FEASIBILITY STUDY OF BIO FUELS AS AN ALTERNATE SOURCE

OF

TRANSPORTATION ENERGY IN INDIA

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS OF THE TWO YEAR FULL-TIME

POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME.

Submitted by

AVINASH CHANDRA GUPTA

Roll No: FT-08-635

Batch: 2008-2010

Institute For Integrated Learning in Management

Graduate School of Management

16, Knowledge Park

Greater Noida– 201 306

April 2010
 FINAL DISSERTATION

DECLARATION FORM

I hereby declare that the Project work entitled “FEASIBILITY STUDY OF BIO-FUEL AS AN
ALTERNATE SOURCE OF TRANSPORTATION ENERGY IN INDIA” submitted by me for
the partial fulfillment of the Post Graduate Diploma in Management Program to Institute for
Integrated Learning in Management, Greater Noida is my own original work and has not been
submitted earlier either to IILM GSM or to any other Institution for the fulfillment of the
requirement for any course of study. I also declare that no chapter of this manuscript in whole or
in part is lifted and incorporated in this report from any earlier / other work done by me or others.

Place : Greater Noida

Date : 08-04-2010 Signature of Student

Name of Student : AVINASH CHANDRA GUPTA

Address : 11 / 1A HASTINGS ROAD

ASHOKNAGAR,

ALLAHABAD (UP) 211001

2
 FINAL DISSERTATION

CERTIFICATE

This is certified that Mr. AVINASH CHANDRA GUPTA student of POST GRADUATE
DIPLOMA IN MANAGEMENT PROGRAM TO INSTITUTE FOR INTEGRATED LEARNING
IN MANAGEMENT, GREATER NOIDA from IILM-GSM, Greater Noida was working under my
supervision and guidance for his project work as part of partial fulfillment of the said program
entitled “FEASIBILITY STUDY OF BIO-FUEL AS AN ALTERNATE SOURCE OF
TRANSPORTATION ENERGY IN INDIA . The work which he is submitting is his genuine and
original work.

Place:

Date: signature of Faculty

3
 Acknowledgement

I want to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my real life project guide Prof. A N
BHATTACHARYA who has been of immense support and guidance in enabling me to do this
project. His deep understanding and valuable insights have been of great help in the successful
completion of my project.

I would also like to thank all those people, without whose help and support I would not have been
able to do justice to the project.

4
 Table of content

1. Abstract 6

2 Introduction 7

3. Objective 8

4 Literature Review 9

5 Methodology 25

6 Petroleum 26

7 CNG 31

8 LPG 36

9 Bio-Fuel 38

10 Jatropha 49

11 Bio-Diesel 59

12 Ethanol 66

13 Conclusion 75

14 Bibliography 76

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 ABSTRACT

A search of alternate source of transportation energy is very necessary as natural petroleum stock
is depleting rapidly. Petroleum fuel lasts only for next 50-70 years if no new sources of energy are
found.

The combustion of petroleum fuel releases huge amount of air pollution. This results in global
warming and causes many diseases. Also we are dependent on foreign countries for more than
70% of petroleum fuel, so it is necessary to search a good alternate source of energy which can
fulfill our energy needs, release less pollution, saves money and generate more employment.

Now Govt. has taken initiative to search for such fuel which can fulfill our above said
requirements. Bio-fuel is emerging as an alternate source of energy; it has many advantages which
must be utilized to fulfill alternate energy sources requirements. Although it has some
disadvantages but we have to overcome for utilizing it as best available alternate source for
transportation energy. We have realized various needs and odds about bio-fuel, and we shorted out
them as follows:

 To find out whether Bio-fuel is an alternate source of transportation energy in India.

 To find out whether it is feasible to produce Bio-fuel at an economical cost.
 To find out whether Bio-fuel production has impact on food prices.
 To find out consumption of important resources in Bio-fuel production.

For this we have to find out whether it is economical to switch over to Bio-fuel from petroleum

This would require a comprehensive study of all existing sources of energy; their production; their
ill effects; their sustainability; bio fuels as an alternate source; technology; costing; marketing
strategy; market potential etc.

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 Introduction

This study examined the feasibility of the bio fuel as an alternative fuel for transportation
purposes in the India. The emphasis in this examination with respect to alternative transportation
fuels was on bio-diesel, ethanol, alcohol gasoline mixtures, and liquid natural gas. Feasibility was
assessed within the context of environmental concerns, performance of vehicle, cost of fuel, and
associated government regulations that are driving technology to meet demands related to air
pollution control that may be able to be met though the use of alternative fuels for transportation
purposes.

A heavy dependence on foreign sources for transportation fuels continues to characterize an

important component of the supply side of the Indian energy equation. Further, our reliance on
foreign sources for transportation fuels is expected to continue to increase as long as crude oil
remains the dominant source of transportation fuels in the India. Additionally, environmental
concerns are expected to be manifested in future demands for a curtailment of the use of crude oil
based transportation fuels. The successful introduction of the use of alternative fuels for
transportation purposes, however, is likely to be heavily dependent up consumer acceptance.
Thus, such factors as the cost of use of an alternative fuel and the characteristics of such fuel with
respect to the operational performance of vehicles in comparison to current fuel (petrol, diesel)
must be positive. Then only it is accepted otherwise we have stick to our present fuels or we have
to search for some other options for energy.

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 Objective

 To find out whether Bio-fuel is an alternate source of transportation energy in India.

 To find out whether it is feasible to produce Bio-fuel at an economical cost.
 To find out whether Bio-fuel production has impact on food prices.
 To find out consumption of important resources in Bio-fuel production.
 To find out whether it is economical to switch over to Bio-fuel from petroleum.

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 LITERATURE REVIEW

ENERGY

Technologically advanced societies have become increasingly dependent on external energy

sources for transportation, the production of many manufactured goods, and the delivery of energy
services. This energy allows people who can afford the cost to live under otherwise unfavorable
climatic conditions through the use of heating, ventilation, and/or air conditioning. Level of use of
external energy sources differs across societies, as do the climate, convenience, levels of traffic
congestion, pollution and availability of domestic energy sources.

All terrestrial energy sources except nuclear, geothermal and tidal are from current solar
insulation or from fossil remains of plant and animal life that relied directly and indirectly upon
sunlight, respectively. Ultimately, solar energy itself is the result of the Sun's nuclear fusion.
Geothermal power from hot, hardened rock above the magma of the Earth's core is the result of
the decay of radioactive materials present beneath the Earth's crust, and nuclear fission relies on
man-made fission of heavy radioactive elements in the Earth's crust; in both cases these elements
were produced in supernova explosions before the formation of the solar system.

SOURCES OF ENERGY IN INDIA:-

 The various energy resources used in India include fossil fuels providing petroleum and
natural gas and coal mining that cater to the coal energy demands in India.
 The sun is the source for solar energy that is converted to electrical energy using solar
panels.
 The vast water resources in and around India are utilized by conversion of the kinetic
energy from the flowing water as in waterfalls and the dams built on various rivers into
electric energy.
 The energy of the tides and tidal waves is also utilized for electrical energy harvesting.

9
  The usage of wind energy comes in the form of windmills and huge wind energy farms for
generation of usable energy forms by transformation of the kinetic energy of the wind into
energy units.
 Other sources of energy in India include biomass energy by burning bio-fuels available in
large quantities owing to the huge domestic cattle population in India.
 Energy is also derived from the vast timber resources of the country. This forms the wood
energy.
 Nuclear energy or atomic energy from radioactive materials has been developed into a vast
industry in itself.
 Geothermal energy is an unlimited natural energy source that utilizes the steam from hot
water springs that acts as energy boosters to drive turbines of power plants.
 The various chemicals are used for chemical energy generation used in batteries.

Even the hydrogen available in large quantities in the environment has been captured and utilized
as an energy source by reacting hydrogen with oxygen.

FOSSIL FUELS

Nearly 90 percent of the world’s energy comes from fossil fuels. Because fossil fuels are the
main source, they are not alternative energy sources. Fossil fuels include coal, natural gas, and
petroleum, which is often called oil. People use fossil fuels to meet nearly all of their energy
needs, such as powering cars, producing electricity for light and heat, and running factories.
Because their use is so widespread, it is important to understand fossil fuels in order to make
informed decisions about present and future alternative energy sources.

Fossil fuels are a popular source of energy because they are considered convenient, effective,
plentiful, and inexpensive, but a few nations have most of the world’s fossil fuels, a fact that often
causes conflicts. Nevertheless, as of 2006, there are no practical and available alternatives to fossil
fuels for most energy needs, so they continue to be heavily used.

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 Fossil fuels sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the
decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum,
and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the
production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating
and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or
electrical power generation.

Earth has a lot of fossil fuels. Scientists in 2005 estimated that the ground contains about ten
trillion metric tons of coal, enough to fuel human energy needs for hundreds of years. Petroleum
and natural gas deposits are not nearly so extensive. Most scientists believe that if people keep
using up oil and gas at 2005 rates, all known petroleum and gas reserves will be used up by the
beginning of the twenty-second century.

Most fossil fuel-powered operations, however, use the burning of the fossil fuel to power
much more complex machines, such as internal combustion engines. In many cases, other fuels
could supply the necessary heat; for example, locomotives could be powered by burning wood
instead of burning coal, and power plants can be powered by water instead of coal. The advantage
of fossil fuels in these situations is that they produce large amounts of heat for their volume, and
they are currently widely available, with some liquid and gas fuels available at pumps

Pros:-

 The technology and infrastructure already exist for the use of fossil fuels.
 Petroleum energy density in terms of volume (cubic space) and mass (weight) is superior
to some alternative energy sources (or energy storage devices, like a battery (electricity)).
 Fossil fuels are currently more economical, and more suitable for decentralized energy use.

Cons:-

 Petroleum-powered vehicles are very inefficient. Only about 30% of the energy from the
fuel they consume is converted into mechanical energy. The rest of the fuel-source energy
is inefficiently expended as waste heat. The heat and gaseous pollution emissions harm our
environment.
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  The inefficient atmospheric combustion (burning) of fossil fuels in vehicles, buildings,
and power plants contributes to urban heat islands.
 The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of pollution into the atmosphere.
According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, a typical coal plant produces in one
year.
 Dependence on fossil fuels from volatile regions or countries creates energy security
risks for dependent countries.
 Fossil fuels are non-renewable, un-sustainable resources, which will eventually decline
in production and become exhausted.
 Extracting fossil fuels is becoming more difficult as we consume the most accessible
fuel deposits. Extraction of fossil fuels is becoming more expensive and more
dangerous as mines get deeper and oil rigs must drill deeper, and go further out to sea.
 Extraction of fossil fuels results in extensive environmental degradation, such as the
strip mining and mountaintop removal of coal.

Since these power plants are thermal engines, and are typically quite large, waste heat
disposal becomes an issue at high ambient temperature. Thus, at a time of peak demand, a power
plant may need to be shut down or operate at a reduced power level, as sometimes do nuclear
power plants, for the same reasons.

COAL

Nearly 63 percent of the India’s total energy requirements are met from coal. The
available coal reserves in India are sufficient to meet our needs for at least another 100 years.
India now ranks 3rd amongst the coal producing countries in the world.

Taking the above facts into consideration it is obvious that coal is one of the potential energy
substitutes in India.

