PHD Castro PDF

THE USE OF STEAM TREATMENT TO UPGRADE
LIGNOCELLULOSIC MATERIALS FOR ANIMAL FEED
by
FERNANDO BASILE DE CASTRO
(B.Sc., Agronomy - University of So Paulo)

(M.Sc., Animal Nutrition - University of So Paulo)
Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in the University of Aberdeen
September 1994
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis has been composed by myself and has not been accepted in
any previous application for a degree and is a record of work carried out by myself unless
stated otherwise. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources
of information acknowledge.
Fernando Basile de Castro

September 1994
DEDICATION
voc Vicky, que sempre me deu todo o apoio e carinho to

necessrios para a realizao deste trabalho e boas recordaes
desta terra,
dedico este trabalho
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am extremely grateful to Dr P.M. Hotten who has taught me so much over the past years
and given me tremendous support on the elaboration of this thesis and other publications originated
from this work.
My deepest thanks to Dr E.R. rskov who initially accepted me as a PhD student, and who
has, over the past four years, given me all the encouragement and conditions necessary to carry out
this project.
A debt of gratitude is also owed to all the staff from the International Feed Resources Unit,
with special reference to Mr D. Kyle, W.J. Shand and Mrs A. Marsden, who have always been so
helpful and kind. I must also thank Dr. X.B. Chen for his invaluable comments throughout the
project.
The Directors of ASCAF - Plateforme Exprimentale (Soustons - France) and the Director
of FAENQUIL - CEBIQ (Lorena, Brazil) are gratefully acknowledged for having provided the
facilities needed to complete the steam treatment. I also thank Usina So Martinho - Acar e
lcool S/A (Pradpolis, Brazil) for having supplied the sugar cane bagasse samples.
Many thanks to Mr P. Dewey and Mrs K. Guernic and L. Scobbie who have helped me in
the chemical analysis.
I wish to thank the Director of Instituto de Zootecnia for allowing me to carry out my
research project at the Rowett Research Institute. I am also grateful to CNPq (Ministry of Science
and Technology) - Braslia/Brazil for having funded this project.
SUMMARY
Lignocellulosic materials (LC) are the most abundant and widely spread renewable
resource of energy in the world. They can be divided into two major groups according to their
application, a) LC used for pulp and paper production, which are mostly woody plants, although in
some developing countries crop residues (cereal straws) are also extensively used and b) byproducts of agriculture and forestry, such as crop residues, e.g. cereal and leguminous straw, maize
stover and sugar cane bagasse, and wood residues from both logging and paper industries.
Although a fraction of the available LC is being used as a fuel, paper production or animal feeding
and bedding, the vast majority is still being disposed of as a waste material. More recently, novel
uses of LC for producing various chemicals have also been investigated. The present study is
concerned with finding alternative uses for LC as an animal feed using technologies which can also
be used for producing other important substrates for industrial application. Farm practices such as
burning of crop residues have become unacceptable for ecological reasons in the last few years and
in some countries it has already been prohibited. Similarly, incorporation into the soil has limitations
and it is a costly procedure. It is, therefore, necessary to develop appropriate technologies for
recycling LC without leading to an environmental imbalance.
It is important to emphasize that the use of LC in a large scale by alternative technologies
could have a significant contribution to diminishing the present demand for fossil fuel. Dependency
on fossil fuel has long been a matter of concern, particularly for the future when this source of
energy might not be able to cope with world demand for energy. Additionally, the intensive use of
fossil fuel in the last few decades has contributed to the carbon dioxide emissions to the
atmosphere, which in its turn has aggravated the 'green house effect'. Therefore, whenever
alternative ways of using LC are conceived the attendant energy balance has to be taken into
consideration. The use of sodium hydroxide-treated crop residues as ruminant feeds can be given as
an example, whereby LC are being recycled, yet with little energy gain. The reason is that fossil fuel
is still needed for producing sodium hydroxide. In this sense, a physical or biological-based
treatment of LC with positive energy balance is more likely to succeed in a long term.
With respect to animal feeding the major biological constraint for using LC is related to the
low accessibility of cell wall polysaccharides by both cell-free and microbial enzymes. Although the
exact reasons for this are not being completely understood, there are indications that the presence
of highly lignified tissues and the bonds between lignin and hemicellulose are both responsible for
the poor availability of cell wall polysaccharides present in lignocellulosics. Therefore, to be able to
feed the animals large quantities of LC and produce acceptable animal performance, a pretreatment is necessary which disrupt these bonds.
Several types of treatments, e.g. physical, chemical and biological, have been studied in the
past decades, and a considerable background knowledge has been accumulated in terms of
technologies for upgrading LC. Due to the environmental and energy restrictions for the use of
chemical treatment in large scale, this study will emphasize the use of physical and biological
treatments to upgrade LC.
During the last 30 years a great deal of work has been done on upgrading of LC by various
types of treatments for alcohol production. Whilst the full potential of this application awaits for oil
prices to rise if it is to become competitive the background knowledge generated by this research
can be extremely valuable to our objectives, i.e. animal nutrition.
Physical treatments, such as irradiation and grinding, also have problems with high energy
consumption and low effectiveness compared to chemical treatments. On the other hand, physical
treatments based on use of steam and temperature have proved the most promising process with a
wide variety of LC and purposes, e.g. saccharification (alcohol production), animal feeding and
fractionation of cell wall components for production of chemicals. Furthermore, steam treatment
requires negligible amounts of chemicals and can be done on a large scale. The expensive
infrastructure required is still the major constraint for its application in small scale (farm system).
Biological treatments with either cell-free enzymes or fungi have shown to be the least effective
when applied to a raw material. On the other hand, when applied to a pre-treated LC (either
chemical or steam treatment) very high levels of conversion of cell wall polysaccharides into sugars
have been obtained. Possibly, the combination of physical treatment (steam and pressure) with a
biological treatment by cell-free enzymes or rumen microbial fermentation (ruminant feeding) will
give the best results for the conversion of LC into a wide variety of useful products.
Physical treatment based on acid-hydrolysis steam treatment can be completed by
subjecting LC to controlled conditions of pressure, temperature and humidity. In the initial stages of
treatment, hemicellulose is partially solubilized and its acetyl groups released. As a consequence of
the formation of acetic acid as well as other organic acids which are also released in small amounts,
there is a significant decrease in pH. These acidic conditions will assist the completion of
hemicellulose hydrolysis and the depolymerization of both lignin and cellulose. However, to achieve
such chemical disruption of the cell wall, rather severe treatment conditions are required, e.g.
temperature above 160C. Alternatively, it has been suggested the addition of small amount of
exogenous acid to the LC would enable the use of lower temperatures and produce the same
results as obtained by high temperature treatment without acid. The type of LC used also affects
treatment efficiency. Softwoods, for instance, are known to require harsher conditions of treatment
than hardwoods to obtain similar final products.
Changes in particle size distribution and cell wall porosity are other important effects of
steam treatment. These changes are mainly observed as a result of the chemical reactions occurring
with the cell wall constituents. Additionally, the use of both high pressure during the treatment and
rapid decompression afterwards would help to weaken cell wall structure, thereby increasing both
porosity and surface area. All these physico-chemical changes enable both cell-free enzymes and
complete microbes to more efficiently penetrate the cell wall matrix. However, a balance is needed
when considering treatment conditions as too harsh treatment can lead to negative effects. For
example, a decrease in particle size may also have a negative effect on cell wall utilization by
ruminant animals due to an increase in the rate of passage of particles through the rumen.
Treatment conditions required to achieve such chemico-physical changes also lead to
inevitable losses of fermentable hemicellulosic sugars and formation of potentially toxic
compounds, e.g. furan derivatives and phenolic compounds. Yet, very little has been done to
identify such compounds as well as to measure their toxicity to either microbial enzymes or to the
rumen microorganisms.
Assuming that steam treatment could be a suitable process to be used on either a farm scale
(low temperature steam treatment) or an industrial scale (high temperature steam treatment) for
providing feed for ruminant or monogastric animals, a series of experiments using wheat straw as a
model of lignocellulosic material and various conditions of steam treatment was designed. The
objective was to assess the effects of steam treatment on the chemico-physical features and bioutilization of the steam-treated wheat straw by both rumen microorganisms and cell-free enzymes.
Further investigation on the formation of toxic compounds during steam treatment was also carried
out. In a second part, various LC materials, i.e. wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, maize stover and
eucalyptus wood, were steam-treated under a wide range of treatment conditions. The samples
were chemically and biologically evaluated. The results were then used for correlating chemical
changes occurred during the steam treatment with the bio-utilization of the steam-treated LC.
Results have shown that both low and high temperature steam treatment are efficient
methods for releasing fermentable sugars from the hemicellulose matrix and for depolymerizing
lignin. However, high temperature treatments lead to higher losses of both fermentable sugars and
dry matter. Much higher improvement in cell wall bio-availability was obtained with the high
temperature steam treatment and yet, this effect was more evident from enzymic hydrolysis
compared to rumen fermentation data. From these results it would appear that the use of low
temperature steam treatment (t134C) can be used for upgrading LC as an animal feed, but
considerable amounts (1.5-2% DM basis) of sulphuric acid are required. On the other hand, high
temperature steam treatment showed to be an attractive alternative for industrial scale production
of either animal feed or as a saccharification process. Such technology enables upgrading of
lignocellulosics without using of exogenous chemicals.
In terms of physical structure, increasing of porosity (cell wall swelling) occurred even at
mild conditions of treatment (t<134C), but not at the same extent as reported after steam
treatment at temperature greater than 180C. Extensive defibration caused by rapid decompression
after the treatment was also evident in this study. This is of a major importance in ruminant
nutrition as retention time of particles in the rumen will directly affect their extent of degradation.
Therefore, whenever the aim of steam treatment is the production of ruminant feed rapid
decompression should be avoided.
Studies on the characterization of potentially toxic compounds released during steam
treatment to rumen microorganisms and cell-free enzymes indicated that furfural and hydroxymethylfurfural have negligible toxicity. On the other hand, lignin precursors and tannin-like
compounds which were detected in steam-treated samples had a significant effect on rumen
microbial fermentation. There are indications that both lignin depolymerization/ repolymerization
reactions and browning non-enzymic reactions (Maillard reactions) were responsible for the
formation of such compounds during treatment. The main effects observed in rumen fermentation
experiments caused by these toxic materials were a shift of the pattern of gas composition towards
a lower methane and higher carbon dioxide content and a decrease in total gas production. There
was also a depression of the adhesion of cellulolytic bacteria to the substrate. Although such results
would lead us to conclude that these compounds had negative effect on cellulolytic activity, in vitro
assays did not give any evidence of depression in cell wall degradation after 48 h incubation. It is
possible that cellulose became degradable to such an extent after the treatment that even a weaker
cellulolytic microbial population was still able to efficiently degrade the substrate. Carbohydrate
solubilization by cell-free enzymes was slightly decreased by the presence of tannin-like
compounds. Decrease of enzyme/substrate ratio due to enzymes being absorbed by tannin-like
compounds was possibly the reason. Finally, this series of experiments showed that monitoring
concentration of toxic compounds in steam treatment might be an important aspect for quality
control of the steam treatment. However, further studies are necessary to investigate the selective
effect of these compounds on rumen microbial activity and their possible application.
Results of the experiments completed with wheat straw clearly showed that both lignin
depolymerization and hemicellulose hydrolysis occurred during the treatment were associated
with the upgrading of the fibre. In order to identify whether different LC and treatment
conditions would give the same response as observed for wheat straw, other LC (sugarcane
bagasse, maize stover and eucalyptus wood) were tested. The results surprisingly showed that
the effect of both lignin and hemicellulose fractions on the nutritive value of either wheat
straw, maize stover or sugarcane bagasse was very similar. Therefore, it was possible to
produce by multiple regression analysis a model whereby steam treatment conditions can be
optimized given the extent of both hemicellulose solubilization and lignin depolymerization. It
is believed that this model would apply to many other LC belonging to the same family. The
results also showed that the chemical changes which occurred in eucalyptus wood during high
temperature steam treatment followed a different pattern, thereby not affecting substrate
accessibility at the same extent as compared to monocotyledonous plants.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
.................................................................... 1
1.1 The dilemma of energy, biomass and food production

