The Human Skeleton

The human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. The functions of the skeleton are to provide
support, give our bodies shape, provide protection to other systems and organs of the body,
to provide attachments for muscles, to produce movement and to produce red blood cells.
The main bones of the human skeleton are:

The Skull - Cranium, Mandible and Maxilla

Shoulder girdle - clavicle and scapula

Arm - humerus, radius and ulna

Hand - Carpals, Metacarpals and Phalanges

Chest - Sternum and Ribs

Spine - Cervical area (top 7 vertibrae), Thoracic (next 12), Lumbar (bottom 5
vertebrae), Sacrum (5 fused or stuck together bones) and Coccyx (the tiny bit at the
bottom of the spine).

Pelvic girdle - Ilium, Pubis and Ischium.

Leg - Femur, Tibia and Fibula

Ankle - Talus and calcaneus (not shown above)

Foot - Tarsals, Metatarsals and Phalanges.

How are bones formed?

Bones are formed by the ossification of cartilage. What this really means is all bones
start off as cartilage (normally in the womb) and they gradually turn to hard bone
(ossification) over a period of years.

Calcium is needed for strong bone growth.

Large image of Human Skeleton

Types of Bones in the Human Body

There are 5 types of bones in the human body. These are long bones, short bones, flat
bones, irregular bones and sesmoid bones. Below we outline the different types of bones
in the human body and explain where they are foound. Test yourself at the bottom of the
page with our interactive online flash cards.
Long Bones
Long bones are some of the longest bones in the body, such as the Femur, Humerus and
Tibia but are also some of the smallest including the Metacarpals, Metatarsals and
Phalanges. The classification of a long bone includes having a body which is longer than it is
wide, with growth plates (epiphysis) at either end, having a hard outer surface of compact
bone and a spongy inner known an cancellous bone containing bone marrow. Both ends of
the bone are covered in hyaline cartilage to help protect the bone and aid shock absorbtion.

The femur - a long bone

Short Bones
Short bones are defined as being approximately as wide as they are long and have a
primary function of providing support and stability with little movement. Examples of short
bones are the Carpals and Tarsals - the wrist and foot bones. They consist of only a thin
layer of compact, hard bone with cancellous bone on the inside along with relatively large
amounts of bone marrow.

The carpals - short bones

Flat Bones
Flat bones are as they sound, strong, flat plates of bone with the main function of providing
protection to the bodies vital organs and being a base for muscular attachment. The classic
example of a flat bone is the Scapula (shoulder blade). The Sternum (breast bone), Cranium
(skull), os coxae (hip bone) Pelvis and Ribs are also classified as flat bones. Anterior and
posterior surfaces are formed of compact bone to provide strength for protection with the
centre consisiting of cancellous (spongy) bone and varying amounts of bone marrow. In
adults, the highest number of red blood cells are formed in flat bones.

The scapula - a flat bone

Irregular Bones
These are bones in the body which do not fall into any other category, due to their nonuniform shape. Good examples of these are the Vertebrae, Sacrum and Mandible (lower
jaw). They primarily consist of cancellous bone, with a thin outer layer of compact bone.

Vertebrae - irregular bones

Sesamoid Bones

Sesamoid bones are usually short or irregular bones, imbedded in a tendon. The most
obvious example of this is the Patella (knee cap) which sits within the Patella or Quadriceps
tendon. Other sesamoid bones are the Pisiform (smallest of the Carpals) and the two small
bones at the base of the 1st Metatarsal. Sesamoid bones are usually present in a tendon
where it passes over a joint which serves to protect the tendon.

The patella - a sesamoid bone

Types of Joint
A joint is the point where two or more bones meet. There
are three main types of
joints; Fibrous (immoveable), Cartilaginous (partially
moveable) and the Synovial (freely moveable) joint.
Fibrous joints
Fibrous (synarthrodial): This type of joint is held together
by only a ligament. Examples are where the teeth are held
to their bony sockets and at both the radioulnar and
tibiofibular joints.
Cartilaginous
Cartilaginous (synchondroses and sympheses): These
joints occur where the connection between the articulating
bones is made up of cartilage for example between
vertebrae in the spine.

A cartilagenous joint between two vertebrae

Synchondroses are temporary joints which are only
present in children, up until the end of puberty. For
example the epiphyseal plates in long bones. Symphesis
joints are permanant cartilagenous joints, for example the
pubic symphesis.