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The Advantages of Coal:-

 Coal is one of the most abundant sources of energy, more so than oil and natural gas.
 Coal is inexpensive when compared to other fossil fuels (or alternative energy sources)
 Coal is versatile enough to be used for recreational activities such as BBQ’s or simply for
home fires.
 Burning coal can produce useful by-products that can be used for other industries or
products
 Electricity produced from coal is reliable.
 Coal can be safely stored and can be drawn upon to create energy in time of emergency.
 Coal based power is not dependent on weather which cannot be said for alternative forms
of renewable energy such as wind or solar power.
 Transporting coal does not require the upkeep of high-pressure pipelines and there is no
requirement for extra security when transporting coal.
 Using coal reduces the dependence on using oil, which is often found in nations where
there is unstable political regimes.

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 The Disadvantages of Coal:-

 Burning coal emits harmful waste. It also emits twice as much carbon dioxide when
compared with natural gas to produce the same level of heat. Carbon dioxide emissions
from the burning of fossil fuels now account for about 65 per cent of the extra carbon
dioxide in our atmosphere.
 The burning of coal by large-scale factories to power industry has led to acid rain in some
regions
 Coal can be cleaned and/or turned into a liquid of gas but this technology has yet to be
fully developed and adds to the expense of creating fuel via coal
 Coal mining can scar the landscape and the equipment used for mining is large and noisy
which may affect local wildlife
 Transporting coal can be problematic because it requires an extensive transportation
system and can also cause additional pollution in the form of emissions from
transportation vehicles such as lorries, etc
 There are limited stocks of coal remaining – they will be entirely depleted this millennium
if we continue to burn coal in the future at the same rate we are today coal can be
considered as a non-renewable energy source
 The mining industry can cause health difficulties for miners and fatalities due to the
potentially dangerous nature of the work
 Burning dirty coal can create significant pollution problems

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear fission:-

Nuclear power stations use nuclear fission to generate energy by the reaction of uranium-235
inside a nuclear reactor. The reactor uses uranium rods, the atoms of which are split in the process
of fission, releasing a large amount of energy. The process continues as a chain reaction with other
nuclei. The energy heats water to create steam, which spins a turbine generator, producing
electricity.

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Depending on the type of fission fuel considered, estimates for existing supply at known usage
rates varies from several decades for the currently popular Uranium-235 to thousands of years for
uranium-238. At the present rate of use, there are (as of 2007) about 70 years left of known
uranium-235 reserves economically recoverable at a uranium price of US$ 130/kg. The nuclear
industry argue that the cost of fuel is a minor cost factor for fission power, more expensive, more
difficult to extract sources of uranium could be used in the future, such as lower-grade ores, and if
prices increased enough, from sources such as granite and seawater. Increasing the price of
uranium would have little effect on the overall cost of nuclear power; a doubling in the cost of
natural uranium would increase the total cost of nuclear power by 5 percent. On the other hand, if
the price of natural gas was doubled, the cost of gas-fired power would increase by about 60
percent.

Current light water reactors burn the nuclear fuel poorly, leading to energy waste. Nuclear
reprocessing or burning the fuel better using different reactor designs would reduce the amount of
waste material generated and allow better use of the available resources. As opposed to current
light water reactors which use uranium-235 (0.7 percent of all natural uranium), fast breeder
reactors convert the more abundant uranium-238 (99.3 percent of all natural uranium) into
plutonium for fuel. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years
worth of Uranium-238 for use in these power plants. Fast breeder technology has been used in
several reactors. India has run out of uranium and is building thermal breeders that can convert
Th-232 into U-233 and burn it.

The long-term radioactive waste storage problems of nuclear power have not been fully solved.
Several countries have considered using underground repositories. Nuclear waste takes up little
space compared to wastes from the chemical industry which remains toxic indefinitely. Spent fuel
rods are now stored in concrete casks close to the nuclear reactors. The amounts of waste could be
reduced in several ways. Both nuclear reprocessing and fast breeder reactors could reduce the
amounts of waste. Subcritical reactors or fusion reactors could greatly reduce the time the waste
has to be stored. Subcritical reactors may also be able to do the same to already existing waste.
The only long-term way of dealing with waste today is by geological storage.

The economics of nuclear power is not simple to evaluate, because of high capital costs for
building and very low fuel costs. Comparison with other power generation methods is strongly
dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants.
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 Pros:-

 The energy content of a kilogram of uranium or thorium, if spent nuclear fuel is

reprocessed and fully utilized, is equivalent to about 3.5 million kilograms of coal.
 The cost of making nuclear power, is about the same as making coal power, which is
considered very inexpensive.
 Raw material extraction is much safer for nuclear power compared to coal. Coal
mining is the second most dangerous occupation in the United States.
 For the same amount of electricity, the life cycle emission of nuclear is about 4% of
coal power.
 According to a Stanford study, fast breeder reactors have the potential to power
humans on earth for billions of years, making it sustainable

Cons:-

 The improper operation of a nuclear reactor with no containment vessel can be

catastrophic in the event of an uncontrolled power increase in the reactor.
 Trans-uranic waste produced from nuclear fission of uranium is poisonous and highly
radioactive.

NUCLEAR FUSION

Fusion power could solve many of the problems of fission power (the technology mentioned
above) but, despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected
before 2050. Many technical problems remain unsolved. Proposed fusion reactors commonly use
deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, as fuel and in most current designs also lithium. Assuming a
fusion energy output equal to the current global output and that this does not increase in the future,
then the known current lithium reserves would last 3000 years, lithium from sea water would last
60 million years, and a more complicated fusion process using only deuterium from sea water
would have fuel for 150 billion years.

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 BIOMASS, BIOFUELS, AND VEGETABLE OIL

Biomass production involves using garbage or other renewable resources such as corn or
other vegetation to generate electricity. When garbage decomposes, the methane produced is
captured in pipes and later burned to produce electricity. Vegetation and wood can be burned
directly to generate energy, like fossil fuels, or processed to form alcohols.

Vegetable oil is generated from sunlight, H2O, and CO2 by plants. It is safer to use and store than
gasoline or diesel as it has a higher flash point. Straight vegetable oil works in diesel engines if it
is heated first. Vegetable oil can also be transesterified to make biodiesel, which burns like normal
diesel.

Bio-fuels are renewable. They come from plants and other currently growing organic material, so
it is possible to generate new ones constantly. This makes them more environmentally problems,
such as habitat destruction and fertilizer runoff. Farmers use large amounts of fossil fuels to grow
crops such as corn, which decreases the value of the energy made from those crops. In some cases,
producing bio-fuels such as ethanol actually uses more energy than the ethanol yields.

 Biomass is abundant on Earth and is renewable. Biomass is found throughout the

world, a fact that should alleviate energy pressures in third world nations.
 Alcohols and other fuels produced by these alternative methods are clean burning and
are feasible replacements to fossil fuels.
 Since CO2 is first taken out of the atmosphere to make the vegetable oil and then put
back after it is burned in the engine, there is no net increase in CO2. However, there is
still the emissions due to fossil fuel used in growing and producing bio-fuel.
 Vegetable oil has a higher flash point and therefore is safer than most fossil fuels.
 Transitioning to vegetable oil could be relatively easy as biodiesel works where diesel
works, and straight vegetable oil takes relatively minor modifications.
 The world already produces more than 100 billion gallons a year for the food industry,
so we have experience making it.
 Direct combustion of any carbon-based fuel leads to air pollution similar to that from
fossil fuels.

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  Direct competition with land use for food production and water use. As this decreases
food supply, the price of food increases worldwide.
 Current production methods would require enormous amounts of land to replace all
gasoline and diesel. With current technology, it is not feasible for bio-fuels to replace
the demand for petroleum.

Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is energy created by the heat of the Earth. Under the Earth’s crust lies a
layer of thick, hot rock with occasional pockets of water. This water sometimes seeps up to the
surface in the form of hot springs. Even where the water does not travel naturally to the Earth’s
surface, it is sometimes possible to reach it by drilling. This hot water can be used as a virtually
free source of energy, either directly as hot water, steam, or heat or as a means of generating
power. Geothermal energy is nonpolluting, inexpensive, and in most cases renewable, which
makes it a promising source of power for the future.

Geothermal energy harnesses the heat energy present underneath the Earth. Two wells are drilled.
One well injects water into the ground to provide water. The hot rocks heat the water to produce
steam. The steam that shoots back up the other hole(s) is purified and is used to drive turbines,
which power electric generators. When the water temperature is below the boiling point of water a
binary system is used. A low boiling point liquid is used to drive a turbine and generator in a
closed system similar to a refrigeration unit running in reverse.

Pros:-

 Geothermal energy is base load power.

 Economically feasible in high grade areas now.
 Low deployment costs.
 Geothermal power plants have a high capacity factor; they run continuously day and night
with an uptime typically exceeding 95%.
 Once a geothermal power station is implemented, there is no cost for fuel, only for
operations, maintenance and return on capital investment.

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  Since geothermal power stations consume no fuel, there is no environmental impact
associated with emissions or fuel handling.
 Geothermal is now feasible in areas where the Earth's crust is thicker. Using enhanced
geothermal technology, it is possible to drill deeper and injects water to generate
geothermal power.
 Geothermal energy does not produce air or water pollution if performed correctly.

Cons:-

 Geothermal power extracts small amounts of minerals such as sulfur that are removed
prior to feeding the turbine and re-injecting the water back into the injection well.
 Geothermal power requires locations that have suitable subterranean temperatures with in
5 km of surface.
 Some geothermal stations have created geological instability, even causing earthquakes
strong enough to damage buildings.

HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY

In hydro energy, the gravitational descent of a river is compressed from a long run to a single
location with a dam or a flume. This creates a location where concentrated pressure and flow can
be used to turn turbines or water wheels, which drive a mechanical mill or an electric generator.

Pros:-

 Hydroelectric power stations can promptly increase to full capacity, unlike other types of
power stations. This is because water can be accumulated above the dam and released to
coincide with peak demand.
 Electricity can be generated constantly, so long as sufficient water is available.
 Hydroelectric power produces no primary waste or pollution.
 Hydropower is a renewable resource.
 Much hydroelectric capacity is still undeveloped, such as in Africa.
 The resulting lake can have additional benefits such as doubling as a reservoir for
irrigation, and leisure activities such as water sports and fishing.
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 Cons:-

 The construction of a dam can have a serious environmental impact on the surrounding
areas. The amount and the quality of water downstream can be affected, which affects
plant life both aquatic, and land-based. Because a river valley is being flooded, the local
habitant of many species is destroyed, while people living nearby may have to relocate
their homes.
 Hydroelectricity can only be used in areas where there is a sufficient and continuing
supply of water.
 Flooding submerges large forests (if they have not been harvested). The resulting
anaerobic decomposition of the carboniferous materials releases methane, a greenhouse
gas.
 Dams can contain huge amounts of water. As with every energy storage system, failure of
containment can lead to catastrophic results, e.g. flooding
 Dams create large lakes that may have adverse effects on Earth tectonic system causing
intense earthquakes.
 Hydroelectric plants rarely can be erected near load centers, requiring long transmission
lines.