1.2 Lignocellulosic (LC) materials
.............................. 1
.................................................................... 5
1.3 Cell wall components of lignocellulosics
....................................................... 7
1.3.1 cellulose
......................................................................................................... 8
1.3.2 hemicellulose
......................................................................................................... 10
1.3.3 lignin
...................................................................................................................... 13
1.4 Bio-degradation of lignocellulosics
.................................................................... 16
1.4.1 rumen microbial system

1.4.2 cell-free polysaccharidases
................................................................................ 17
................................................................................ 19
1.5 Upgrading of lignocellulosics
................................................................................ 21
CHAPTER 2 - THE POTENTIAL OF LOW TEMPERATURE STEAM

TREATMENT FOR IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF
WHEAT STRAW ......................................................................................................... 23
2.1 Introduction
......................................................................................................... 23
2.2 Material and methods
............................................................................................. 26
2.2.1 substrate
......................................................................................................... 26
2.2.2 steam treatment
............................................................................................. 26
2.2.3 drying and washing post-treatment
.................................................................... 26
2.2.4 statistical design
............................................................................................. 27
2.2.5 in sacco degradability technique
.................................................................... 27
2.2.6 in vitro gas production technique
.................................................................... 28
2.2.7 characterization of optimum enzyme mixture
........................................... 29
2.2.8 characterization of optimum enzyme:substrate ratio
........................................... 30
2.2.9 cell wall composition
............................................................................................. 30
2.2.9.1 neutral detergent fibre - NDF
.................................................................... 30
2.2.9.2 acid detergent fibre - ADF
................................................................................ 31
2.2.10 nitrogen analysis
............................................................................................. 32
2.2.11 reducing sugar analysis
................................................................................ 32
2.2.12 total sugar analysis
............................................................................................. 33
Page No.
2.3 Results and discussion
............................................................................................. 34
2.3.1 characterization of the enzyme mixture

....................................................... 34
2.3.2 optimization of the enzyme:substrate ratio
....................................................... 36
2.3.3 effects of steam treatment on chemical composition and bio-utilization
..... 37
2.3.4 effect of drying post-treatment on cell wall bio-utilization
.............................. 46
2.4 Conclusions
......................................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER 3 - EFFECTS OF LOW TEMPERATURE STEAM TREATMENT

ON THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
BIO-UTILIZATION OF WHEAT STRAW
...................................................... 52
3.1 Introduction
........................................................................................................ 52
........................................................................................... 56
3.2.1 substrate
....................................................................................................... 56
........................................................................................... 56
3.2.3 drying post-treatment
........................................................................................... 56
3.2.4 sample preparation for chemical analysis
..................................................... 57
........................................................................................... 57
.................................................................. 57
3.2.6 enzymic hydrolysis
........................................................................................... 57
3.2.7 neutral sugar composition
.............................................................................. 58
3.2.8 soluble sugar and hemicellulose content
..................................................... 59
3.2.9 extractable and total phenolic content
..................................................... 59
3.2.10 micropore distribution
.............................................................................. 60
3.3 Results and discussion ........................................................................................... 63
3.3.1 hemicellulose solubilization
............................................................................... 63
3.3.2 lignin depolymerization
............................................................................... 65
3.3.3 cell wall bio-utilization
............................................................................... 65
3.3.4 cell wall porosity
............................................................................................ 70
3.4 Conclusions
........................................................................................................ 75
CHAPTER 4 - COMPARISON OF LOW AND HIGH TEMPERATURE
STEAM TREATMENTS ON HEMICELLULOSE SOLUBILIZATION,
LIGNIN DISRUPTION AND CELL WALL BIO-UTILIZATION
OF WHEAT STRAW
........................................................................................... 76
4.1 Introduction
....................................................................................................... 76
Page No.
........................................................................................... 79
4.2.1 substrate
....................................................................................................... 79
4.2.2 low temperature (134C) acid-hydrolysis steam treatment
............................ 79
4.2.3 high temperature (210C) acid-hydrolysis steam explosion treatment
... 79
4.2.4 high temperature (210C) auto-hydrolysis steam explosion treatment
... 80
4.2.5 post-treatment sample processing
.................................................................. 80
4.2.6 dry matter loss ....................................................................................................... 81
4.2.7 standard in vitro gas production
.................................................................. 81
4.2.8 in vitro degradability technique
.................................................................. 81
4.2.9 particle-bound microbial carboxymethylcellulase (CMCase) activity
.... 81
........................................................................................... 82
4.2.11 carbohydrate composition
............................................................................... 83
4.2.12 acid detergent fibre - ADF
............................................................................... 84
4.2.13 nitrogen
........................................................................................................ 84
4.2.14 total phenolics
............................................................................................ 84
4.2.15 total extractable phenolics
............................................................................... 84
4.2.16 analysis of volatile fatty acids - VFA
...................................................... 85
............................................................................................ 86

............................................................................... 86
4.3.2 lignin depolymerization and the formation of acid-insoluble artifacts
.... 91
4.3.3 substrate bio-utilization
............................................................................... 93
4.4 Conclusions
........................................................................................................ 102
CHAPTER 5 - FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS DURING

STEAM TREATMENT WHICH ARE INHIBITORY
TO RUMEN MICROBIAL FUNCTION .................................................................. 103
5.1 Introduction
....................................................................................................... 103
........................................................................................... 106
5.2.1 substrate, steam treatment and sample preparation

......................................... 106
5.2.2 biological assays
........................................................................................... 106
5.2.2.1 effect of substrate loading and addition of PVP
on in vitro microbial fermentation
.................................................................. 106
5.2.2.2 effect of furan derivatives on in vitro microbial fermentation
................ 107
5.2.2.3 in vitro particle-bound microbial carboxy-methyl-cellulase activity
... 108
5.2.3 Chemical analyses
........................................................................................... 108
Page No.
5.2.3.1 total extractable tannins
.............................................................................. 108
5.2.3.2 condensed extractable tannins
................................................................. 108
5.2.3.3 phenolic acids
.......................................................................................... 109
5.2.3.4 HPLC analysis of phenolic compounds, furfural
and hydroxy-methylfurfural .............................................................................. 109
5.2.3.5 analysis of gas composition
.............................................................................. 110
........................................................................................... 111
5.3.1 phenolic compounds

........................................................................................... 111
5.3.2 carbohydrate derivatives
.............................................................................. 118
5.3.3 effect of substrate loading on in vitro microbial fermentation
............... 119
5.3.4 effect of addition of PVP on in vitro microbial fermentation
............... 126
5.3.5 effect of furfural and HMF on microbial activity
........................................ 128
5.4 Conclusion
....................................................................................................... 132
CHAPTER 6 - EFFECTS OF STEAM TREATMENT

AND EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION ON PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT STRAW
..................................................... 133
6.1 Introduction
....................................................................................................... 133
........................................................................................... 136
6.2.1 substrate
....................................................................................................... 136
6.2.2 steam explosion treatment
.............................................................................. 136
........................................................................................... 136
6.2.4 sample preparation
........................................................................................... 136
6.2.5 particle size distribution PSD
.................................................................. 137
6.2.6 water holding capacity - WHC
.................................................................. 137
6.2.7 functional specific gravity - FSG
.................................................................. 138
........................................................................................... 139
........................................................................................... 140
6.3.1 particle size distribution