Synovial Joints
Synovial (diarthrosis): Synovial joints are by far the most common classification of joint within
the human body. They are highly moveable and all have a synovial capsule (collagenous
structure) surrounding the entire joint, a synovial membrane (the inner layer of the capsule)
which secretes synovial fluid (a lubricating liquid) and cartilage known as hyaline cartilage
which pads the ends of the articulating bones. There are 6 types of synovial joints which are
classified by the shape of the joint and the movement available.
Types of Synovial Joint

Joint Type

Movement at joint

Examples

Structure

Hinge

Pivot

Flexion/Extension

Elbow/Knee

Hinge joint

Top of the neck

(atlas and axis bones)

Pivot Joint

Shoulder/Hip

Ball and socket joint

CMC joint of the thumb

Saddle joint

Rotation of one bone around

another

Flexion/Extension/Adduction/
Ball and
Socket

Abduction/Internal & External

Rotation

Flexion/Extension/Adduction/
Saddle
Abduction/Circumduction

Flexion/Extension/Adduction/
Condyloid
Abduction/Circumduction

Wrist/MCP & MTP joints

Gliding

Condyloid joint

Gliding movements

Intercarpal joints

PLANES OF MOTION AND TERMS OF MOVEMENT

There are three planes of motion in which we move. If you think about it, most of our
movements are not straight up and down, or side to side etc, especially in sports. They tend
to combine a mixture of movements in different planes.
The three planes of motion are:

Sagittal Plane
The Sagittal plane passes through the body front to back, so dividing it into left and right.
Movements in this plane are the up and down movements of flexion and extension
Frontal Plane
The frontal plane divides the body into front and back. Movements in this plane are sideways
movements, called abduction and adduction
Transverse Plane
This plane divides the body into top and bottom. Movements in this plane are rotational in
nature, such as internal and external rotation, pronation and supination
Anatomical Neutral
This is the starting position for describing any movement. It is important that you know this to
be able to understand what is meant by certain movement patterns. It is sometimes also
called the anatomical starting position or fundamental starting position.

MOVEMENT
Flexion and Extension
Flexion is a movement in the sagittal plane, which decreases the angle at the moving joint.
Extension is the opposite movement, which increases the angle at the joint. Many types of
synovial joint are capable of flexion and extension (hinge; ball and socket; saddle; condyloid)
including the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip and knee.

Abduction and Adduction

These are movements in the frontal plane and involve moving the body part away or towards
an imaginary centre line. Abduction is taking the body part away from the central line and
adduction is moving it towards (remember this by thinking adduction adds the body part to
the centre). Adduction can also be moving the body part across the centre line and to the
other side of the body. Other abduction and adduction movements include the fingers. If you
splay your fingers and move them apart, this is abduction as they are moving away from the
centre position. When you bring the fingers back together, this is adduction, as you are
adding them back to the centre line.
Rotation
Rotation movements are in the transverse plane and include any twisting motion. Joints
which permit rotation include the shoulder and hip. These are both ball and socket joints. We
can also rotate our necks and backs due to a series of smaller joints, including the atlantoaxial joint which is a pivot joint in the neck between the first two vertebrae.
Circumduction
Circumduction is a combination of all of the movements above. It is possible at ball and
socket, condyloid and saddle joints such as the shoulder, hip, wrist and ankle. It involves
moving the entire connecting limb through its full range of motion.
Pronation, Supination, Inversion and Eversion
Pronation and supination are specialised movements of the forearm and ankle. In the
forearm, pronation is the movement of turning the palm over to face downwards (or
backwards if starting in anatomical neutral). Supination is the opposite movement, of turning
the palm up or forwards. The movement here comes from the proximal radio-ulnar joint (the
joint just below the elbow, between the Radius and Ulna bones) which is a pivot joint,
allowing the Radius to move around the Ulna. At the ankle, supination is the movement of
turning the sole of the foot inwards. This is sometimes called inversion. Pronation is the
movement of turning the sole of the foot outwards, sometimes called eversion. You will
sometimes hear people saying they have over-pronated feet, meaning their sole turns
outwards slightly more than it should when they walk or run, giving the appearance of a flat
foot, without an arch.