SOLAR POWER

India is both densely populated and has high solar isolation, providing an ideal combination for
solar power in India. Much of the country does not have an electrical grid, so one of the first
applications of solar power has been for water pumping; to begin replacing India's four to five
million diesel powered water pumps, each consuming about 3.5 kilowatts, and off-grid lighting.
Some large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 km² area of the Thar Desert has been set
aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 gigawatts.

Solar power involves using solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity, using sunlight hitting
solar thermal panels to convert sunlight to heat water or air, using sunlight hitting a parabolic
mirror to heat water (producing steam), or using sunlight entering windows for passive solar
heating of a building. It would be advantageous to place solar panels in the regions of highest
solar radiation.

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Pros:-

 Solar power imparts no fuel costs.

 Solar power is a renewable resource. As long as the Sun exists, its energy will reach Earth.
 Solar power generation releases no water or air pollution, because there is no combustion
of fuels.
 In sunny countries, solar power can be used in remote locations, like a wind turbine. This
way, isolated places can receive electricity, when there is no way to connect to the power
lines from a plant.
 Solar energy can be used very efficiently for heating (solar ovens, solar water and home
heaters) and day lighting.
 Coincidentally, solar energy is abundant in regions that have the largest number of people
living off grid — in developing regions of Africa, Indian subcontinent and Latin America.
 Passive solar building design and zero energy buildings are demonstrating significant
energy bill reduction, and some are cost-effectively off the grid.
 Photovoltaic equipment cost has been steadily falling and the production capacity is
rapidly rising.
 Distributed point-of-use photovoltaic systems eliminate expensive long-distance electric
power transmission losses.
 Photovoltaic are much more efficient in their conversion of solar energy to usable energy
than bio-fuel from plant materials.

Cons:-

 Solar electricity is currently more expensive than grid electricity.

 Solar heat and electricity are not available at night and may be unavailable because of
weather conditions; therefore, a storage or complementary power system is required for
off-the-grid applications.
 Solar cells produce DC which must be converted to AC (using a grid tie inverter) when
used in currently existing distribution grids. This incurs an energy loss of 4–12%.
 The energy payback time — the time necessary for producing the same amount of energy
as needed for building the power device — for photovoltaic cells is about 1–5 years,
depending primarily on location.

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 Tidal Power Generation

Tidal power can be extracted from Moon-gravity-powered tides by locating a water turbine in a
tidal current, or by building impoundment pond dams that admit-or-release water through a
turbine. The turbine can turn an electrical generator, or a gas compressor, that can then store
energy until needed. Coastal tides are a source of clean, free, renewable, and sustainable energy.

Tides are caused through a combination of forces created by the gravitational pull of the sun and
the moon, and the rotation of the earth. Energy naturally present in water bodies or in their
movement can be used for generation of electricity.

Indian context:-

India being surrounded by sea on three sides has a high potential to harness tidal energy. The three
most potential locations in this regard are Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch (west coast) and Ganges
Delta, Sunderbans, WestBengal (eastcoast). The total potential of tidal energy in India is estimated
at 8,000 mw with Gulf of Cambay accounting for over 90 per cent.

Pros:-

 Tidal power is free once the dam is built. This is because tidal power harnesses the natural
power of tides and does not consume fuel. In addition, the maintenance costs associated
with running a tidal station are relatively inexpensive.
 Tides are very reliable because it is easy to predict when high and low tides will occur.
The tide goes in and out twice a day usually at the predicted times. This makes tidal energy
easy to maintain, and positive and negative spikes in energy can be managed.
 Tidal energy is renewable, because nothing is consumed in the rising of tides. Tidal power
relies on the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which pull the sea backwards and
forwards, generating tides.

Cons:-

22
  Tidal power is not currently economically feasible, because the initial costs of building a
dam are tremendous. Furthermore, it only provides power for around 10 hours each day,
when the tide is moving in or out of the basin.
 The barrage construction can affect the transportation system in water. Boats may not be
able to cross the barrage, and commercial ships, used for transport or fishery, need to find
alternative routes or costly systems to go through the barrage.
 Maximum energy production is limited to 2.5 terawatts. This is the total amount of tidal
dissipation or the friction measured by the slowing of the lunar orbit.

Wind power

This type of energy harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind
turbines. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. Wind towers are
usually built together on wind farms.

The installed capacity of wind power in India was 10,925 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu
(4301.63 MW), Maharashtra (1942.25 MW), Gujarat (1565.61 MW), Karnataka (1340.23 MW),
Rajasthan (738.5 MW), Madhya Pradesh (212.8 MW), Andhra Pradesh (122.45 MW), Kerala
(26.5 MW), West Bengal (1.1 MW) and other states (3.20 MW).It is estimated that 6,000 MW of
additional wind power capacity will be installed in India by 2012. Wind power accounts for 6% of
India's total installed power capacity, and it generates 1.6% of the country's power.

Initial cost for wind turbines is greater than that of conventional fossil fuel generators. Noise
produced by the rotor blades. There is interference on television signals. It causes significant bird
and other avian deaths. Wind resources might not be available near cities and, even so, the space
might be used for other purposes that can generate larger profits. Wind cannot be stored (unless
batteries are used) Not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of electricity demands.

Pros:-

 Wind power produces no water or air pollution that can contaminate the environment,
because there are no chemical processes involved in wind power generation. Hence, there
are no waste by-products, such as carbon dioxide.

23
 Power from the wind does not contribute to global warming because it does not generate
greenhouse gases.
 Wind generation is a renewable source of energy, which means that we will never run out
of it.
 Wind towers can be beneficial for people living permanently, or temporarily, in remote
areas. It may be difficult to transport electricity through wires from a power plant to a far-
away location and thus, wind towers can be set up at the remote setting.
 Farming and grazing can still take place on land occupied by wind turbines.
 Those utilizing wind powers in a grid-tie configuration will have backup power in the
event of a power outage.
 Because of the ability of wind turbines to coexist within agricultural fields, sitting costs are
frequently low.

Cons:-

 Wind is unpredictable; therefore, wind power is not predictably available. When the wind
speed decreases less electricity is generated. This makes wind power unsuitable for base
load generation.
 Wind farms may be challenged in communities that consider them an eyesore or
obstruction.
 Wind farms, depending on the location and type of turbine, may negatively affect bird
migration patterns, and may pose a danger to the birds themselves (primarily an issue with
older/smaller turbines).
 Wind farms may interfere with radar creating a hole in radar coverage and so affect
national security.
 Tall wind turbines have been proven to impact Doppler radar towers and affect weather
forecasting in a negative way. This can be prevented by not having the wind turbines in the
radar's line of sight.

Mainly petrol, diesel, CNG, LPG and now bio-fuels are used for transportation purpose.

24
 METHODOLOGY

 For this research firstly we have to understand the requirement of alternative energy.
 Then analyze all the available resources, their advantages, disadvantages and their
feasibility.
 Then it is required to find out whether it is economical to go for alternative sources of
energy.
 We will find the crops which are used to produce bio-fuel.
 We will also find whether producing bio-fuel on small scale is feasible or not.
 We have to collect data and secondary info. From various Govt. and other websites.

25
 Petroleum (Petrol/diesel/Kerosene):-

Diesel fuel is widely used in most types of transportation. The gasoline-powered passenger
automobile is the major exception.

Petroleum derived diesel (called as petro diesel) is a mixture of straight run product (150 °C and
350 °C) with varying amount of selected cracked distillates and is composed of saturated
hydrocarbons, and aromatic hydrocarbons

Petroleum is the most widely used fossil fuel, supplying about 40 percent of the world’s energy.
Petroleum is also called oil. One of the most important uses of petroleum is as fuel for motor
vehicles. It can also be used to pave roads, to make other chemicals, and to moisturize skin.

Petroleum is a hydrocarbon, which means it is made up mostly of molecules that contain only
carbon and hydrogen atoms. It also contains some oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and metal salts. The
term petroleum encompasses several different kinds of liquid hydrocarbons. The main ones are
oil, tar, and natural gas.

Diesel is used in diesel engines, a type of internal combustion engine. Rudolf Diesel originally
designed the diesel engine to use coal dust as a fuel, but oil proved more effective. Diesel
engines are used in cars, motorcycles, boats and locomotives. Automotive diesel fuel serves to
power trains, buses, trucks, and automobiles, to run construction, petroleum drilling and other
off-road equipment and to be the prime mover in a wide range of power generation & pumping
applications. The diesel engine is high compression, self-ignition engine. Fuel is ignited by the
heat of high compression and no spark plug is used.

Diesel fuel often contains higher quantities of sulphur. In India, emission standards (equivalent

26
 to Euro II, Euro III, Euro IV) have necessitated oil refineries to dramatically reduce the level of
sulphur in diesel in view of the auto fuel policy brought in force by Govt. of India.

A majority of the rural population in India continues to rely on kerosene for domestic lighting.
Measures to promote inter-fuel substitution in domestic lighting by promoting rural electrification
have met with partial success. Electrified households in rural areas also use kerosene as a backup
fuel because of erratic and poor electricity supply. Kerosene is subsidized, and an extensive
network has been put in place for its distribution. Both these measures are meant to facilitate
access and affordability by the poor. However, this is not the case at the grass-roots level. Further,
use of traditional lighting devices has also had an adverse affect on the quality of life of the people
for these devices are inefficient, emit smoke, and give poor-quality light. In this the poorest of the
poor, who have limited choices and options are worst affected.

Kerosene is widely used to power jet-engine aircraft (jet fuel) and some rockets, but is also
commonly used as a heating fuel and for fire toys. Kerosene is sometimes used as an additive in
diesel fuel to prevent gelling or waxing in cold temperatures.

Exploration and Production:-

Exploration and distribution is done through ONGC, GAIL, and some private companies namely
RIL. Some of the incentives announced by the government were:

 No custom duty on imports required for petroleum operations.

 No minimum expenditure commitment during the exploration period.
 No mandatory state participation.
 No carried interest by National Oil Companies
 Freedom to sell crude oil and natural gas in domestic market at market related prices.
 Biddable cost recovery limit up to 100%
 Royalty payment: 12.5% for on land areas, 10% for offshore and 5% for deep water areas.
 Liberal depreciation provisions
 Seven years tax holidays from the commencement of production.

The liberalization policies followed so far has not shown any positive result in exploration and
production sector. In a desperate bid, the government has accelerated the space of reform. How
the national oil companies adjust to this rapid changing situation is to be watched closely.
27
Refining:-

Private and joint sector refineries have been permitted to import crude oil freely without import
license for actual use in their own refineries. This will have adverse effect on the operating cost of
public sector refineries should international crude price falls below the domestic crude price.

Marketing:-

In the nineties, major policies as under in the marketing of petroleum products with far reaching
implications have been announced by the government. To attract private investment in
exploration, the government has announced that any company investing nearly US$400 million
(Rs20 billion) in exploration and production or other specified avenue, would be eligible for
marketing rights for petroleum products in India. This will allow the international oil majors to
enter into the lucrative marketing sector.

Cross subsidized petroleum products competed with other energy sources like coal , and
penetrated into their domain. Thus low priced kerosene has replaced vegetable oil for illuminating
lamps and coal for cooking, subsidized LPG has become an essential household fuel, long
distance trucks fed with cheap diesel easily competed with the railways in freight movement and
subsidized naphtha made the coal technology unviable for fertilizer production. This pricing
policy backed with elaborate distribution system has made the entire economy almost completely
dependent on petroleum products. In this changed situation, the refining and marketing PSUs with
old refineries and decades of 'retention' culture might find it difficult to face competition in the
post APM (Administered Pricing Mechanism) phase. And if international crude price falls as we
saw during late eighties, ONGCL and OIL will also become uncompetitive unless they adjust
themselves quickly with the changing situation.