.............................................................................. 140
.................................................................. 146
6.3.3 functional specific gravity FSG
.................................................................. 147
6.4 Conclusions
....................................................................................................... 150
Page No.
CHAPTER 7 - DISRUPTION OF CELL WALL COMPONENTS
AND UPGRADING OF WHEAT STRAW, MAIZE STOVER,
SUGAR CANE BAGASSE AND EUCALYPTUS WOOD
............................ 151
7.1 Introduction
....................................................................................................... 151
........................................................................................... 154
7.2.1 substrate
........................................................................................................ 154
7.2.2 high temperature steam explosion treatment
...................................................... 154
7.2.3 post-treatment sample preparation
.................................................................. 154
........................................................................................... 155
7.2.5 chemical analyses
........................................................................................... 155
7.4 Conclusion
........................................................................................... 156
....................................................................................................... 162
CHAPTER 8 - GENERAL DISCUSSION

8.1 Introduction
..................................................... 163
....................................................................................................... 163
8.2 Steam treatment conditions
.............................................................................. 164
8.3 Fractionation of steam-treated lignocellulosics
CHAPTER 9 - CONCLUSIONS
......................................... 168
.............................................................................. 174
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Title
Page No.
1.1.1
Changes in the world population and fossil energy use before

and after the industrial revolution (adapted from Pimentel
et al., 1988) ............................................................................................. 1
1.1.2
Supply of cereal grain per world inhabitant over the period

1961-1979 (adapted from McKey, 1981)
.......................................... 2
1.3.1.1
The hydrogen-bonding network in cellulose. Each glucose residue

forms two intra-molecular bonds (O3-HO5'and O6H-2')
and one inter-molecular bond (06-HO3) (from Gardner
and Blackwell, 1974)
................................................................... 9
1.3.2.1
Possible configuration of glucuronoarabinoxylan, glucuronoxylan

and glucomannan (adapted from Thompson, 1983)
................. 11
1.3.3.1
Schematic structure of main units in gymnosperm lignin

(from Adler, 1977)
............................................................................... 14
1.3.3.2
Chemical structure of p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohol,

the main precursors in the biosynthesis of lignin
(from Theander and man, 1984)
...................................................... 14
1.3.3.3
The relation between cinnamyl alcohols, acids and their nitrobenzene oxidation products (from Harris and Hartley, 1976)
.... 15
1.4.2.1
Mechanism of synergistic action of endoglucanase and cellobiohydrolase of P. pinophilum (from Wood et al., 1988)
................. 20
2.3.1.1
Cellulase (substrate = carboxymethylcellulose, CMC) activity of

various mixtures from four enzyme preparations (Celluclast, CEL;
Novozym, NOV; Viscozyme, VIS, Bio-Feed, BIO)
................. 35
2.3.1.2
Xylanase (substrate = xylan from oat spelt) activity of various

mixtures from four enzyme preparations (Celluclast, CEL;
Novozym, NOV; Viscozyme, VIS, Bio-Feed, BIO)
................. 35
2.3.2.1
Effects of enzyme loading and incubation time on the cell wall

hydrolysis of steam-treated wheat straw (conditions: 134C,
120 min, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis)
.......................................... 37
2.3.3.1
Effects of acid concentration and temperature on the hemicellulose

solubilized during the steam treatment
.......................................... 40
Figure No.
Title
Page No.
2.3.3.2
Effects of temperature and reaction time on the in sacco total

degradability after 24 h incubation
...................................................... 40
2.3.3.3
Correlation between neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content and 24 h

in vitro gas production of steam-treated samples
............................. 42
2.3.3.4
Correlation between neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content and 20 h

in sacco total degradability of steam-treated samples
................. 42
2.3.3.5
Correlation between washing loss measured by in sacco technique and

neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content of steam-treated samples
.... 43
2.3.3.6
In vitro gas production of steam-treated wheat straw using

unwashed and dried (45C) samples
.......................................... 44
2.3.4.1
Cell wall hydrolysis of unwashed wheat straw subjected to a

combination of low temperature steam treatment and enzymic
1
.......................................... 50
treatment. maximum bio-conversion
3.3.3.1
In vitro gas production of undried and dried (105C) steam-treated

wheat straw (98C, 120 min, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis)
................. 68
3.3.3.2

................. 68
3.3.3.3

................. 69
3.3.3.4
Effect of steam treatment (134C, 120 min, 1.8% H2SO4 on

DM basis) and drying post-treatment (105C) on cell wall
hydrolysis by cell-free enzymes
...................................................... 69
Effect of drying post-treatment (105C) on in vitro gas production
and enzymic hydrolysis of wheat straw
.......................................... 70
Accessible pore volume of untreated and steam-treated wheat straw
at various temperatures
................................................................... 72
Micropore distribution of untreated and steam-treated wheat straw
(98C, 120 min, 1.8% H2SO4) subjected or not to drying
(105C) post-treatment
................................................................... 74
................................................................... 73
3.3.3.5
3.3.4.1
3.3.4.2
3.3.4.3
Figure No.
Title
Page No.
3.3.4.4

.................................................................. 74
4.2.3.1
Schematic representation of the pilot reactor used for steam

treatment (with the permission of ASCAF - Plateforme
Exprimentale, Soustons - France)
..................................................... 80
4.3.1.1
Comparison between the alditol acetates-uronic acid and phenol

sulphuric method for estimating hemicellulose content
................ 87
4.3.1.2
Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) hydrolysate content of steam-treated

wheat straw at low and high temperatures corrected for dry
matter loss occurred during treatment
......................................... 90
4.3.1.3
Thermo-chemical decomposition of xylose, mannose and galactose

relative to arabinose occurred during steam treatment
................ 90
4.3.1.4
Thermo-chemical decomposition of mannose and galactose relative

to xylose occurred during steam treatment
......................................... 91
4.3.3.1
Correlation between hemicellulose and extractable phenolic contents

of steam-treated wheat straw
..................................................... 96
4.3.3.2
Effect of steam treatment on potential colonization, as measured by

CMCase activity, after 6 h in sacco incubation of wheat straw
... 97
Correlation between harshness of treatment (sugar loss) and in

vitro degradability from untreated and steam-treated wheat straw
... 98
4.3.3.3
4.3.3.4
Correlation between harshness of treatment (sugar loss) and

solubilized carbohydrates by cell-free enzymes from untreated
and steam-treated wheat straw
.................................................... 99
4.3.3.5
Cell wall hydrolysis of wheat straw subjected to a combination

of steam treatment and rumen microbial degradation.
1
maximum bio-conversion
................................................................ 100
Cell wall hydrolysis of wheat straw subjected to a
combination of steam treatment and enzymic treatment.
1
maximum bio-conversion
................................................................ 100
Correlation between in vitro degradability and solubilized
carbohydrates by cell-free enzymes from untreated and
steam-treated wheat straw
................................................................ 101
4.3.3.6
4.3.3.7
Figure No.
Title
Page No.
5.3.1.1
Postulated hydrogen bonding of plant phenol to polyvinyl-pyrrolidone

(from Andersen and Sowers, 1968)
.................................................... 111
5.3.1.2
HPLC chromatogram of a standard containing lignin precursors and

furans dissolved in 50% methanol aqueous solution (1: hydroxymethyl-furfural, 2: furfural, 3: p-hydroxybenzoic acid,
4: p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 5: vanillic acid, 6: syringic acid, 7: vanillin,
8: syringaldehyde, 9: p-coumaric acid and 10: ferulic acid)
. 114
5.3.1.3
HPLC chromatogram of LAc500 sample (1.8% H2SO4, 134C

for 500 min) (1: hydroxymethyl- furfural, 2: furfural,
3: p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 4: vanillin, 5: p-coumaric
acid and 6: ferulic acid)
................................................................ 115
5.3.1.4
HPLC chromatogram of HAcE6 sample (1.8% H2SO4, 210C for

6 min and explosive decompression) (1: hydroxymethylfurfural, 2: furfural, 3: p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4: p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 5: syringic acid, 6: vanillin, 7: p-coumaric acid
and 8: ferulic acid)
............................................................................ 115
5.3.1.5
HPLC chromatogram of HAuE6 sample (210C for 6 min and

explosive decompression) (1: hydroxymethyl-furfural, 2: furfural,
3: p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4: p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 5: syringic
acid, 6: vanillin, 7: p-coumaric acid and 8: ferulic acid)
............. 116
5.3.1.6
Detection of extractable phenolic in untreated (control) and steamtreated wheat straw (1.8% H2SO4, 134C) for 100, 200, 300, 400 and
500 min (LAc100, LAc200, LAc300, LAc400 and LAc500,
respectively) by the acetyl bromide spectrophotometric method
. 117
5.3.1.7
Effect of low temperature (134C) steam treatment on both total

recovery and solubilization of phenolic acids in wheat straw
. 118
In vitro gas production at high substrate loading (1,000 mg) of
untreated (control) and low temperature (134C) steam-treated wheat
straw with 1.8% H2SO4 for 100, 300 and 500 min (LAc100, LAc300
and LAc500, respectively)
............................................................... 121
untreated (control) and high temperature (210C) steam-treated
wheat straw with 1.8% H2SO4 for 1.5, 3, 4.5 and 6 min (HAcE1.5,
HAcE3, HAcE4.5 and HAcE6, respectively)
......................... 121
5.3.3.1
5.3.3.2
Figure No.
Title
Page No.
5.3.3.3

untreated (control) and high temperature (210C) steam-treated
wheat straw for 1.5, 3, 4.5 and 6 min (HAuE1.5, HAuE3, HAuE4.5
and HAuE6, respectively)
............................................................... 122
5.3.3.4
Effect of substrate loading on in vitro gas production of untreated

(control) and steam-treated wheat straw with 1.8% H2SO4 at 134C
for 500 min (LAc500), 210C for 1.5 min (HAcE1.5) and 210C
for 6 min (HAcE6)
........................................................................... 123
5.3.3.5
CMCase activity after 24 h in vitro incubation of untreated (control)

and steam-treated wheat straw at 134C with 1.8% H2SO4 at 134C
for 100, 300 and 500 min (LAc100, LAc300 and LAc500,
respectively) and 210C for 1.5 and 6 min (HAcE1.5 and
HAcE6, respectively)
............................................................... 125
5.3.4.1
In vitro gas production as affected by incubation of either untreated

