Ethiopia.
B. Central Sudanic Branch 64 languages in central Africa (mostly Zaire).
C. Eastern Sudanic Branch Dinka, and 95 other languages in Sudan and Ethiopia.
D. Fur Branch 2 languages in Chad and Sudan.
E. Komuz Branch 6 languages in Ethiopia and Sudan.
F. Kunama Branch 1 language in Eritrea.
G. Maban Branch 10 languages in Chad and Sudan.
H. Saharan Branch 8 languages in the Sahel.

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I. Songhai Branch - 4 languages in the Sahel.
3. Afro-Asiatic Language Family
A. Berber Branch - 29 languages in northwest Africa.
B. Chadic Branch - 192 languages in west Africa and the Sahel.
C. Cushitic Branch - 47 languages in Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya.
D. Egyptian (Coptic) Branch - one language in Egypt.
E. Omotic Branch 28 languages in Ethiopia.
F. Semitic Branch - Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic, and 70 other languages in North Africa and the Middle
East.
4. Khoisan Language Family - 35 languages in southern Africa.
5. Austronesian Language Family
A. Malayo-Polynesian Branch Malagasy.
6. Indo-European Language Family
A. Germanic Branch English, Afrikaans.
B. Romance Branch Portuguese, French, and Spanish (mostly spoken as second languages).

Religion
A wide variety of religions are practiced across Subsaharan Africa. Despite social changes brought
on by the period of European colonialism, several million Africans still practice some form of Animism
(polytheistic religions involving the worship of numerous gods and spirits). These religions are
remnants of the early native African religions, and are most common in the Sahel and in the Congo
Basin.
Islamic armies and merchants advanced across the Sahara and the Sahel in the 700s CE to 1200s
CE bringing Islamic law to all the areas conquered by them. Through time most of these areas converted
to Islam, and they remain Muslim today. Indeed, the maximum extent of these Arab groups in the 1200s
is almost exactly the southern boundary of Islam today. However, advances of Islam have taken place in
southeastern Africa in the last 20 years.
The incorporation of the region into various colonial empires helped introduced various forms of
Christianity. For the most part, their distribution is related to the pattern of European influence. Roman
Catholicism is found on those regions colonized by France, Portugal, Belgium, and Spain. It remains
important in ex-French, Portuguese and Belgian areas than in the regions colonized by the Spanish. In
contrast, Protestants are most common in areas settled by the British (Anglicanism) or the Dutch (Dutch
Reformed). As elsewhere, evangelical Protestant missionaries (especially Mormon, Baptist, and
Pentecostal) have been actively working at converting many of the regions inhabitants. In addition, a
small number Jews immigrated to Ethiopia and Somalia at various times since the Diaspora, although
their numbers are quite small today.

Liberation Theology
You should re-read the discussion of Liberation Theology in the Middle America notes.
Politically active priests have been present in the Republic of South Africa.

Land Use (Agriculture)

Agricultural activities in Subsaharan Africa have been diverse dating back at least 5000 years. As
elsewhere, they had developed a wide variety of techniques for growing crops in the diverse

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environments of Subsaharan Africa. They used irrigation and slash-and-burn agriculture, and they
domesticated many food crop. Today, wheat, maize (a crop from the Americas), and sorghum
(domesticated in Africa) are grown in the Sahel and in far southern Africa. Root crops such as yams,
sweet potatoes, and manioc (cassava) are grown in the humid Congo Basin. Bananas and other Musa
crops (i.e., banana-related plants) are grown on the fertile soils of the Rift Zone.
Of special significance is the fact that many former farming areas no longer produce food. This is
a direct result of the way in which foreign food aid has been distributed in Subsaharan Africa. The
severe droughts, famines and civil wars of the 1960s-1980s motivated many international relief
organizations, the United Nations, and the United States to send grain (for human consumption) to help
the victims of these sporadic disasters. For the most part, the aid has continued through today, despite
the fact that the initial causes of amine are no longer prevalent. This is especially true in countries with
pro-United States political leaderships. Their citizens are issued coupons that they can redeem for bags
of grain. As a result, thousands of farming communities do not cultivated their own crops. Their
children do not know how to farm, and their fields lie unused year after year. This strong dependence
on foreign food aid could lead to serious disasters in the future. Nonetheless, there are many forms of
agriculture in Subsaharan Africa. Each type of production system is described below.
Shifting cultivation (also known as slash-and-burn farming) is practiced on the poor lowland soils
of the Congo Basin, where permanent agriculture is not possible. The farmers clear small patches of
tropical forest and burn the felled trees. The ash provides plant nutrients to the crops for the first several
years, but soon depletes. The farmers then need to move on to new forest areas for clearing.
Permanent subsistence farming is common to the areas with better soils (especially in West
Africa, southern Africa, and the Rift Zone). It involves the production of small quantities of food on
very small parcels of land (usually less than 15 acres). Most of these farmers live near the poverty level
(subsistence).
Livestock ranching - is conducted on the grasslands of southern Africa. These large ranches are
typically in excess of 1000 acres and most are owned by white South Africans and Namibians, or
Europeans. Most operations raise cattle.
Commercial grain farming is mostly concentrated in the High Veld area of southern Africa, and
involves heavy usage of chemicals and tractors. These farms are among the most productive in all of
Subaharan Africa.
Plantation cultivation of tropical crops is common to the coastal plains (especially the west
coast, and the southeast coast of Africa), and it is focused on the production of cash crops for both
domestic and international markets. Most plantations are at least 100 acres in size and are mostly owned
by foreign companies. They use paid labor to grow a wide variety of crops like sugarcane, coconut,
papaya, citrus, mango, pineapple, banana, and coffee.
Nomadic herding - is found throughout the Sahel and in scattered areas of southern Africa. Cattle,
camels, and goats are more common in the Sahel, while cattle and sheep are more common in southern
Africa. Cattle are also dominant in Kenya, where the Fulani, Masaai, and other herders are typically the
only African groups who are not lactose intolerant (in other words they have lactase). Pigs and chickens
are especially common in West Africa and in the Rift Zone.