Since these power plants are thermal engines, and are typically quite large, waste heat disposal
becomes an issue at high ambient temperature. Thus, at a time of peak demand, a power plant may

28
need to be shut down or operate at a reduced power level, as sometimes do nuclear power plants,
for the same reasons

Advantages:-

 Highly compact portable source of energy used for most forms of mechanical
transportation.

 Excellent source of organic molecules for building plastics, medicines, rubber, fiber, etc.

 Can withstand high heats without breakdown making it useful as lubricants like motor oil
and grease.

 Residuals make excellent surface for asphalt roads and waterproof roofing materials

 Certain components make excellent solvents for paint, industrial use etc.

 Other components (propane, butane) make excellent compact source of portable cooking
fuel and heating in areas that do not have infrastructure for natural gas delivery.

 Natural gas is used to make fertilizers used in agriculture and household detergents.

 Compared to most other fuel sources it is still one of the most economical -in other words
the costs to produce it are relatively cheap compared to other energy sources.

 Production of oil has much less impact and a smaller footprint on the earth surface than
production of coal from strip mining.

 If not for the discovery of oil, all whales would likely be extinct, because they were the
primary source of lamp oil for lighting before oil, and are still recovering from hunting in
the 1800's.

 The oil industry has been a source of much advanced technology and many new products
that have changed our lives for the better.

 Natural gas wells are the world's supply of helium gas.

 Oil refining produces the world's supply of elemental sulphur as a byproduct, used for
many industrial applications.
29
Disadvantages:-

 Oil is a carbon based fuel and the primary way it is used is to burn it, releasing more than
its weight in CO2 because of the added oxygen.

 Estimates vary from 50 to 150 years before we run out of oil. This is impossible to predict,
but most major oil companies have been failing to discover new reserves equal to the
amount of oil they are producing for the last few years.

 Much of the remaining oil in the world is in politically unstable areas including Africa,
Middle East, Russia, and parts of Southeast Asia.

 Oil must be transported in ever increasing quantities. Pipelines are one common method
but where no pipeline exist oil can become 'stranded', in other words there is no way to get
it to market.

 Oil spills do serious environmental damage that takes decades to recover from.

 Our consumption of oil is increasing at the same time our production is falling. The world
is currently consuming 83 million barrels of oil per day. We aren't producing that much.

 Many oil producing areas are subject to severe weather and this can interrupt production.

 Oil does contain some cancer causing compounds, benzene is one of those.

 Volatile components of oil and natural gas can contribute to smog.

 Drilling for oil is getting more difficult and expensive because we are now drilling as deep
or deeper than 20,000 feet to find new reserves.

 Some oil is now being strip mined in the form of tar sands. This will be very hard to
restore these areas.

30
 CNG

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or propane
fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean
alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is
lighter than air, and disperses quickly when released).

CNG is made by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane [CH4]), to less
than 1% of its volume at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard
containers, at a normal pressure of 200–248 bar (2900–3600 psi), usually in cylindrical or
spherical shapes.

CNG is used in traditional gasoline internal combustion engine cars that have been converted into
bi-fuel vehicles (gasoline/CNG).

In response to high fuel prices and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in
auto and pickup trucks, transit and school buses, and trains.

The Natural Gas has less energy density as compared to Liquid Fuel and hence it is compressed to
over 200 Kg/cm² (g) pressure to make it CNG for use in the automobile sector. In its natural form
it is colorless, odorless, non-toxic and non-carcinogenic. However, this natural gas is mixed with
an odorant to add flavour similar to the odour of LPG from a domestic cylinder so as to facilitate
detection of its leakage. The typical composition and physical properties of CNG (i.e. Compressed
Natural Gas) is as follows:

Typical Composition:

Methane : 88%
Ethane : 5%
Propane : 1%
CO2 : 5%
Others : 1%
____
Total : 100%

31
Advantage:-

 Due to the absence of any lead or benzene content in CNG, the lead fouling of spark plugs
is eliminated.
 CNG-powered vehicles have lower maintenance costs when compared with other fuel-
powered vehicles.
 CNG fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spill or evaporation losses. Increased life
of oils is another advantage.
 CNG mixes easily and evenly in air being a gaseous fuel.
 CNG is less likely to auto-ignite on hot surfaces, since it has a high auto-ignition
temperature (540 °C) and a narrow range (5%-15%) of inflammability.
 CNG produces significantly lesser emissions of pollutants.

Drawbacks:-

 Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel storage than
conventional gasoline power vehicles.
 Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a liquid like gasoline, CNG takes up more space
for each gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE).
 CNG-powered vehicles are considered to be less safer than gasoline-powered vehicles
 CNG's volumetric energy density is estimated to be 42% of LNG's (because it is not
liquefied), and 25% of diesel's.

For Developing CNG Infrastructure

 The following difficulties are faced in developing CNG infrastructure:

 Limited natural gas allocation leading to delay in management decisions on
expenditure commitment.
 Uncertainty about conversion of vehicles & CNG demand.
 Lack of indigenous technology.
 Capital intensive project-a mother station cost would be 5-6 times the cost of a petrol
pump and pipeline need to be in place.

32
  Infrastructural constraints (Electricity, land etc.)
 Delay in getting permission from statutory authorities.
 Objection from local people, encroachment.
 Low storage capacity of on-board cylinders, thus requiring frequent refills.

Environment and Climate Protection :-

Compressed Natural Gas has been accepted as an alternative fuel by the public at large. The
stage is set for expanding the network to other cities. The success of CNG Expansion Program
would depend on many factors. The key factors being the economy of CNG vis-à-vis other
conventional fuels, adherence to safety guidelines and the Government Support.

Auto LPG is also launched on a large scale in the country. At the end of the day, it will be the
quality of the fuel and economics which would be important parameters for the commercial
success of auto fuel. The emphasis would be on fuels with lowest emissions. However, CNG
is here for the time being till a better fuel is discovered offering better economics to the users.

Distribution:-
Mother Station:- Mother stations are connected to the pipeline and have high compression
capacity. These stations supply CNG to both vehicles and daughter stations (through mobile
cascades). Typically they have the facility of filling all types of vehicles – buses/autos/cars. The
Mother station requires heavy investment towards compressor, dispensers, cascades, pipelines,
tubing etc

33
Online Station: CNG vehicle storage cylinders need to be filled at a pressure of 200 bars. “On
line Stations” are equipped with a compressor of relatively small capacity, which compresses low
pressure pipeline gas to the pressure of 250 bar for dispensing CNG to the vehicle cylinder. The
investment in an online station is midway between daughter station and mother station.

Daughter Station: The “Daughter Stations” dispense CNG using mobile cascades. These mobile
cascades at daughter stations are replaced when pressure falls and pressure depleted mobile
cascade is refilled at the “Mother Station”. The investment in a daughter station is least among all
types of CNG stations.
There is reduction in storage pressure at daughter stations with each successive filling. Once the
storage pressure drops, the refueling time increases, while the quantity of CNG dispensed to
vehicle also decreases.

Daughter-Booster Station: Installing a booster compressor can eliminate drawbacks of daughter

stations. The mobile cascade can be connected to the dispensing system through a booster.
Daughter booster (compressor) is designed to take variable suction pressure and discharge at
constant pressure of 200 bars to the vehicle being filled with CNG. The investment in daughter
booster station is slightly higher than that of daughter station.

34
 LPG

Liquefied petroleum gas (also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, or auto gas) is a flammable mixture of
hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles, and increasingly replacing
chlorofluorocarbons as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant to reduce damage to the ozone
layer.

Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane, mixes that are
primarily butane, and the more common, mixes including both propane C3H8 (60%) and butane
C4H10 (40%), depending on the season – in winter more propane, in summer more butane.
Propylene and butylenes are usually also present in small concentration. A powerful odorant,
ethanethiol , is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The international standard is EN 589.
In the United States, thiophene or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants.

LPG is a low carbon emitting hydrocarbon fuel available in rural areas, Being a mix of propane
and butane, LPG emits less carbon per joule than butane but more carbon per joule than propane.
As a low carbon, low polluting fossil fuel. LPG is widely available and can be used for hundreds
of commercial and domestic applications.

Motor fuel:-

When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as autogas or auto
propane. In some countries, it has been used since the 1940s as a petrol alternative for spark
ignition engines. Its advantage is that it is non-toxic, non-corrosive and free of tetra-ethyl lead or
any additives, and has a high octane rating (108 RON). It burns more cleanly than petrol or diesel
and is especially free of the particulates from the latter.

LPG has a lower energy density than either petrol or diesel, so the equivalent fuel consumption is
higher. Many governments impose less tax on LPG than on petrol or diesel, which helps offset the
greater consumption of LPG than of petrol or diesel. However, in many European countries this
tax break is often compensated by a much higher annual road tax on cars using LPG than on cars
using petrol or diesel. Propane is the third most widely used motor fuel in the world.

35
Distribution:-

Distribution of LPG is made through agencies (outlets). IOCL, BPCL, HPCL all have their
different distribution outlets. From these outlets one can get LPG cylinder of any one company, it
may be of HPCL, BPCL or IOCL. For getting LPG cylinder one has to take a connection from
any one of these companies. In almost each district there is a plant, where empty cylinders were
filled and send it to the agencies for distribution. To continue the refilling these plants gets supply
through LPG tankers from nearby LPG depot of the respective company.

LPG – A BETTER FUEL THAN CNG:-

LPG Producers are suggesting the government to stop issuing CNG License for compresses natural
gas (CNG) filling stations and instead LPG in domestic , commercial and automobile market.
Although government has slowed down this process, there is a need to completely ban CNG license
as natural gas reserves were depleting.

Since the import of natural gas is very expensive and is not viable where as LPG can be imported
within a short span of time. Instead of supplying natural gas to CNG stations, the government is
planning to ensure the gas is provided to industrial sector, which are generating revenues and
producing export surplus for the country. Proving cheaper fuel will enable industries to complete
international markets and boost their exports, resulting in generating more revenue for the country.

Parameters CNG LPG

Average 90% lesser than

Emissions Average 70% lesser petrol/diesel
petrol/diesel

Reduces by about 20% as gas carburetors Almost same as petrol/diesel

Power
are often used vehicles

36
 Large tanks average 6 times that of
Volume of Fuel
petrol/diesel for same mileage: additional Same as petrol/diesel
Tank
weight and eats up boot space

Taxi/Car: PKR 6,000 ~ 14,

Conversion Cost Taxi/Car: PKR 25,000 ~ 45, 000
000

200 ~ 245 bar, high pressure can be a 5-7 bar, comparable to

Safety
safety concern conventional fuel

Requires special equipment. A

compressor alone cost PKR 20 Million Average LPG station cost
Dispensing
and a complete station could cost up to 30 PKR 4.5 Million
Million

Easily transported by road

Distribution &
Dependent on pipe line networks tanker equipment with PTO
Transportation
like liquid fuel

Network Heavily dependent on SN pipe line Easy to develop, lead time is

Development networks, lead time is high 5-6 months

Initial Average USD 250,000 and upwards for

investment in just a dispensing station with compressor Average USD 65, 000
infrastructure of suitable capacity

Global
5.0 Million Vehicles 10.0 Million Vehicles
Experience

37
 BIOFUEL

Bio-fuel development and use is a complex issue because there are many bio-fuel options which are
available. Bio-fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are currently produced from the products of
conventional food crops such as the starch, sugar and oil feed-tocks from crops that include wheat,
maize, sugar cane, palm oil and oilseed rape. Any major switch to bio-fuels from such crops would
create a direct competition with their use for food and animal feed, and in some parts of the world
we are already seeing the economic consequences of such competition.