(control) or steam-treated (1.8% H2SO4, 210C for 6 min, HAcE6)
sample with or without polyvinyl-polypyrrolidone (PVP)
............. 126
5.3.5.1
HPLC chromatogram of supernatant fluid obtained from in vitro

incubation (24 h) of untreated wheat straw with 2% exogenous
furfural
........................................................................................ 131
6.3.1.1
Effect of auto-hydrolysis steam treatment on cumulative particle

size distribution of wheat straw
.................................................. 140
6.3.1.2
Effect of auto-hydrolysis steam explosion treatment on cumulative

particle size distribution of wheat straw
...................................... 141
6.3.1.3
Effect of acid-hydrolysis steam treatment on cumulative particle

size distribution of wheat straw
.................................................. 141
6.3.1.4
Effect of acid-hydrolysis steam explosion treatment on cumulative

particle size distribution of wheat straw
...................................... 142
6.3.1.5
Correlation between harshness of steam treatment as measured by

loss of hemicellulosic sugars and particle comminution
............. 144
Correlation between lignin depolymerization and particle
comminution ........................................................................................ 144
Effect of particle comminution due to steam treatment on enzymic
hydrolysis of wheat straw
............................................................... 145
6.3.1.6
6.3.1.7
Figure No.
Title
Page No.
6.3.1.8
Effect of particle comminution due to steam treatment on rumen

microbial in vitro degradability of wheat straw
.......................... 146
6.3.3.1
Effect of steam treatment on the rate of fermentation of wheat straw by

rumen microbes as measured by the gas production technique
. 149
7.3.1
Effect of harshness of treatment as measured by sugar loss on in

vitro 48 h degradability of wheat straw (WS), sugar cane bagasse
(SB), maize stover (MS) and eucalyptus wood (EU)
.............. 158
7.3.2
Effect of lignin depolymerization reactions occurred during

steam treatment on in vitro 48 h degradability of wheat straw
(WS), sugar cane bagasse (SB), maize stover (MS) and
eucalyptus wood (EU)
................................................................ 159
7.3.3
Effect of harshness of treatment as measured by sugar loss on

the extent of lignin depolymerization reactions in wheat straw
(WS), sugar cane bagasse (SB), maize stover (MS) and
eucalyptus wood (EU)
................................................................ 160
7.3.4
Response in bio-utilization of steam-treated wheat straw (WS),

sugar cane bagasse (SB), maize stover (MS) and eucalyptus
wood (EU) as measured by in vitro degradability (rumen
microbes) and solubilized sugars (cell-free enzymes)
.............. 161
8.3.1
Routes for fractionation of steam-treated lignocellulosics
8.3.2
An example of a twin high-pressure vessel used for recovery

of the spent-steam
............................................................................ 172
.............. 169
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
It is generally realized that lignocellulosic (LC) materials represent an underutilized

renewable resource which is available in huge amounts (3,720 million tonnes per year) (Wayman
and Parekh, 1990). LC may provide, at least in part, a solution to the increasing problem of
supplying energy and food for an increasing world population.
1.1 The dilemma of energy, biomass and food production
Human society is totally reliant on energy supplies for food production, industrial processes
etc. The rapid growth of the world's population, particularly since the industrial revolution (Fig
1.1.1), has created an enormous increase in the demand for energy.
Fig 1.1.1
Changes in the world population and fossil energy use before and after the industrial
revolution. (adapted from Pimentel et al., 1988)
Dire warnings on the implication of population growth on the quality of life have often been
made. An early example being the quotation by Malthus (1798) cited by Guinn (1992): "Population
growth will always tend to outrun the food supply and that betterment of the lot of mankind is
impossible without stern limits on reproduction". Fortunately, the ingenuity of man has resulted in
increasingly efficient utilization of resources which has, to a large extent, resulted in energy (and
food) supplies keeping pace with demand (Fig 1.1.2). It is true, however, that famine and hunger
are devastating realities in some countries mostly as a result of an unequal food distribution in the
world (Brown et al., 1985).
Besides inequalities in resource distribution there is an increasing concern about some very
serious problems associated with the use of current energy technologies. Intensive use of fossil fuel
is blamed for the increasing environmental pollution (acid rain, potential global warming etc.)
(Gottschalk, 1988).
Fig 1.1.2
Supply of cereal grain per world inhabitant over the period 1961-1979. (adapted from
McKey, 1981)
In addition, forecasted shortages of fossil fuels has raised the question of the
appropriateness of using these finite resources for simple energy generation as opposed to their use
as a chemical feedstock (Parisi and Parisi, 1989). The other major source of energy, in the
developed countries, is nuclear and here again questions of safety and environmental pollution
versus social benefits are hotly debated.
In the developing nations the way in which energy is generated is very different to the
developed countries, with a much greater proportion of the energy needs being provided from
renewable biomass sources, e.g. fuel-wood, crop residues and dung (Chatterji, 1981). However,
even in these situations the pressure on resources has led to environmental damage, e.g. excessive
burning of wood leading to deforestation and ultimately desertification.
All of the points made above underline the necessity of carefully considering the resources
available and how to best use them in order to create an environmentally friendly and sustainable
supply of energy. Many new and updated old technologies are emerging, e.g. use of wind, tidal,
hydro, solar and geothermal power, and these are beginning to make a significant impact. LC is
another resource, which is currently underutilized, that could provide one way to help create a
sustainable energy and food supply.
Over 80% of the terrestrial biomass produced annually on earth comes from LC produced
as the by-product of cropping (straw, chaff and stover) and forest logging activities (Table 1.1.1).
If all of this annual production of LC was converted into alcohol it could provide 40% of the
world's fuel production (Wayman and Parekh, 1990)! Simple chemical composition of this resource
would suggest that it could supply 84% of the energy and 74% of the protein requirements of all
herbivorous livestock, i.e. cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, camels, horses, mules and asses (Kossila,
1984). However, the carbohydrate and protein locked up in LC is not fully bio-available. This study
examines some treatments which will, hopefully, help to realize this potential.
Table 1.1.1
World production of biomass and oil equivalent .

Million tonnes per
year
Million barrels of oil

equivalent
3,300
6,290
forest logging residues and noncommercial harvest
360
786
plantation forests
60
152
cassava tops
45
90
sugar cane bagasse (surplus)
24
47
Jerusalem artichoke, tops
3,720
7,371
municipal waste
250
232
B starch
116
327
grain, low grade
80
170
cane and beet molasses
38
69
grain, dedicated
23
50
31
cassava and potato cull
14
30
sub-total (NLC)
521
909
total (LC+NLC)
4,241
8,280
LIGNOCELLULOSICS (LC)
crop fibrous by-products
(straw, stover, etc)
sub-total (LC)
NON-LIGNOCELLULOSICS (NLC)
cane and beet juice
adapted from Wayman and Parekh (1990).
To treat LC efficiently some form of centralized processing plant will be required (Rexen
and Munck, 1984). The distribution pattern of different LC resources would suggest that some
would be more amenable than others to such a process. For example, agro-industrial residues, e.g.
forestry by-products and sugar cane bagasse, because of the manner in which they are produced
would be concentrated close to industrial complexes. Whereas resources such as straw would be
thinly spread over large area and not necessarily close to an appropriate processing plant.
1.2 Lignocellulosic (LC) materials
All LC materials have structural similarities. Therefore, a model LC (wheat straw) was
chosen as the substrate to test a series of different chemical and physical treatments. The effect of
these treatments was measured by chemical and biological assays which indicated the value of the
treated material for both saccharification and animal feed purposes. At the end of the study a
number of different LC were used in comparative tests to determine whether results obtained from
one monocotyledonous model substrate (wheat straw) could be extrapolated to other
monocotyledonous LC as well as dicotyledons. Some of the key facts about wheat straw, the
chosen model substrate, are given below.
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a monocotyledonous plant widely cultivated and
quantitatively the most important cereal in the world (Wayman and Parekh, 1990). A comparison
of the lignocellulosic characteristics of wheat straw and other major LC sources is given in Table
1.2.1.
The world production of wheat grains is 458 million tonnes per year (Wayman and
Parekh, 1990) and it has steadily risen over the years. In the past two decades there has been an
increase of 38% of the world production of wheat which has been mainly attributed to higher
productivity rather than more extensive planting (McKey, 1981). One-third of the cereal grain
production, wheat and maize being the two most important, is used for human food, the remainder
being used for animal feed and other industrial applications (Wayman and Parekh, 1990).
Therefore, use of cereal grain as a human food per se is not the only factor which has caused such
an increasing production. For every 1 kg of wheat grain 1-2 kg of straw, consisting of leaves,
internodes and nodes, is produced. For example, wheat straw production in 1981 was 570 million
tonnes (Kossila, 1984).
Table 1.2.1
Cellulose (cel), hemicellulose (hem) and lignin (lig) contents in

lignocellulosic materials.
cellulose
hemicellulose
lignin
ref
(%)
SOFTWOODS
Pine
41.0
29.3
27.8
(a)
Spruce
46.1
24.6
26.3
(b)
Eucalyptus
41.7
15.1
27.2
(c)
Birch
44.9
32.7
19.3
(b)
Poplar
47.6
27.4
19.8
(d)
wheat straw
42.0
32.0
10.0
(e)
barley straw
44.0
27.0
(f)
oat straw
41.0
16.0
11.0
(e)
paddy straw
33.0
26.0
7.0
(e)
maize stover
53.3
15.0
16.2
(d)
sugar cane bagasse
43.7
30.6
11.8
(g)
HARDWOODS
MONOCOTYLEDONS
(a) - Timmell (1967)