Natural Resources
Tropical Deforestation
As is the case with South America, destruction of the tropical forests in central Africa is problem
of global concern. You may need to re-read the section in the South America notes.

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Mineral Resources
The African continent has a tremendous diversity of mineral resources. Furthermore, the overall
quantity of metals and energy reserves is impressive by any standard. Numerous types of metals and
jewelry-grade gemstones are mined in large quantities in many areas of Subsaharan Africa. Indeed,
approximately 85 percent of the worlds jewelry-grade diamonds come from the Republic of South
Africa. The DeBeers Company, which is owned by the Oppenheimer Family and the London-based
Anglo-American Company, still dominates the diamond industry. DeBeers is currently in violation of
United States anti-trust laws due to their manipulation of the world diamond market.
The Republic of South Africa (Rand District) has large quantities of coal, gold, iron, diamonds,
chromium, tin, lead, and uranium. The Harare region (Zimbabwe) also contains large quantities of
copper, gold, nickel, platinum, zinc, iron, and vanadium. The Copper Belt Region in Zambia and Zaire
has reserves of copper, gold, nickel, platinum, zinc, iron, and vanadium. The Fouta Djallon Mountains
are best known for gold and diamonds. Nigeria, Gabon, and Angola have significant reserves of
petroleum and natural gas.

Industry
Industry associated with small-scale import substitution is found in the larger cities of most of the
region. In addition to these lighter forms of manufacturing, several areas stand out as more advanced
and diverse industrial regions. They are listed below.
Major Industrial Regions
Johannesburg (Republic of South Africa - the most diverse industrial region in all of Subsaharan Africa. It focuses
on heavy industry and agricultural processing, and supplies most processed food to neighboring countries.
Lagos (Nigeria) - focuses on petroleum refining, heavy manufacturing, and food processing.
Copper Belt Region - southeastern Zaire and central Zambia, focused on metals refining and manufacturing.
Harare (Zimbabwe) - focused on metals refining and manufacturing.

The table below outlines the relative economic strength of various countries in the region with a
comparison of their per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product). Per capita GDP is calculated by dividing
the total GDP by the population of the country, and it is roughly equivalent to the median (average)
annual income in that particular region.
Table 8: Per capita GDP (Purchasing Power Parity, PPP). Source: World Bank.
Country
Ethiopia
Gabon
Kenya
Liberia
Mozambique
Rwanda
Republic of South Africa
Tanzania
USA

Per Capita GDP (Dollars)

868
14,758
1590
388
897
1022
10,109
1263
46,716

Conclusions and Key Points to Remember

Subsaharan Africa is the birthplace of humanity, and the history human evolution is closely tied to
patterns of migration, and health conditions.
This region contains a greater variety of ethnic groups and languages than any other region.
A number of civilizations developed in West Africa, Northeast Africa, and southern Africa prior to the
arrival of Islam and later, the Europeans.

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The West African empires traded extensively with the Romans, and other Europeans.
The arrival of Arab Muslims brought dramatic changes to commerce and social patterns in the areas
along the southern edge of the Sahara and in East Africa.
In addition to Subsaharan Africas strong ethnic diversity, European and Muslim slave trade and
colonialism devastated whole African communities and set the stage for many of the civil wars and
ethnic conflicts which characterize the region today.
This region is plagued by an extremely high infectious disease load which severely hinders attempts at
economic development and improvements in material well-being.
Low population numbers in the interior and the vast expanse of natural habitat have facilitated the
survival of a wide variety of African animals; especially large mammals. However, poaching,
population growth, and environmental destruction have placed these habitats/animals in peril.

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