Bio-fuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term covers
solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Bio-fuels are gaining increased public and scientific
attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes and the need for increased energy security.

Bio-ethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made
mostly from sugar and starch crops. With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass,
such as trees and grasses, are also used as feed stocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as
a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and
improve vehicle emissions. Bio-ethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil.

Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel can be used as a
fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of
particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is
produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common bio-fuel in Europe.

Bio-fuels provided 1.8% of the world's transport fuel in 2008. Investment into bio-fuels production
capacity exceeded $4 billion worldwide in 2007 and is growing.

Different Types of Bio-Fuel:-

There are many different bio-fuels available in the UK. One of the most common worldwide is E10
fuel, which is actually a mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% petroleum. This formula has been

38
improved in recent years with the introduction of E15 fuel (15% ethanol, 85% petroleum); E20 fuel
(20% ethanol, 80% petroleum); E85 fuel (85% ethanol, 15% petroleum); E95 fuel (95% ethanol,
15% petroleum) and E100 fuel which is ethanol with up to 4% water.

There are many other types of biofuel available including vegetable oil, which is used in many older
diesel engines; butanol, which is seen as a replacement for petroleum; and biogas which is produced
from biodegradable waste materials.

Bio-fuel in India:-

Bio-fuel development in India centers mainly around the cultivation and processing of Jatropha plant
seeds which are very rich in oil (40%). The drivers for this are historic, functional, economic,
environmental, moral and political. Jatropha oil has been used in India for several decades as
biodiesel to cater to the diesel fuel requirements of remote rural and forest communities; jatropha oil
can be used directly after extraction (i.e. without refining) in diesel generators and engines. Jatropha
has the potential to provide economic benefits at the local level since under suitable management it
has the potential to grow in dry marginal non-agricultural lands, thereby allowing villagers and
farmers to leverage non-farm land for income generation. As well, increased Jatropha oil production
delivers economic benefits to India on the macroeconomic or national level as it reduces the nation's
fossil fuel import bill for diesel production (the main transportation fuel used in the country);
minimizing the expenditure of India's foreign-currency reserves for fuel allowing India to increase
its growing foreign currency reserves (which can be better spent on capital expenditures for
industrial inputs and production). And since Jatropha oil is carbon-neutral, large-scale production
will improve the country's carbon emissions profile. Finally, since no food producing farmland is
required for producing this biofuel (unlike corn or sugar cane ethanol, or palm oil diesel), it is
considered the most politically and morally acceptable choice among India's current bio-fuel
options; it has no known negative impact on the production of the massive amounts grains and other
vital agriculture goods India produces to meet the food requirements of its massive population (1.1
Billion people as of 2008). Seeds from the Jatropha curcas plant are used for the production of bio-
fuel, a crucial part of India's plan to attain energy sustainability.

39
India's total biodiesel requirement is projected to grow to 3.6 Million Metric Tons in 2011-12, with
the positive performance of the domestic automobile industry. The Government is currently
implementing an ethanol-blending program and considering initiatives in the form of mandates for
biodiesel. Due to these strategies, the rising population, and the growing energy demand from the
transport sector, bio-fuels can be assured of a significant market in India. On 12 September 2008, the
Indian Government announced its 'National Bio-fuel Policy'. It aims to meet 20% of India's diesel
demand with fuel derived from plants. That will mean setting aside 140,000 square kilometers of
land. Presently fuel yielding plants cover less than 5,000 square kilometers

Jatropha incentives in India

Jatropha incentives in India are a part of India's goal to achieve energy independence by the year
2012. Jatropha oil is produced from the seeds of the Jatropha curcas, a plant that can grow in
wastelands across India, and the oil is considered to be an excellent source of bio-diesel. India is
keen on reducing its dependence on coal and petroleum to meet its increasing energy demand and
encouraging Jatropha cultivation is a crucial component of its energy policy.

Large plots of waste land have been selected for Jatropha cultivation and will provide much needed
employment to the rural poor of India. Businesses are also seeing the planting of Jatropha as a good
business opportunity. The Government of India has identified 400,000 square kilometres (98 million
acres) of land where Jatropha can be grown, hoping it will replace 20% of India's diesel consumption
by 2011.

Indian Railways:-

The Indian Railways has started to use the oil (blended with diesel fuel in various ratios) from the
Jatropha plant to power its diesel engines with great success. Currently the diesel locomotives that
run from Thanjavur to Nagore section and Tiruchirapalli to Lalgudi, Dindigul and Karur sections run
on a blend of Jatropha and diesel oil.
40
Biofuels Production Cycle:-

41
Bio-fuel production from biomass:-

Bio-fuel consist of two major categories of fuels-Bio-ethanol and Biodiesel, therefore there are two
different procedures of producing bio-fuel from biomass. The methods followed have a strong
impact on the end results that are achieved. There are two key reactions that are involved in the
production of Bio-ethanol, one is Hydrolysis and the other is Fermentation.
For years, some critics have claimed that corn-based ethanol has a negative "net energy balance" --
that is, that ethanol requires more energy to produce than it delivers as fuel. But as bio-fuel
production efficiencies have improved, critics have turned their focus to broader sustainability
issues.

Bio-Fuels Do Harm, Aren't They?

Bio-fuels have been hailed as a green alternative to oil by some, but in the US, where there are
massive plants converting maize (corn), it has been criticized for making food more expensive and
being environmentally unfriendly. Britain produces about 55,000 tons a year of bio-ethanol, which is
added to petrol, mostly from sugar beet, and 75,000 tons of biodiesel, added to diesel, from tallow
and rape, soya and palm oil. Two million tons a year would be needed to meet the 5 per cent target.

Commercial Bio-Fuel Production In India:-

Cultivation of feedstock for bio-fuels can destroy habitat and contribute to reducing
biological diversity:-
 De-forestation (alarm for palm oil production in Indonesia and Malaysia).
 Habitat stress and loss of biodiversity from spreading of monocultures, use of water
resources and pesticides.
 Compaction and erosion of soil.

42
  Invasive species (often high-growth plants that need no input of fertilizers, such as
miscanthus).
 Second-generation fuels: indication that some diverse systems will give higher yields than
monocultures.

Commercial Bio-Fuel Production In India:-

Apart from the environmental problems, there are a few social problems as well.

 Competition for land use

 Competition for land use.
 Increase in prices for food, feed and industrial fibres.
 Some areas, people and industries may gain – others will loose without compensating
measures.

 Working conditions at plantations.

 General agricultural industry problem – substandard wages and poor working
conditions.
 Local community conditions.
 Lack of trickle down effects.
 Increasing concentration of lands in the ownership of a few large landowners in
developing countries.
 Takeover of land for bio-fuel cultivation by large international agribusinesses, wiping
out traditional ways of living and sending people into poverty

Sustainable Bio-fuel Production:-

A senior scientist at the Land Institute, Cox and his organization work to develop agricultural
systems that are both sustainable and produce strong grain yields for food.
The reason for his invitation, however, became clear to him, as food riots erupted around the globe
this year. Cox and fellow scientists argue that a "perfect storm" has formed, one in which high
petroleum prices combined with soil erosion, the increase in price of nitrogen-based fertilizer,
43
government waste and corruption, crop failures in Australia, and growing food demand have
strained the world's ability to feed itself, especially in developing nations. The resulting increase in
food prices has led to violent unrest across Asia, the Caribbean, and Latin America.

The United Nations World Food Program yesterday said high food prices have caused "a silent
tsunami threatening to plunge more than 100 million people on every continent into hunger."

Agricultural staples such as corn and soybeans are increasingly used to produce bio-fuels like
ethanol and biodiesel, respectively, rather than food. The United States has ramped up its food-
based bio-fuel production in an effort to end its dependence on foreign oil and combat global
warming. According to the White House, ethanol production has quadrupled from 1.6 billion
gallons in 2000 to 6.4 billion gallons in 2007. The increased production of ethanol comes primarily
from corn, and it has made the United States the number one producer of the alternative fuel
worldwide. But this shift from producing corn and soybeans for fuel rather than food has affected
global food supplies. A 2006 paper published by the Proceedings of the National Academy of the
Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) said that “Neither bio-fuel [ethanol or biodiesel]
can replace much petroleum without impacting food supplies.” With increased demand for already
scarce foodstuffs, prices have soared; benefitting corn and soybean producers but harming poor
consumers internationally. The PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences) study
agreed, stating, “Even dedicating all U.S. corn and soybean production to bio-fuels would meet
only 12 percent of gasoline demand and 6 percent of diesel demand.”A partial solution to this
increasingly complex problem would be to produce bio-fuel from nonfood sources. Bio-fuel
production from non-grain biomass such as sugarcane would be less destructive than grain bio-
fuels. Even then, he said, non-grain bio-fuel would not satisfy our future fuel demand unless we
sharply reduced our overall demand for fuel across the board.

44
The following table shows the vegetable oil yields of common energy crops associated with bio-
diesel production. This is unrelated to ethanol production, which relies on starch, sugar and cellulose
content instead of oil yields.

Crop kg oil/ha/yr liters oil/ha lbs oil/acre US gal/acre

maize (corn) 145 172 129 18
cashew nut 148 176 132 19
oats 183 217 163 23
lupin (lupine) 195 232 175 25
kenaf 230 273 205 29
calendula 256 305 229 33
cotton 273 325 244 35
hemp 305 363 272 39
soybean 375 446 335 48
coffee 386 459 345 49
flax (linseed) 402 478 359 51
hazelnuts 405 482 362 51
euphorbia 440 524 393 56
pumpkin seed 449 534 401 57
coriander 450 536 402 57
mustard seed 481 572 430 61
camelina 490 583 438 62
sesame 585 696 522 74
safflower 655 779 585 83
rice 696 828 622 88
tung tree 790 940 705 100

45
sunflowers 800 952 714 102
cacao (cocoa) 863 1026 771 110
peanut 890 1059 795 113
opium poppy 978 1163 873 124
rapeseed 1000 1190 893 127
olives 1019 1212 910 129
castor beans 1188 1413 1061 151
pecan nuts 1505 1791 1344 191
jojoba 1528 1818 1365 194
jatropha 1590 1892 1420 202
macadamia nuts 1887 2246 1685 240
brazil nuts 2010 2392 1795 255
avocado 2217 2638 1980 282
coconut 2260 2689 2018 287
chinese tallow 3950 4700 3500 500
oil palm 5000 5950 4465 635
Copaifera langsdorffii 12000 1283
algae (open pond) 80000 95000 70000 10000

Advantage of Bio- Fuel:-

 Bio-fuel being produced from plants, vegetable sources, grains, corns, is a superior
fuel than fossil fuel from the environmental point of view.
 Use of bio-fuel becomes compelling in view of the tightening of automotive vehicle
emission standards and court interventions.
 The need to provide energy security, specially for the rural areas.
 The need to create employment for the rural people through plantation, seed

46
 procurement, oil extraction.