(b) - Cowling and Kirk (1976)
(c) - Ferrara and Kling (1987)
(d) - Wayman and Parekh (1990)
(e) - Jackson (1977)
(f) - Theander and man (1978)
(g) - Castro (1989)
Wheat straw consists primarily of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, with smaller amounts
of proteins and minerals. Agriculturally it is considered to be a low nutritive value roughage,

because the bio-availability of the nutrients is low. Therefore, to be more efficiently used as an
animal feed some treatment is required to increase this bio-availability.
Alkali, e.g. urea (ammonia) and sodium hydroxide, treatment is one method that has shown
positive results when applied to wheat straw and it has been accepted in some farm communities
(Singh et al., 1993). The response to treatment is related to the amount of chemical used. But there
is a point after which degradation of the LC outweighs any advantage. It is essential for a farmer to
identify the economical level of alkali addition to any particular LC (Rai et al., 1993).
An alternative method for improving the use of wheat straw as a ruminant feed is to
fractionate the straw into leaves, internodes and nodes. The leaf fraction can be used in greater
proportions in the diets of ruminants as its nutritive value is considerably higher than whole straw
(Table 1.2.2).
With respect to industrial application, wheat straw has been widely used for paper making
(O'Brien, 1990). However, environmental pollution caused by disposal of large amounts of
chemicals used in the pulping process, and that can not be easily recycled, is a major problem
(Bleier, 1990).
1.3 Cell wall components of lignocellulosics

To understand the biological potential of LC material it is crucial to understand the
complex structure of the cell walls which are a major part of such material.
Due to their highly lignified cell wall structure LC are highly resistant to attack by
microorganisms and associated enzymic systems. The chemico-physical characteristics of the three
most important (quantitatively) plant cell wall components, i.e. cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin,
and some implications on resistance to both chemical treatment and bio-utilization will be discussed
below.
Table 1.2.2
Degradation characteristics of botanical fractions from wheat, barley and

oat straws.
1
a+b (%)
c (%/h)
48h deg (%)
WHEAT STRAW (12 varieties)
ref
(a)
whole
63.2
3.24
44.1
leaf
73.4
4.23
61.5
internode
44.8
2.59
33.0
node
54.9
5.31
51.4
BARLEY STRAW (2 varieties)
(b)
whole
72.1
3.91
64.1
leaf
86.6
4.81
73.4
internode
64.1
2.58
45.4
node
63.8
5.41
59.5
OAT STRAW (6 varieties)
(a)
whole
51.5
2.35
38.1
leaf
60.7
3.53
50.1
internode
42.1
1.52
27.1
node
53.6
5.07
49.5
potential degradability.
degradation rate.
3
degradation after 48 h incubation.
4
(a) - Shand et al. (1988).
(b) - Ramanzin et al. (1986).
2
1.3.1 cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant cell wall component in plants. The basic structure consists of
a linear polymer of up to 14,000 anhydro glucopyranoside units linked by -1,4-glycosidic bonds
(Cowling and Kirk, 1976). These linear polymers in turn aggregate to form fibrils. The structure of
cellulose will be partly dependent on the source of the cellulose. For example, during initial stages
of primary cell wall growth cellulose fibrils (primary cellulose) with approximately 60-70 glucan
chains are formed (Preston, 1974). Secondary cell wall fibrils are considerably thicker, i.e.
aggregation of primary fibrils. The degree of polymerization can be also vary between primary and
secondary celluloses (<4,500 and 14,000, respectively) (Blaschek et al., 1982; Marx-Figini,
1966). These long non-branched chains are deposited in an antiparallel arrangement and bound
laterally through numerous hydrogen bonds (Dey and Brinson, 1984). The stereochemistry of the
o
glucose units in cellulose chains, with each glucose moiety being translated 180 to its neighbour,
permits three hydrogen bonds per residue between each adjacent chain (Fig 1.3.1.1).
Fig 1.3.1.1
The hydrogen-bonding network in cellulose. Each glucose residue forms two intra-molecular
bonds (O3-HO5' and O6H-O2') and one inter-molecular bond (06-HO3). (from Gardner
and Blackwell, 1974)
This degree of hydrogen bonding is unique in carbohydrate structures and is the prime
reason for the strength of the cellulose molecules. The extent of association between individual
chains will confer their degree of parallelism or crystallinity index (Cowling and Kirk, 1976). Both
crystalline (highly oriented) and amorphous cellulose are present in plants, the former structure
being more commonly observed.
This highly ordered three-dimensional structure confers the mechanical strength of
cellulose, see above, and also results in its low susceptibility to chemical and enzymic attack. The
disruption of this structure requires severe treatment conditions which can result in a substantial
improvement of cellulose accessibility to chaotropic agents. However, the intrinsic characteristics of
cellulose alone are not the only factor limiting its accessibility. Existence of external components,
e.g. lignin-hemicellulose structures which are closely associated with cellulose, can also play an
important role in determining the extent of cellulose utilization by, for example, enzymes and
microorganisms (Cowling, 1975).
Physical treatments, e.g. ball milling, which affect native characteristics of cellulose (e.g.
degree of polymerization and crystallinity index) improve its bio-utilization but limiting chemical
barriers (i.e. lignin bonding) remain. Chemical treatments, e.g. alkali, acidic and oxidative processes,
can disrupt both the native cellulose structure and the associated steric lignin barriers resulting in
enhanced bio-utilization (Millett et al., 1975).
1.3.2 hemicellulose
The term hemicellulose was first used to describe any plant polysaccharide that can be
extracted by mild alkaline solutions (Schulze, 1891 cited by Wilkie, 1979). Although similar in
alkali extraction there are many different types of hemicelluloses, e.g. xylans, mannans, glucans,
galactans and galacturonans, in plants (Wilkie, 1979). Xylans and mannans are the two most
important groups of hemicelluloses present in LC. In general hemicelluloses have a low degree of
polymerization, <200, (Cowling and Kirk, 1976).
The xylans are the most common hemicellulose and the main non-cellulose polysaccharides
of angiosperms, i.e. monocotyledons and hardwoods. Xylans are made up of backbones of anhydro
xylopyranosyl units linked by -1-4 glucosidic bonds to which various residues can be substituted.
Possible configuration of the two most common types of xylans, namely glucuronoarabinoxylan
and glucuronoxylan are illustrated in Fig 1.3.2.1.
Fig 1.3.2.1
Possible configuration of glucuronoarabinoxylan, glucuronoxylan and glucomannan.

(adapted from Thompson, 1983)
Glucuronoarabinoxylans are frequently observed in monocotyledons. These xylans contain

both L-arabinofuranosyl units linked by .(1-3) glycosidic bonds and glucuronic acid, normally
present as the 4-O-methyl ether, linked by .(1-2) glycosidic bonds to the main xylose chain. The
third most common substituent in xylans, normally attached to the C2 and/or C3 of the xylose chain,
is the acetyl group (Thompson, 1983). It appears that the higher the acetyl substitution the greater
the xylan solubility and lower its the ability to bind to cellulose (Wallace, 1989). The relative
concentration of acetyl groups in hemicelluloses is also important in the context of steam treatment
of LC as the efficiency of such treatment relies partly on the release of these acidic groups to act as
catalysts for further chemical reactions [Aronovsky and Gortner (1930) cited by Muzzy et al.
(1983)].
The second most abundant form of xylan are the glucuronoxylans which are commonly
found in hardwoods and have similar structure to that of glucuronoarabinoxylans, except that
arabinofuranosyl units are absent (Thompson, 1983).
Although considerable differences in sugar composition and degree of substitution can be
observed amongst various xylans present in monocotyledons and hardwoods, there are still
similarities with respect to their physico-chemical properties and response to treatment. In general
hemicellulose, in particular xylans, can be efficiently solubilized by means of mild acid-hydrolysis
(Wilkie, 1979). To be able to solubilize glucose from cellulose to a similar extent there is a need to
use considerably harsher acid-hydrolysis or, alternatively, a combination of acid-hydrolysis with
enzymic treatment. The relative ease of extraction of hemicellulosic sugars by chemical methods
has led scientists to consider hemicelluloses as a possible source of fuel, feed and chemicals
(Thompson, 1983; Overend and Chornet, 1987).
Mannans are the major hemicellulose component in softwoods. Typically they are harder to
extract from the cell wall matrix than xylans. Glucomannan, the most important mannan present in
softwoods, is made up of a backbone of glucopyranosyl and mannopyranosyl units linked each
other by -1-4 glucosidic bonds (Fig 1.3.2.1). Acetyl groups can be found linked to C2 and/or C3
of glucose and/or mannose units depending on the plant tissue, species, etc. As mentioned for
xylans, the existence of such acetyl groups in mannans has important implications on their physical
properties (Wayman and Parekh, 1990).
1.3.3 lignin
Lignin is the main non-carbohydrate component present in the mature plant cell wall. It is
an amorphous, high molecular weight condensed polymer of phenylpropane units linked by carboncarbon (C-C) and ether (C-O-C) bonds (Fig 1.3.3.1). Lignins are thought to have the two main
functions providing; (1) resistance to microbial attack and (2) mechanical strength to the cell wall
(Theander and man, 1984).
Lignins are classified according to the distribution of p-hydroxyphenyl, guaiacyl and
syringyl moieties. These are the corresponding structures to the following lignin precursors: pcoumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols (Fig 1.3.3.2). Guaiacyl lignins, rich in guaiacyl residues,
are found in gymnosperms (softwoods). Hardwood lignins contain both guaiacyl and syringyl
groups in a ratio that can vary from 4:1 to 1:2. The last and probably most complex group of
lignins is that of grass lignins, as it contains all three aromatic residues in significant amounts (Nimz
et al., 1981). Grass lignins are significantly different to wood lignins in that they contain phenolic
acids (PAC), p-coumaric and ferulic acids and amino acids closely associated with the matrix 'core'
lignin (Van Soest, 1982). The PAC being linked to the lignin by either ether or ester bonds (Billa et
al., 1993) and to hemicellulose mostly by alkali-labile bonds (Hartley and Jones, 1978).
Fig 1.3.3.1
Schematic structure of main units in gymnosperm lignin. (from Adler, 1977)
Fig 1.3.3.2
Chemical structure of p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohol, the main precursors in the
biosynthesis of lignin. (from Theander and man, 1984)
The strong covalent bonds in the complex structure of lignin, i.e. C-C and ether bonds,
makes lignin highly resistant to hydrolytic action of acid and alkali (Van Soest, 1982). These
linkages can, however, be disrupted by mild oxidation, e.g. nitrobenzene oxidation, which is very
often used for analytical measurements (Wayman and Chua, 1979a). The phenylpropanoid alcohols
present in 'core' lignin will produce p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillin and syringaldehyde when
subjected to such mild oxidation. Oxidation of p-coumaric and ferulic acids can also give rise to phydroxybenzaldehyde and vanillin, respectively (Fig 1.3.3.3).
Fig 1.3.3.3
The relation between cinnamyl alcohols, acids and their nitrobenzene oxidation products.
(from Harris and Hartley, 1976)
When grasses are subjected to nitrobenzene oxidation, it is observed that most of the phydroxybenzaldehyde and up to 25% of the vanillin originates from p-coumaric and ferulic acids
respectively (Van Soest, 1982). The occurrence of PAC in grass lignins has important
consequences on the efficiency of chemical treatments designed to improve the bio-utilization of
these materials. The ester bonded PAC in grass lignins can be solubilized when subjected to cold
alkali treatments. Other lignins which do not contain alkali-labile bonds are unaffected by cold
alkali. In order to depolymerize the lignin 'core' of any LC the chemical bonds, e.g. C-C and ether
bonds between lignin precursors need to be disrupted by, for example, oxidative treatments (Gould,
1984) or high temperature chemical treatment (Chua and Wayman, 1979b).
1.4 Bio-degradation of lignocellulosics

In the food chain of terrestrial ecosystems the final breakdown (mineralization) of highly
lignified fibrous materials occurs mainly due to the action of aerobic microorganisms. Of the
bacteria and fungi involved in this degradation process the fungi are considerably more important
(Levy, 1987). Although very extensive degradation can be achieved under aerobic conditions such
processes are slow, require plenty of oxygen, moisture, nutrients and involve considerable dry
matter losses. Consequently, an industrial application of this type of aerobic microbial degradation
of LC seems unlikely. These substrates can be converted into more useful products in a much
shorter period under anaerobic conditions, e.g. rumen microbial fermentation. Another possibility is
the formation of sugar-rich products from LC by enzymic hydrolysis with cell-free
polysaccharidases.
In the rumen ecosystem there are two main limitations to delignification reactions. Firstly,
efficient delignification processes in nature seems to be associated with the presence of oxygen
(Kirk and Farrel, 1987; Harvey et al., 1989). The rumen is, essentially, an anaerobic system.
Secondly, lignin degradation, under physiological conditions (i.e. pH and temperature) requires
incubation times longer than normally observed for feed particles in the rumen.
With respect to hydrolysis of LC by cell-free polysaccharidases, the preparations currently
available exhibit low efficiencies against lignified substrates such as LC (Dekker and Wallis, 1983;
Grous et al., 1986). However, since the discovery of the first lignin-degrading enzyme new
prospects for the application of enzymes in LC materials have been opened up (Kirk and Farrel,
1987; Leisola and Garcia, 1989).
At present, it appears that non-biological routes, e.g. chemical and physical treatments, are
still the methods of choice for upgrading such LC substrates prior to microbial degradation or
enzymic hydrolysis.
1.4.1 the rumen microbial system
Mammals do not secrete the enzymes required to hydrolyse structural polysaccharides
therefore they depend upon microbes, which do secrete such enzymes, to utilize fibre as a source of
energy. Ruminants have evolved a particularly efficient way of obtaining energy from fibrous
materials. Ruminants differ from other herbivores because anaerobic microbial fermentation of the
feed occurs prior to chemico-enzymic digestion in the lower gut. This process is primarily affected
by degradation rate of the feed and its rate of passage through the rumen. Manipulating such
variables can significantly affect fibre degradation efficiency.
The mechanism of cell wall polysaccharides degradation by rumen microbes appears to
differ considerably from that by aerobic fungi. Firstly, anaerobic rumen bacteria release limited
amounts of extracellular enzymes into the environment (Forsberg et al., 1981). The very low
enzymic activities observed in rumen liquor is evidence of this. Instead, enzymes secreted by rumen
bacteria are stored in vesicles which are attached to the outer membrane of the bacteria (Stewart et
al., 1979). Secondly, the mode of action of cellulases secreted by rumen microbes seems to be
different to the fungal cellulases (see below). The main difference being the lack of exo-glucanase
activity in rumen bacterial enzyme systems (Chesson and rskov, 1984). A high hemicellulase
activity, e.g. endo-xylanase, arabinofuranosidase and xylosidase, of intracellular origin have been
observed in all important cellulolytic bacteria of the rumen (Dehority, 1967; Williams and Witters,
1982).
Fibre is extensively colonized by microbes after entering the rumen. This is a mechanism by
which the microbes are prevented from being washed out from the rumen and at the same time are
attached to an energy source. This enables the microbial population to be kept as an active fibredegrading population despite the high rumen dilution rate.
Many different types of microbes, i.e. bacteria, protozoa and fungi, are involved in the
degradation of feeds in the rumen. The most important fibre-degrading microbes are cellulolytic
bacteria. These bacteria can degrade substrates by different pathways, consequently producing
different end-products (Table 1.4.1.1). The close association between primary cellulolytic microbes
with symbiotic species which remove fibre degradation end-products from the medium is important
in maximising efficiency of fibre degradation in the rumen (Cheng et al., 1991). Although core
lignin-degrading enzymes have not been detected in the rumen the extent of degradation of lignified
cell wall can be quite high. However, lignified substrates are degraded relatively slowly compared
to non-lignified feeds. This normally prolongs the retention of particles in the rumen consequently
affecting the intake of digestible energy and animal performance. This situation is observed when
low quality fibrous residues are fed to ruminants (Chesson and rskov, 1984).
Table 1.4.1.1
Main substrates and fermentation end-products of some rumen microbes.

(adapted from Hungate, 1966)
genus and species
substrate
fermentation end-products
Ruminococcus albus
cellulose and xylan
C2, CO2, E, F and H2
Ruminococcus flavefaciens
cellulose and xylan
C2, F, H2 and S
Fibrobacter succinogenes
cellulose
C2, F and S
Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens
xylan and starch
C2, C4, CO2, F, H2 and L
Bacteroides amylophilus
starch
C2, F and S
Selenomonas ruminantium
lactate and starch
C2, C3, CO2, H2 and L
Methanobacterium ruminantium
formate and H2
CH4
Isotricha and Dasytricha
starch and sugars
C2, C4, H2 and L
Entodinia
starch
C2, C3, C4 and F
Epidinium
starch and hemicellulose
C2, C4 and H2
Bacteria
Protozoa
C2, acetate; C3, propionate; C4, bytirate; E, ethanol; F, formate; L, lactate; S, succinate.
1.4.2 cell-free polysaccharidases

The mechanism of action of polysaccharidases enzymes produced from aerobic fungi, e.g.
Trichoderma sp., Penicillium sp. and Fusarium solani, has probably been the most studied and
well known (Wood et al., 1988). With respect to cellulose-degrading enzymes, it is generally
accepted that the complex of fungi cellulases have a synergistic action towards cellulose hydrolysis.
The presence of endo-glucanases, exo-glucanases and cellobiohydrolases which act on specific
substrates and bonds are necessary to provide complete breakdown of cellulose into glucose (Fig
1.4.2.1).
Hemicellulose composition can vary significantly amongst plants, tissues, etc. As xylan is
the most important hemicellulose in LC this review will focus on xylan-acting enzymes.
Fig 1.4.2.1
Mechanism of synergistic action of endoglucanase and cellobiohydrolase of

P. pinophilum. (from Wood et al., 1988)
Recent studies have shown xylans to be less homogeneous and xylanolytic enzymes to act more
specifically than was commonly accepted (Puls and Poutanen, 1989). Aerobic fungi produces
several types of xylanases which can be classified into endo- and exo-acting xylanases, namely 1,4-xylanases (Kiang, 1978; Dekker, 1985), -xylosidases (Van Doorslaer et al., 1985),
.-
arabinosidases (Kaji, 1984), .-glucuronidases (Puls et al., 1986), acetylan-esterases (Biely et al.,
1985) and acid esterases (MacKenzie et al., 1987).
Although the knowledge about the mode of action of polysaccharidases has been
considerably increased in the past years, saccharification of LC by cell-free polysaccharidases is still

not an effective method for the bio-conversion of this resource. In order to achieve an extensive cell
wall solubilization from lignified substrates by cell-free polysaccharidases a pre-treatment is
required (Grethlein et al., 1984; Lin et al., 1985).
1.5 Upgrading of lignocellulosics

The data presented in previous sections clearly indicate that LC materials are an
underutilized and abundant resource that could provide an enormous contribution to our society. It
was also shown that LC are poorly bio-degradable, therefore some type of processing is necessary
to disrupt its natural chemico-physical barriers thereby increasing its bio-degradability.
Several treatments have been developed in the past decades to achieve such results. These
can be classified into mechanical, chemical and biological treatments. Considerably more research
has been directed into chemical treatments as these are frequently found to be very efficient in
upgrading LC and more feasible than other types of treatments. The main disadvantage of chemical
treatments is the large requirement for chemicals, which cannot always be recycled and this creates
environmental problems. Additionally, when considering that one of the important reasons for
utilizing LC is that these materials are a source of renewable energy and that the use of chemicals,
which are directly produced from fossil fuels, necessary for its treatment is often seen as a serious
disadvantage.
This study will focus on upgrading of LC by steam treatment, which is considered to be a
thermo-mechanical process (Marchessault and St Pierre, 1980) and a chemical treatment (Muzzy et
al., 1983) as it follows the principles of acid-hydrolysis reactions. The main difference between
solely chemical and steam treatments being that the latter does not require addition of chemicals. As
steam treatment could be used on either a farm scale (low temperature steam treatment) or an
industrial scale (high temperature steam treatment) for providing feed for ruminant or monogastric
animals, a series of experiments using wheat straw as a model of lignocellulosic material and
various treatment conditions was designed. The main objective was to assess the effects of various
steam treatment conditions on the chemico-physical features and bio-utilization (rumen microbes
and cell-free enzymes) of wheat straw. In a second part, various LC materials, i.e. wheat straw,
sugarcane bagasse, maize stover and eucalyptus wood, were steam-treated under a wide range of
treatment conditions. The samples were chemically and biologically evaluated and the results were
then used for correlating chemical changes occurred during the steam treatment with the bioutilization of the steam-treated LC. The main physico-chemical reactions occurring during
treatment of LC and the effects on substrate bio-utilization will be discussed in the next chapters.
CHAPTER 2
THE POTENTIAL OF LOW TEMPERATURE STEAM TREATMENT FOR

IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF WHEAT STRAW
2.1 Introduction
The key to maximizing the nutritional value of lignocellulosics is in disrupting the plant cell
walls in such a way so as to allow complete access to nutrients and at the same time not creating
extra antinutritional factors. The disruption conditions of choice will always be a compromise
between severe processes that achieve high levels of access, but simultaneously form antinutritional
factors through secondary reactions, and milder but less disruptive and severe processes.
Many methods have proved successful in disrupting cell wall material e.g. use of; sodium
hydroxide (Jackson, 1977), lithium chloride in hydrochloric acid (Shambe and Kennedy, 1984),
hydrogen peroxide (Gould, 1984; Adebowale et al., 1989) and steam and pressure (Dekker and
Wallis, 1983; Castro and Machado, 1989). In particular, steam and pressure treatments alone or
allied with chemical treatments are known to disrupt lignocellulosics in a way which allows
improved utilization of cell wall polysaccharides by cell-free enzymes (Fan et al., 1981; Grohmann
et al., 1985; Brownell and Saddler, 1987) and rumen microbes (Castro and Machado, 1990).
For treatments based on the use of steam and pressure alone, i.e. auto-hydrolysis, harsh
conditions are needed (t160C) (Knappert et al., 1981; Ullal et al., 1984). Under these conditions
acetyl groups are released from the hemicellulose matrix, thereby forming acetic acid, and suitable
levels of cell wall disruption are achieved [(Bernardin (1958) cited by Muzzy et al. (1983)]. Such
conditions result in formation of antinutritional factors such as 2-furaldehyde (furfural) by
secondary dehydration reactions of hemicellulosic pentoses (Brownell et al., 1986; Morjanoff and
Gray, 1987) and soluble phenolic compounds (Chua and Wayman, 1979a; Toussaint et al., 1991).
Both furfural (Kyuma et al., 1991) and phenolics (Britton, 1978) in turn inhibit the activity of
rumen microbes and cell-free enzymes (Puls et al., 1985; Brownell et al., 1986; Sutcliffe and
Saddler, 1986). Using lower temperatures in conjunction with an acidic catalyst can achieve
comparable cell wall disruption, i.e. hemicellulose solubilisation, to steam treatment at high
temperatures (Cunningham and Carr, 1984; Grohmann et al., 1984; Wright and D'Agincourt, 1984;
Grohmann et al., 1985), and results lower amounts of toxic compounds (Clausen and Gaddy,
1983).
Steam treatment effects have been ascribed to several factors: complete hydrolysis of
hemicellulose (Grohmann et al., 1985), lignin depolymerization (Hishiyama and Sudo, 1992; Karina
et al., 1992) and redistribution within the cell wall (Michalowicz et al., 1991; Toussaint et al.,
1991) and swelling of cell walls (Morjanoff and Gray, 1987; Wong et al., 1988). There is evidence
from auto-hydrolysed sugar-cane bagasse that overall lignin content is not altered (Castro, 1989)
but that, on treatment, lignin structure and location are modified by melting and agglomeration of
the depolymerized lignin in different parts of the cell wall (Toussaint et al., 1991). As steam-treated
material is hydrolysed to a greater extent by enzymes compared to untreated, this suggests that the
presence of lignin in the cell wall tissue per se has little negative effect on cell wall susceptibility to
enzymic attack (Saddler et al., 1982; Wong et al., 1988), but that its spatial distribution in unaltered
secondary cell walls creates steric blocks to specific enzyme substrates.
The aim of the following experiments was to evaluate the effects of low temperature steam
treatments (combinations of steam, applied at different temperatures, sulphuric acid concentrations
and reaction times) on cell wall disruption and subsequent utilization of a lignocellulosic material
(wheat straw) by both rumen microbes and free enzymes. In addition, it was hoped that relating the
chemical changes mediated by steam treatment to changes in bio-utilization should lead to a greater
understanding of the importance of the different effects of the treatment.
2.2.1 substrate
Wheat straw, Triticum sp. (variety Riband), ground through a 2.5 mm sieve using a
hammer mill (Christy & Norris LTD - UK, C & N Laboratory Mill).

Sulphuric acid solution was added to ground wheat straw (50 g; of about 88% DM
content) to obtain samples of approximately 20% DM content with 0, 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8% H2SO4 on
a dry matter basis. After acid addition, the straw samples were autoclaved (Astell Hearson
Portaclave - UK, Model AAJ040, 50 l capacity) at 98, 121 and 134C for 40, 80 and 120 min. The
pressures corresponding to 121 and 134C were 1.1 and 2.1 atm, respectively.
2.2.3 drying and washing post-treatment

After steam treatment the samples were used either undried (DM = 20-25%) or after ovendrying overnight at 45 or 105C to 92% DM content for analysis. When biological assays were
conducted to compare undried with dried samples, the latter were rehydrated to the same moisture
content as the undried samples. The treatment solubilized carbohydrates were removed from a
control sample and a set of steam-treated straw samples (1.8% H2SO4; 120 minutes; at 98, 121 and
134C) by extensive washing with water until a pH of 5.5 was achieved.

Effects of acid concentration, temperature and reaction time on chemical composition
(ADF, NDF and hemicellulose) and rumen microbial utilization (in vitro gas production and in
sacco degradability) were evaluated using a within-treatment randomized design with a 4 x 3 x 3
factorial arrangement of treatments with 3 replicates per treatment. Resulting data were analyzed
using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Data from samples subjected to different temperatures for
120 min with 1.8% H2SO4 on a dry matter basis were also tested by Bonferroni T test at P<0.05.
2.2.5 in sacco degradability technique

Samples were analyzed in duplicate (two sheep) by the procedure described by Mehrez and
rskov (1977). Approximately 3 g of sample was placed in nylon bags (45-55 m mesh, Locker,
Wire Weavers - UK) and incubated for 20 h in sheep fitted with rumen cannulae. In addition, the
control and one set of steam-treated samples (1.8% H2SO4; 120 minutes; 98, 121 and 134C) were
also incubated in triplicate (three sheep) for 6, 24 and 96 h. Control washing losses (all nylon bags
were washed after incubation, see below) were measured by weighing 3 g of sample into nylon
bags, which were soaked in water for 1 h and washed for 15 min in a domestic washing machine.
Nylon bags containing the insoluble residues after washing were dried at 45C for 48 h. The same
procedure, except the soaking step, was followed after removing the nylon bags from the rumen.
The resulting data were used for calculating washing loss (WL) due to treatment, in sacco total
degradability (ISTD), i.e. DM disappearance due to degradation plus washing loss, and in sacco
degradability of the insoluble fraction (ISDIF), i.e. DM disappearance excluding initial washing
loss. The latter was used for estimating the degradability of the cell wall remaining after the steam
treatment.
Samples were analyzed in duplicate by the Menke and Steingass (1988) technique using
100 ml glass syringes (Haberle Labortechnik - Germany, model Fortuna) filled with 200 mg of
sample, 20 ml of artificial saliva and 10 ml of rumen liquor. The artificial saliva was freshly prepared
by mixing 480 ml of macro-mineral solution, 480 ml of buffer, 0.24 ml of micro-mineral solution,
2.44 ml of resazurin (0.1%), 4.0 ml of NaOH (1M) and 0.672 g of Na2S.9H2O. The composition of
macro-mineral, buffer and micro-mineral solutions are given in Table 2.2.6.1.
Table 2.2.6.1 Composition of macro-mineral, micro-mineral and buffer solutions used for
preparing the artificial saliva.
macro-mineral
reagents
micro-mineral
buffer
(g/l H2O)
Na2HPO4
5.9
KH2PO4
6.2
MgSO4.7H2O
0.6
CaCl2.2H2O
132
MnCl2.4H2O
100
CoCl2.6H2O
10
FeCl2.6H2O
NaHCO3
35.0
NH4HCO3
4.0
The rumen liquor was obtained from 2 sheep fed with a mixed diet (50% hay, 30% rolled
barley, 9% fish meal, 10% molasses, 0.5% NaCl and 0.5% commercial mineral mixture), filtered
through double layer muslin and mixed with an appropriate volume of artificial saliva. Resazurin
was used as an indicator, and intermittent flushing of CO2 in the artificial-saliva:rumen-liquor
mixture during setting up the run was applied in order to minimize oxygen contamination. Gas
production was recorded after the syringes were filled (control value) and after 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 and
-c.t
72 h of incubation. The resulting data was fitted to the exponential equation Y = a + b.(1 - e )
(rskov and McDonald, 1979), where; a, b and c are constants and Y is the gas production from
the substrate at time t. Additional readings at 96 h were recorded for samples steam-treated with
1.8% H2SO4 for 120 minutes at various temperatures.
2.2.7 characterization of optimum enzyme mixture

Thirty enzyme mixtures consisting of different ratios on a volume:volume basis (100:0,
75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100) of four commercial enzyme preparations (Celluclast, Bio-feed,
Viscozyme and Novozym; Novo Enzyme Products Ltd., UK) were tested for cellulase and
xylanase activities. The substrates used for the activity assays were, for cellulase;
carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) (medium viscosity; Sigma Chemical Co. Ltd., UK) and avicel
(AVI) (Honeywell Corporation, USA) and for xylanase; oat spelt xylan and birchwood xylan (both
0
5
from Sigma, UK). For each enzyme mixture, samples of 50 l from a dilution series (5 to 5 )
were incubated for 30 minutes at 40C in 450 l of substrate solution (1 mg/ml; 0.1 M acetate
1
buffer pH 4.5). The activity (IU /ml of enzyme) was calculated from reducing sugar production,
determined by the method of Nelson (1944), using glucose as a standard, as described in Section
2.2.11.
2.2.8 characterization of optimum enzyme:substrate ratio