 The plantation of the bio-diesel crops provide nutrients to soil, checking soil erosion
and land degradation.
 Rehabilitating degraded lands through greening.
 Addressing global concern relating to containing Carbon emissions as provided in the
Framework Convention on Climate Change.
 Reduce dependence on crude oil imports

Disadvantages of Bio-Fuels:-

 Biodiversity - A fear among environmentalists is that by adapting more land to produce crops
for bio-fuels, more habitats will be lost for animals and wild plants. It is feared for example,
that some Asian countries will sacrifice their rainforests to build more oil plantations.
 The food V fuel debate - Another concern is that if bio-fuels become lucrative for farmers,
they may grow crops for bio-fuel production instead of food production. Less food production
will increase prices and cause a rise in inflation.
 Burning of rapeseed or corn can contribute as much to nitrous oxide emissions than cooling
through fossil fuel savings.
 Non-sustainable bio-fuel production – Many first generation bio-fuels are not sustainable. It is
necessary to create sustainable bio-fuel production that does not affect food production, and
that doesn’t cause environmental problems.

The Pros and Cons of Bio-fuels:-

 Bio-fuels are Easy to Use, but Not Always Easy to Find:-

Despite the upsides, however, experts point out that bio-fuels are far from a cure for our
addiction to petroleum. A wholesale societal shift from gasoline to bio-fuels, given the

47
 number of gas-only cars already on the road and the lack of ethanol or biodiesel pumps at
existing filling stations, would take some time.

 Are There Enough Farms and Crops to Support a Switch to Bio-fuels?

Another major hurdle for widespread adoption of bio-fuels is the challenge of growing
enough crops to meet demand, something skeptics say might well require converting just
about all of the world’s remaining forests and open spaces over to agricultural land.
Replacing only five percent of the nation’s diesel consumption with biodiesel would require
diverting approximately 60 percent of today’s soy crops to biodiesel production.

 Does Producing Bio-fuels Use More Energy than They Can Generate?
Another dark cloud looming over bio-fuels is whether producing them actually requires more
energy than they can generate. After factoring in the energy needed to grow crops and then
convert them into bio-fuels. Producing ethanol from corn required 29 percent more energy
than the end product itself is capable of generating. He found similarly troubling numbers in
making biodiesel from soybeans.

 Conservation is a Key Strategy for Reducing Dependence on Fossil Fuels.

There is no one quick-fix for weaning ourselves off of fossil fuels and the future will likely
see a combination of sources--from wind and ocean currents to hydrogen, solar and some use
of bio-fuels: powering our energy needs. We must reduce our consumption, not just replace it
with something else. Indeed, conservation is probably the largest single “alternative fuel”
available to us.

Best Bio-Fuel Crops For India:-

There are a number of emerging bio-fuel crops - jatropha, algae, switch grass, arundo donax,
camelina, chinese tallow, kudzu and more. Jatropha is the ideal bio-fuel crop for India as it can grow
on arid land and India cannot afford to divert its agricultural lands towards energy production.

48
 WHAT IS JATROPHA?

Jatropha is a quick maturing plant species that starts bearing fruits within a year of its planting and
following the extraction of the oil can be blended with petroleum diesel for use. It is a very hardy
plant and grows in a wide variety of agro-climatic conditions from arid to high rainfall areas and on
lands with thin soil cover to good lands. It is also not browsed by cattle and so its plantation can be
easily under taken in the farmers’ fields and their boundaries, under-stocked forests, public lands and
denuded lands facing increasing degradation. Its plantation, seed collection, oil extraction etc. will
create employment opportunities for a large number of people, particularly the poor, and will help
rehabilitate unproductive and wastelands and save precious foreign exchange by substituting
imported crude.

Jatropha is a tall bush or small tree (up to 6 m height). The genus Jatropha contains approximately
170 known species. The genus name Jatropha derives from the Greek jatrós (doctor),trophé (food),
which implies medicinal uses. The seeds are toxic and they contain about 35 % of non-edible oil.
The plant is planted as a hedge (living fence) by farmers all over the world around homesteads,
gardens and fields, because it is not browsed by animals.

 Jatropha curcus is a drought-resistant perennial, growing well in marginal/poor soil. It is easy

to establish, grows relatively quickly and lives, producing seeds for 50 years.
 It is found to be growing in many parts of the country, rugged in nature and can survive with
minimum inputs and easy to propagate.
 This highly drought-resistant species is adapted to arid and semi-arid conditions. The current
distribution shows that introduction has been
most successful in the drier regions of the tropics with annual rainfall of 300-1000 mm.
 It occurs mainly at lower altitudes (0-500 m) in areas with average annual temperatures well
above 20°C but can grow at higher altitudes and tolerates slight frost.
49
 Jatropha seedcakes, produced as a by-product of pressing the oil, make an excellent organic
fertilizer or protein-rich livestock feed. Another by-product is glycerin.

 Jatropha the wonder plant produces seeds with an oil content of 37%. The oil can be
combusted as fuel without being refined. It burns with clear smoke-free flame, tested
successfully as fuel for simple diesel engine. The by-products are press cake a good organic
fertilizer, oil contains also insecticide.
 By the year 2011 a planned 20% of the total diesel consumption is to come from Jatropha
biodiesel, with biodiesel production planned to reach around 13 million tons annually by
2013.
 Average yields quoted in their projection are 1.5 kg per plant per year, oil recovery from the
seeds is expected to be 91%, and the oil cake and glycerol are to be sold to compensate for
the cost of processing the seeds into biodiesel.
 Because of its mineral content, which is similar to that of chicken manure, it is valuable as
organic manure. In practical terms an application of 1 ton of Jatropha press cake is equivalent
to 200 kg of mineral fertilizer.
 About one-third of the energy in the fruit of Jatropha can be extracted as oil that has a similar
energy value to diesel fuel. Jatropha oil can be used directly in diesel engines added to diesel
fuel as an extender or trans-esterised to a bio-diesel fuel.

Possible Uses of the Jatropha

50
 Jatropha press cake Jatropha oil

The comparison of properties of Jatropha oil and standard specifications of diesel

Specification Standard specification of Jatropha Standard specification of Diesel

oil

Specific gravity 0.9186 0.82/0.84

Flash point 240/110°C 50°C

Carbon residue 0.64 0.15 or less

Cetane value 51.0 > 50.0

Distillation point 295°C 350°C

Kinematics Viscosity 50.73 cp > 2.7 cp

Sulphur % 0.13 % 1.2 % or less

Calorific value 9,470 kcal/kg 10,170 kcal/kg

Pour point 8°C 10°C

Colour 4.0 4 or less

51
 Physical and chemical properties of diesel fuel and Jatropha

Property Jatropha Oil Diesel Oil

Viscosity (cp) (30°C) 5.51 3.60

Speciflc gravity (15°C/4°C) 0.917/ 0.923(0.881) 0.841 / 0.85

Solidfying Point (°C) 2.0 0.14

Cetane Value 51.0 47.8 to 59

Flash Point (°C) 110 / 340 80

Carbon Residue (%) 0.64 < 0.05 to < 0.15

Distillation (°C) 284 to 295 < 350 to < 370

Sulfur (%) 0.13 to 0.16 < 1.0 to 1.2

Acid Value 1.0 to 38.2

Iodine Value 90.8 to 112.5

Refractive Index (30°C) 1.47

52
Pictures of Jatropha

53
Bio-Fuel –Alternative to Transport Fuel:-

In bio-diesel the country has a ray of hope. Bio-fuels are renewable liquid fuels coming from
biological raw material and have been proved to be good substitutes for oil in the transportation
sector. As such bio-fuels: bio-ethanol and bio-diesel are gaining worldwide acceptance as a
solution to environmental problems, energy security, reducing imports, rural employment and
improving agricultural economy.

Ethanol is one such substitute that can be produced from Sugarcane, Sweet Sorghum and used in
blend with gasoline for automobiles. Similarly, bio-diesel can be produced from oil bearing
seeds of many plants grown in the wild like Jatropha curcas, Pongamia, Neem, Mahua and
blended with High Speed Diesel for transport vehicles, generators, railway engines, irrigation
pumps, etc. Large volumes of such oils can also substitute imported oil for making soap.

Bio-diesel is made from virgin or used vegetable oils (both edible & non-edible) and animal fats
through trans-esterification and is a diesel substitute and requires very little or no engine
modifications up to 20% blend and minor modification for higher percentage blends. The use of
bio-diesel results in substantial reduction of un-burnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and
particulate matters. It has almost no sulphur, no aromatics and has about 10% built in oxygen,
which helps it to burn fully. Its higher cetane number improves the combustion.

Environmentally and socially there are significant benefits to bio-diesel over petroleum products.
When oil crops grow, they take carbon dioxide from the air and store it in their structure - both in
the plant and in the oil. When they are burnt, the carbon is released back into the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide. However, no new carbon dioxide is released; rather it is just a release of what
was taken in whist the plant grew. Therefore, on balance, very little carbon is released. This is
quite different to the burning of a fossil fuel where new carbon has been taken from its store
underground and released anew into the atmosphere.

54
The total wasteland available for cultivation of crops for bio-fuel is 638518.31 sq km which
constitutes 20.17 percent of the total geographical area in the country. Gullied and/or Revinous
land 20,553.35sqkm Upland with or without scrub 194,014.29 sq km, Waterlogged and Marshy
land 16,568.45 km, Land affected by salinity/alkalinity-coastal/inland 20,477 sq km, Shifting
Cultivation Area 35,142.20 sq km, Underutilized/ degraded notified forest land 1,40,652.31 sq
km, Degraded pastures/grazing land 25,978.91 sq km, Degraded land under plantation crop
5,828.069 sq km, sand-Inland/coastal 50,021.65 sq km, mining industrial wastelands 1,252.13 sq
km, barren rocky/stony waste/sheet rock area 64,584.77 sq km steep sloping area 7,656.29.

Recycled Oil
Solar energy Plantation Oil Extration

Bio-Fuel Chain

CO2 Diesel Production

Consumption
Distribution

55
Economic Benefit:-

 Its higher cetane number improves the combustion and higher viscosity maintains better
lubrication of the engine.
 Bio-diesel is completely harmless to the environment; especially the groundwater and
flush point of bio-diesel is more than 100°C. So storage of bio-diesel is simple and it
doesn’t need any different infrastructure than petro-diesel.
 Bio-diesel can fulfill need to provide energy security, specially for the rural areas.
 Reduces dependence on crude oil import and out-go of foreign exchange for oil
import.

Social Benefits:-

 Large scale bio-diesel tree plantation (Jatropha / Karanja) can create employment for the
rural people. Besides It can also generate employment for Seed procurement, Oil
Extraction & packaging.
 The plantation of the bio-diesel crops provide nutrients to soil, checking soil
erosion and land degradation and it rehabilitates degraded lands through greening.

56
Economics of Jatropha Bio-Diesel :-
 In order to promote bio-diesel and to help it to compete with petroleum diesel, govt. of
India should reward tax incentives to the bio-diesel manufacturers at least for the first 10
years. The economics of Bio-diesel depends highly on the cost of the raw materials /
seeds. The cost of Bio-diesel produced from Jatropha seed has been worked out as
Rs.23.3 / kg or Rs.19.80 / liter, considering the cost of 1 kg Jatropha seed is Rs.5/- per kg,
as shown in the table below:
Particulars Rate (Rs./Kg) Quantity (KG) Cost (Cost)
Jatropha Seed 5.00 4 20
2 4 8
Cost of collection &
Oil extraction
Cost of Oil cake 3 2.8 (-)8.40
produced
20 .115 (-)2.3
Cost of Glycerin
produced
Cost of 6 - 6
Transesterfication
Cost of bio-diesel 23.3 1 23.3
per kg after
deduction of the cost
of oil cake and
glycerin
Cost of bio-diesel - - 19.80
per liter (sp. Gravity
.85)

 The cost components of Bio-diesel are the price of seed, seed collection and oil
extraction, oil trans-esterification, transport of seed and oil. As mentioned earlier, cost

57
 recovery will be through sale of oil-cake and of glycerol. Taking these elements into
account, the price of Bio-diesel has been worked out assuming raw material cost of Rs. 3
per kg and varying prices of by-products. The cost of Bio-diesel varies between Rs. 9.37
per litre to Rs. 16.02 per litre depending upon the price assumed for the oil- cake and
glycerol. The use of Bio-diesel is thus economically feasible.

INCOME FROM 1000 HECT LAND

1. Quantity of Jatropha seeds yield = 5000 tonnes

2. Quantity of Jatropha oil (@ 30%) = 1500 tonnes / 1.755 million liters (@ Sp. Gr. 0.85%)

3. Quantity of Bio-diesel (@ 95% of Jatropha oil) = 1.668 million liters

4. Cost of Bio-diesel (announced by the Govt. of India @ Rs.26.50 / liter) = Rs.4.42 crore

5. Cost of Bio-diesel (US$) = US$ 1 million

6. Quantity of De-Oiled cake (70%) = 3500 tonnes

7. Cost of the De-oiled Cake (@ Rs.2000/- per tonne) = Rs.70 lakh

8. Cost of the De-oiled Cake (US$) = US$ 0.16 million

9. Total Income from Bio-diesel & De-oiled Cake = Rs.5.12 crore

10. Total Income from Bio-diesel & De-oiled Cake (US$) = US$ 1.16 million

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Marketing framework: -

The blending of biodiesel can be taken up at the depot level of the diesel distribution and
marketing company. However, it should be emphasized that marketing of biodiesel blended
diesel should be done as an organized trade and this activity should be handed by the diesel
distributing companies. The biodiesel to be blended has to mandatorily tested for its quality. This
will also keep in check any adulteration activity. The storage of biodiesel does not need any
specialized tanking and the storage tanks used for biodiesel can also be used for biodiesel. The
blending of biodiesel is also a simple affair and the circulatory pumps generally available in any
diesel storage depot are sufficient to make a homogenous blend. Another option for marketing of
biodiesel blended diesel is for specialized fleet operations e.g. bus fleets etc. For this blending
may be taken up at these locations.

BIO-DIESEL

Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl
(methyl, propyl or ethyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g.,
vegetable oil, animal fat) with an alcohol. Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel
engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel
engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petro-diesel.

Bio-diesel is a fatty acid of ethyl or methyl ester made from virgin or used vegetable oils (both
edible and non-edible) and animal fats. The main commodity sources for Bio-diesel in India can
be non-edible oils obtained from plant species such as Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot), Pongamia
pinnata (Karanj), Calophyllum inophyllum (Nagchampa), Hevcca brasiliensis (Rubber) etc. Bio-
diesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create a
Bio-diesel blend or can be used in its pure form. Just like petroleum diesel, Bio-diesel Operates
in compression engine; which essentially require very little or no engine modifications because

59
Bio-diesel has properties similar to petroleum diesel fuels. It can be stored just like the petroleum
diesel fuel and hence does not require separate infrastructure. The use of Bio-diesel in
conventional diesel engines results in substantial reduction of un-brunt hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide and particular matters. Bio-diesel is considered clean fuel since it has almost no
sulphur, no aromatics and has about 10% built-in oxygen, which helps it to burn fully. Its higher
cetane number improves the ignition quality even when blended in the petroleum diesel

What is biodiesel fuel?

Biodiesel is a fuel that is made from soy beans, or waste vegetable oil (cooking oil). It can be
used in place of petroleum diesel fuel for vehicles or heating oil for buildings. Unlike petroleum
diesel, biodiesel is a renewable resource, and it creates less pollution than petroleum diesel. It
can be used alone or in combination with petroleum diesel, or with heating oil. Generally, no
expensive modifications to the engines are required. This makes it easier to integrate biodiesel
into current systems than other alternative energy sources, which often require new equipment.

How is biodiesel made?

Biodiesel fuel is made from oils or fats, which are both hydrocarbons, most commonly soybean
oil. These hydrocarbons are filtered, and then mixed with an alcohol, which is usually methanol,
and a catalyst (sodium or potassium hydroxide). The major products of this reaction are the
biodiesel fuel, which is an ester, and glycerol, which has commercial uses, such as in cosmetics

60
 Sulphuric Acid + Methanol
Recycled Greases

Dilute Acid
Vegetable Oil
Esterification

Methanol + KOH Transesterification

Crude Glycerin Crude Biodiesel

Methanol
Glycerin Refining Refining
Recovery

Glycerin
Biodiesel

Biodiesel Labeled:-

Biodiesel is designated by the letter B and a number representing the percent of the fuel that is
biodiesel. The rest of the fuel is petroleum diesel. For example, a mixture of 20% biodiesel and
80% petroleum diesel would be labeled B20. This ratio of biodiesel to petroleum diesel is
commonly used.

Space-filling model of ethyl stearate, or stearic acid ethyl ester, an ethyl ester
produced from soybean or canola oil and ethanol.
61
Advantages of Biodiesel Fuel:-

 Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source that can be made from soy beans grown for
fuel, or from cooking oils recycled from restaurants.
 Biodiesel is less polluting than petroleum diesel.
 The absence of sulfur in 100% biodiesel should extend the life of catalytic converters.
 Biodiesel fuel can also be used in combination with heating oil to heat residential and
industrial buildings. This can reduce dependence on non-renewable and increasingly
expensive heating oil.
 Biodiesel fuel can generally be used in existing oil heating systems and diesel engines
without modification, and it can be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps. This is
an advantage over other alternative fuels.
 The lubricating effects of the biodiesel may extend the lifetime of engines.
 They are non-toxic.
 Bio-fuels are biodegradable.
 Biodiesel can be used alone or mixed in any ratio with petroleum diesel fuel.
 Biodiesel boasts of a zero total emissions production facility
 Bio-diesel have much higher flash point that makes a vehicle fueled by pure biodiesel far
safer in an accident than one powered by petroleum diesel or the explosively combustible
gasoline.

Disadvantages of Biodiesel Fuel:-

 Biodiesel is currently about one and a half times more expensive than petroleum diesel
fuel. Part of this cost is because the most common source of oil is the soybean, which
only is only 20% oil.
 It takes energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, including the energy of sowing,
fertilizing and harvesting.
 Biodiesel fuel can damage rubber hoses in some engines, particularly in cars built before
1994.

62
  Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine. This dirt then collects in the fuel filter, which
can clog it.

 Biodiesel is not distributed as widely as traditional, petroleum diesel, but distribution

infrastructure is improving.
 Biodiesel produced from agricultural crops involve additional land use.
 It gives out more nitrogen oxide emissions.
 Pure biodiesel doesn't flow well at low temperatures, because of its nature, can’t be
transported in pipelines. It has to be transported by truck or rail, which increases the cost.
 Biodiesel is less suitable for use in low temperatures, than petro-diesel. At even lower
temperatures, the fuel becomes a gel that cannot be pumped.
 Biodiesel is that it tends to reduce fuel economy. The energy content per gallon of
biodiesel is approximately 11 percent lower than that of petroleum diesel
 There have been a few concerns regarding biodiesel’s impact on engine durability

Contamination by water:-

Biodiesel may contain small but problematic quantities of water. One of the reasons biodiesel
can absorb water is the persistence of mono and di-glycerides left over from an incomplete
reaction. These molecules can act as an emulsifier, allowing water to mix with the biodiesel. In
addition, there may be water that is residual to processing or resulting from storage tank
condensation. The presence of water is a problem because:

 Water reduces the heat of combustion of the bulk fuel. This means more smoke, harder
starting, less power.
 Water causes corrosion of vital fuel system components: fuel pumps, injector pumps, fuel
lines, etc.
 Water & microbes cause the paper element filters in the system to fail , which in turn
results in premature failure of the fuel pump due to ingestion of large particles.
 Water freezes to form ice crystals near 0 °C (32 °F). These crystals provide sites for
nucleation and accelerate the gelling of the residual fuel.
63
  Water accelerates the growth of microbe colonies, which can plug up a fuel system.
Biodiesel users who have heated fuel tanks therefore face a year-round microbe problem.
 Additionally, water can cause pitting in the pistons on a diesel engine.

Production:-

Biodiesel is commonly produced by the transesterification of the vegetable oil or animal fat
feedstock. There are several methods for carrying out this transesterification reaction including
the common batch process, supercritical processes, ultrasonic methods, and even microwave
methods. A by-product of the transesterification process is the production of glycerol. For every
1 tonne of biodiesel that is manufactured, 100 kg of glycerol are produced. Originally, there was
a valuable market for the glycerol, which assisted the economics of the process as a whole.

Usually this crude glycerol has to be purified, typically by performing vacuum distillation. This
is rather energy intensive. The refined glycerol (98%+ purity) can then be utilized directly, or
converted into other products.

Environmental effects:-

The surge of interest in biodiesels has highlighted a number of environmental effects associated
with its use. These potentially include reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation,
pollution and the rate of biodegradation. Bio-diesel from soy oil results, on average, in a 57%
reduction in greenhouse gases compared to fossil diesel, and biodiesel produced from waste
grease results in an 86% reduction.

Food, land and water vs. Fuel:-

In some poor countries the rising price of vegetable oil is causing problems. Some propose that
fuel only be made from non-edible vegetable oils such as camelina, jatropha or seashore mallow
which can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees and crops will not grow, or
would produce only low yields.
64
Farmers may switch from producing food crops to producing bio-fuel crops to make more
money, even if the new crops are not edible. The law of supply and demand predicts that if fewer
farmers are producing food the price of food will rise. It may take some time, as farmers can take
some time to change which things they are growing, but increasing demand for first generation
bio-fuels is likely to result in price increases for many kinds of food. Some have pointed out that
there are poor farmers and poor countries that are making more money because of the higher
price of vegetable oil. Biodiesel from sea algae would not necessarily displace terrestrial land
currently used for food production and new algaculture jobs could be created.

India’s Biodiesel Scene:-

Economic development in India has led to huge increases in energy demand, which in-turn has
encouraged development of the Jatropha Cultivation and Biodiesel Production Systems.
Communities in rural India need to develop alternative energy options that will be good for the
environment and help promote sustainable livelihoods in the region, without exposing them to
such adverse effects of modernization as cultural transformations, and allowing them to retain
independence in the face of globalization. The establishment of the Jatropha cultivation and
local, community-based production of environmentally friendly biodiesel fuel can lead to income
improvement in these regions. Establishment and ongoing improvement of a Jatropha System
will benefit four main aspects of development and secure a sustainable way of life for village
farmers and the land that supports them.

65
 ETHANOL

Ethanol fuel is ethanol (ethyl alcohol), the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It
can be used as a transport fuel, mainly as a bio-fuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol
production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52
billion litres. From 2007 to 2008, the share of ethanol in global gasoline type fuel use increased
from 3.7% to 5.4%. In 2009 worldwide ethanol fuel production reached 19,5 billion gallons
(73.9 billion liters). Ethanol is widely used in Brazil and in the United States, and together both
countries were responsible for 89 percent of the world's ethanol fuel production in 2009.Most
cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and the use of 10%
ethanol gasoline is mandated in some U.S. states and cities.

66
Since 1976 the Brazilian government has made it mandatory to blend ethanol with gasoline, and
since 2007 the legal blend is 25% ethanol and 75% gasoline (known as E25). In addition, by late
2009 Brazil had a fleet of more than 9 million flexible-fuel vehicles regularly using neat ethanol
fuel (known as E100).

Bio-ethanol, unlike petroleum, is a form of renewable energy that can be produced from
agricultural feed-stocks. It can be made from very common crops such as sugar cane, potato,
manioc and maize. However, there has been considerable debate about how useful bio-ethanol
will be in replacing gasoline. Concerns about its production and use relate to the large amount of
arable land required for crops, as well as the energy and pollution balance of the whole cycle of
ethanol production.

67
WHAT IS FUEL ETHANOL:-

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol) is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic, agreeable
odor. In dilute aqueous solution, it has a somewhat sweet flavor, but in more concentrated
solutions it has a burning taste. Ethanol, CH3CH2OH, is an alcohol, a group of chemical
compounds whose molecules contain a hydroxyl group, -OH, bonded to a carbon atom.
Ethanol melts at -114.1°C, boils at 78.5°C, and has a density of 0.789 g/mL at 20°C. Its low
freezing point has made it useful as the fluid in thermometers for temperatures below -40°C.

ETHANOL AS A FUEL:-

In the first phase of the project, ethanol- blended petrol is being supplied through retail outlets in
nine States and four Union Territories. These states are Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. The four Union Territories
include Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu and Pondicherry. Petrol blended
with 5 per cent ethanol would be supplied by petrol pumps all over the country under the second
phase towards the end of the year. The content of ethanol blending would be increased to 10 per
cent in the third phase of the programme scheduled for 2005. Ethanol is used as an automotive
fuel by itself and can be mixed with gasoline to form what has been called "gasohol" Fuel
Ethanol- the most common blends contain 10% ethanol and 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline.
Because the ethanol molecule contains oxygen, it allows the engine to more completely combust
the fuel, resulting in fewer emissions. Since ethanol is produced from plants that harness the
power of the sun, ethanol is also considered a renewable fuel.

Therefore, ethanol has many advantages as an automotive fuel.

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Alcohol Through Corn, Maize, Grain, Starch etc.:
etc.:-

In India production of alcohol apart from molasses & sugarcane route the non-molasses
non route
like maize, starch, corn grain, sweet sorghum, tapioca, and sugar beet are also equally getting
gett
importance as the climatic conditions for such type of agricultural crops suits in India. It is a
right time for the central government through ministry of agriculture to encourage and assist state
governments to introduce a policy of using only grain
grain-based
based alcohol for potable purpose.
Molasses based alcohol may be used for industrial use as well as fuel blending.

Ethanol In India:-

India imports nearly 70% of its annual crude petroleum requirement, which is approximately 110
million tons. The prices are in the range of US$ 50
50-70
70 per barrel, and the expenditure on crude
purchase is in the range of Rs.1600 billion per year, impacting in a big way, the country's foreign
exchange reserves. The petroleum industry now looks very committed to the use of ethanol
etha as
fuel, as it is expected to benefit sugarcane farmers as well as the oil industry in the long run.
Ethanol (FUEL ETHANOL) can also be produced from wheat, corn, beet, sweet sorghum etc.
Ethanol is one of the best tools to fight vehicular pollution, ccontains
ontains 35% oxygen that helps
complete combustion of fuel and thus reduces harmful tailpipe emissions. It also reduces
particulate emissions that pose a health hazard.

DEMAND SUPPLY FOR ETHANOL

ETHANOL:-

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PETROL CONSUMPTION

10000000 KILO Liters

500000 KILO Liters - 5% ALCOHOL required
500000000 Ltrs.

Demand all over Country 5000 Lac liters

Existing Production 1840 Lac liters
Total demand 2460 Lac liters
Demand in Maharashtra 700 Lac liters

In parts of 4 states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh & Goa 5% of
ethanol blended petrol has already been started and till 30th June 2003, it will be fully covered.
Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the Union Territories of Chandigarh, Dadra &
Nagar Haveli Daman and Div and Pondicherry are also covered till end of July 2003.

The entire country will be covered in 2nd Phase and ethanol content to be increased to
10% in 3rd Phase. Most important R & D Studies are successful of blending ethanol with Diesel,
which itself is a very significant point in developing ethanol. All this significance shows a
definite assured market for the industry leading the project to most viable and safe for financial
assistance.

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ANHYDROUS ETHANOL POTENTIAL FOR GASOLINE BLENDING :-

The statistics published by the Ministry of Petroleum the potential is as follows:

For 5% Blend in Gasoline

Requirement on all India Basis – 500 million ltrs. Per annum

Requirement in 8 States – 300 million ltrs. Per annum

Requirement in UP & Maharashtra – 40 & 70 million ltrs. Per annum respectively

This statistics show a direct potential. Due to govt. promoting ethanol to mix in petrol
there is drastic demand for ethanol, which could overcome the existing unutilized capacity and
thus creating an excess demand.

Impact on developing countries:-

Demand for fuel in rich countries is now competing against demand for food in poor countries.
The increase in world grain consumption in 2006 happened due to the increase in consumption
for fuel, not human consumption. The grain required to fill a 25 US gallons (95 L) fuel tank with
ethanol will feed one person for a year. Several factors combine to make recent grain and oilseed
price increases impact poor countries more:-

 Poor people buy more grains (e.g. wheat), and are more exposed to grain price changes.
 Poor people spend a higher portion of their income on food, so increasing food prices
influence them more.
 Aid organizations which buy food and send it to poor countries see more need when
prices go up but are able to buy less food on the same budget.

The impact is not all negative. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) recognizes the
potential opportunities that the growing bio-fuel market offers to small farmers and aquacultures
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around the world and has recommended small-scale financing to help farmers in poor countries
produce local bio-fuel. On the other hand, poor countries that do substantial farming have
increased profits due to bio-fuels. If vegetable oil prices double, the profit margin could more
than double. In the past rich countries have been dumping subsidized grains at below cost prices
into poor countries and hurting the local farming industries. With bio-fuels using grains the rich
countries no longer have grain surpluses to get rid of. Farming in poor countries is seeing
healthier profit margins and expanding. Interviews with local peasants in southern Ecuador
provide strong anecdotal evidence that the high price of corn is encouraging the burning of
tropical forests. The destruction of tropical forests now account for 20% of all greenhouse gas
emissions.

Disadvantages:-

However, there are several problems with the use of ethanol as an alternative fuel. First,

 It is costly to produce and use.

 Ethanol has a smaller energy density than gasoline. It takes about 1.5 times more ethanol
than gasoline to travel the same distance.
 It requires vast amounts of land to grow the crops needed to generate fuel.
 Production of ethanol itself uses energy.
 Ethanol production uses land that will compete directly with food production.
 Another problem is that ethanol burning may increase emission of certain types of
pollutants.
 Some of the ethanol will be only partially oxidized and emitted as acetylaldehyde.
Aldehyde, a function of ethanol volume, is a threat to nose, eyes, throat & possibly
causes cancer.
 Finally, ethanol production, like all processes, generates waste products that must be
disposed. The waste product from ethanol production, called swill is extremely toxic to
aquatic life.

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Negative technical dimensions :-

 Driving ability of ethanol is lower:-

 Lower per litre energy value (EV).

 Takes more to drive the same distance.

 Consumers have to fill their cars more often.

 And they have to pay more for ethanol fuel.

 When blended above E10, consumers:-

 Driving regular cars have to pay at least $1,200 U.S. to have their engines
adopted.

 Have to drive extra distances to special service stations to buy ethanol.

 Ethanol can absorb water and it dilutes ethanol, reducing its value as a fuel;

 It causes problems with corrosion and phase separation in the gasoline mixture.

 It absorbs and carries dirt inside the fuel lines and fuel tank, thus
contaminanting the car engine system.

 It is highly flammable and explosive compared to gasoline.

 It requires more attention to handle in daily life.

Advantages:-

 Positive health and political impacts :-

 Replaces bad gasoline additives ,which are sources of surface and ground
water contamination, and dangerous to human health.

73
  It potentially replaces crude oil, which is a finite, non-renewable resource.

 It can be domestically produced, thus reducing dependence on oil imports.

 It can potentially cut oil import costs.

 Positive socio-economic impacts:-

 Ethanol uses agri-products as a feed-stock.

 It is a renewable source of energy, which can replace fossil fuel in the future.

 It increases value added and price of agri-products.

 Which increases net farm income.

 It creates more jobs in the rural sector.

 Strengthens rural economies.

 It can potentially reduce government subsidies to the farm sector.

 Strategic implications :-

 Changing consumer choice to ethanol can:

 Reduce dependence on foreign oil.

 Reduce local pollution and clean the atmosphere.

 Slow climate change.

 Provide a more renewable fuel source.

 The automobile industry will react to growing future demand for ethanol by
producing new engines.

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Conclusion:-
It is feasible to use bio-fuel as an alternate source of transportation energy in India. So we must
go for bio-fuels as an alternate source of energy. There are many advantages of bio-fuel like:-

 Reducing the speed of global warming.

 Fulfilling the fuel demand of India.

 Handling the rising price of fuel.

 Utilizing un-utilized arid land.

 Reduce the dépendances on foreign petroleum;

 Provide a more renewable fuel source

 Generating more employments.

Although there are many problems in using it like :-

 Increasing the food prices that will affect negatively the food supply for the developing
countries.
 Farmers may grow crops for bio-fuel production instead of food production.

 Producing bio-fuel actually requires more energy than they can generate.

 With high population growth rates the bio-fuels negative effects on food prices
 Biodiesel is 1.5 times more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel.

75
 Bibliography

 ARTICLE CNG vs LPG Comparision - Team-BHP.mht

 Bio fuel efficient alternative by Mesbahuddin

 Biofuel in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia_files
 Ethanol & Biodiesel (Biofuels) India Market News Useful information for Fuel Ethanol
Plants & Ethanol Conferences in india.mht
 India Renewable Energy - Project Prefeasibility Report - Wind, Solar, Biofuels -
Research, Investment.mht.
 Neil Schlager and Jayne Weisblatt, editors. Alternative Energy Volume 1
 The Market Potential of CNG as a Transportation Fuel ASPO-USA Association for the
Study of Peak Oil and Gas
 http://www.eai.in/

 http://environment.about.com

 http://www.ethanolindia.net

 http://pellets-wood.com

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