The enzyme mixture exhibiting highest CMCase and xylanase activities was the 75:25
celluclast:novozym preparation (MIX). MIX was used to determine the optimum ratio of activity
(based on CMCase values) to dry weight of steam-treated straw with respect to carbohydrate
solubilisation. Appropriate amounts of 20% (v/v) MIX in acetate buffer were added to 0.5 g DM of
1
one IU equals to 1 Mol of sugar (glucose or hemicellulosic sugar) released per min at the
steam-treated straw (1.8% H2SO4; 134C; 120 min) in 100 ml conical flasks to give a range of
CMCase:steam-treated straw ratios (8, 16, 32, 64 and 128 IU/g DM of steam-treated straw) in a
total volume of 50 ml acetate buffer. The enzyme:straw combinations were incubated in a shaking
water bath at 120 rpm at 50C in pH 4.5, 0.1 M, acetate buffer containing 0.1% sodium azide as a
preservative. The temperature of 50C was selected as given by the manufacturer's
recommendation. Aliquots (2 ml) were taken after 6, 24 and 48 h incubation, filtered through
Whatman No.1 paper, the filtrate heated at 100C for 10 min to stop enzymic activity then stored
at -20C. Filtrate solutions were subsequently assayed for solubilized carbohydrate by quantifying
both reducing sugar (Nelson, 1944) and total sugar content (Dubois et al., 1956), described in
Sections 2.2.11 and 2.2.12, respectively.
2.2.9 cell wall composition

Cell wall composition was estimated as its neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent
fibre (ADF) residues by the detergent system (Goering and Van Soest, 1970). NDF and ADF
analyses give respectively the total cell wall content, i.e. cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, and cell
wall content without hemicellulose.
2.2.9.1 neutral detergent fibre - NDF. Approximately 500 mg of dried sample was placed into a
beaker and 50 ml of neutral detergent solution (Table 2.2.9.1.1) was added. The mixture was
boiled for 1 h, filtered through a sintered glass No.1 filter, washed with 500 ml of boiling distilled
water and then with 100 ml of acetone. The residues were dried at 105C overnight and weighed
after being cooled in a desiccator. A sub-sample (100-200 mg) was taken from the original sample
for dry matter determination at 105C.
following conditions: 0.1 M acetate buffer pH=4.5, t=40C, 30 min incubation.
Table 2.2.9.1.1Chemical composition of the neutral and acid detergent solutions used for cell wall
analysis by the detergent system (Goering and Van Soest, 1970).
neutral detergent solution
(g/l H2O)
acid detergent solution

(g/l 0.5M H2SO4)
30.0
C10H16N2O8Na2.2H2O
18.6
Na2HPO4
4.56
C4H10O2
10.0
Na2B4O7.10H2O
6.81
20.0
reagents
1
C12H25O4SNa
C16H33N(CH3)3Br
1
sodium lauryl sulphate.

disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate dihydrate, EDTA.
3
2-ethoxyethanol, (ml/l H2O).
4
cetyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide, CTAB.
2
2.2.9.2 acid detergent fibre - ADF. Sample (500 mg) and 50 ml of acid detergent solution (Table
2.2.9.1.1) together with silicone solution (0.75% v/v, 0.5 ml), as an anti-foam agent, were added to
a beaker. After 5 min at room temperature, the reaction mixture was boiled for 1 h and the residues
were filtered, dried and weighed as described for NDF analysis. Hemicellulose content was
estimated by difference between NDF and ADF content.
2.2.10 nitrogen analysis
The control (untreated wheat straw) and the ADF residues of both untreated and steamtreated samples (120 min with 1.8% H2SO4) were analyzed for nitrogen content by the semiautomated method of Davidson et al. (1970).
2.2.11 reducing sugar analysis
Reducing sugars were quantified by the Somogyi method as adapted by Nelson (1944).
Sample (0.5 ml) containing 0-100 mg reducing sugar/l was mixed with 0.5 ml of Nelson reagent
(Table 2.2.11.1) in a test tube, vortex mixed, 0.5 ml of Hardings reagent (Table 2.2.11.1) added,
vortex mixed again and kept for exactly 10 min at 100C.
Table 2.2.11.1 Composition of the reagents used for analysis of reducing sugar (Nelson, 1944).
Nelson
reagent
reagents
Hardings
reagent
Somogyi
reagent
(g/l H2O)
Na2SO4
13.2
C4H4O6NaK.4H2O
12
Na2CO3
20
NaHCO3
15
18
N6H6Mo7O24.4H2O
50
H2SO4
42
CuSO4.5H2O
1
C2O4K2.H2O
Na2HAsO4.7H2O
1
Potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate.

Potassium oxalate monohydrate.
3
Ammonium molybdate tetrahydrate.
4
Sodium arsenate heptahydrate.
2
The mixture was transferred to an ice bath and kept for about 5 min, 0.5 ml of Somogyi
reagent was added and the reaction mixture vortex mixed. Finally, 3 ml of distilled water was added
and the solution vortex mixed. The A600 of the final solution was recorded. Reducing sugar content
(mg/l) was calculated from the standard curve obtained from a series of glucose solutions (25, 50,
75 and 100 mg/l).
2.2.12 total sugar analysis

Total sugar content was measured according to the method of Dubois et al. (1956). To 0.5
ml of sample containing 0-100 mg of total sugar/l, 0.5 ml of 0.5% phenol solution was added and
vortex mixed. Concentrate H2SO4 (2.5 ml) was quickly added and vortex mixed. The A490 of the
final solution was recorded. Total sugar content was calculated from the standard curve obtained
from a series of glucose solutions (0, 25, 50 and 100 mg/l).
2.3.1 characterization of the enzyme mixture

Wheat straw, the model lignocellulosic material used in this study contains highly crystalline
cellulose and large amounts of arabinoxylan, the major hemicellulosic fraction. Steam treatment has
been reported to both increase cellulose crystallinity index and completely solubilize hemicellulose
(Dekker and Wallis, 1983; Puri, 1984). Moreover, solubilized sugars in steam-treated
lignocellulosics are known to occur as a mixture of oligomers (Overend and Chornet, 1987). The
degree of polymerization being variable according to the harshness of the treatment. Therefore, an
enzyme preparation designed to breakdown cell wall polysaccharides and derived oligomers in
steam-treated wheat straw into a mixture of monomeric sugars would require high enzymic activity
against crystalline cellulose, arabinoxylan, and xylo-oligomers.
Of the various mixtures of enzymes evaluated in this study, those containing a high
proportion (>50%) of Celluclast had high activity against amorphous cellulose (CMC)
(Fig 2.3.1.1). On the other hand, high enzymic activities against arabino-xylan (oat spelt xylan)
were observed with those preparations with a high proportion of Bio-feed (Fig 2.3.1.2). However,
as cellulose constitutes the major part of the recalcitrant polysaccharide in steam-treated
lignocellulosics, more importance was given to those enzyme mixtures that showed high cellulase
activity. The two Celluclast:Novozym mixtures (50:50 and 75:25%) being optimal in this respect.
The additive effect of these mixtures could be explained by the high cellobiase activity of the
Novozym preparation. These two enzyme mixtures also had high xylanase activity, therefore the
75% Celluclast and 25% Novozym mixture (MIX) was chosen for further enzymic treatments.
Fig 2.3.1.1
Cellulase (substrate = carboxymethylcellulose, CMC) activity of various

mixtures from four enzyme preparations (Celluclast, CEL; Novozym, NOV;
Viscozyme, VIS, Bio-Feed, BIO).
Fig 2.3.1.2
Xylanase (substrate = xylan from oat spelt) activity of various mixtures from
four enzyme preparations (Celluclast, CEL; Novozym, NOV; Viscozyme, VIS,
Bio-Feed, BIO).
A more detailed characterization of the enzymic activity of various Celluclast and Novozym
mixtures against amorphous (CMC) and crystalline (Avicel) cellulose and a xylan with low (xylan
from birchwood) and high (xylan from oat spelts) degree of substitution is showed in Table
2.3.1.1.
The high enzymic activity of MIX against all four substrates is important because untreated
and steam-treated samples containing hemicellulose ranging in both total content and degree of
substitution and cellulose with a variable crystallinity index were evaluated in this study.
Table 2.3.1.1
Cellulase and xylanase activities (as measured against specific substrates) of

two commercial enzyme preparations and mixtures thereof.
enzyme
preparation
CMC
Celluclast
1
Mixture 75
50
25
2
Novozym
781
847
844
672
-
Avicel
xylan from
oat spelt
birch wood
Enzymic activity (IU/ml enzyme)
510
1,286
1,172
1,005
1,356
1,087
980
1,284
977
743
1,117
849
-
Percentage of Celluclast in the mixture Celluclast:Novozym.

Results for activities in the Novozym preparation are not given as the presence of high
concentration of
sugar in the preparation interfered with the assay.
2
2.3.2 optimization of the enzyme:substrate ratio

The enzymic assays conducted at various enzyme (MIX):substrate (steam-treated wheat
straw with 1.8% H2SO4 at 134C for 120 min) ratios showed that an enzyme loading higher than
32 IU CMCase/g substrate resulted in better cell wall solubilization at early stages of incubation (1
and 6 h) (Fig 2.3.2.1). However, the extent of cell wall solubilization at 24 and 48 h of incubation
was not significantly improved by using higher enzyme loading

(32 IU CMCase/g substrate). Therefore, all enzymic treatments conducted throughout this study
followed the standard procedure of using 75% Celluclast and 25% Novozym mixture and an
enzyme loading of 32 IU CMCase/g substrate.
2.3.3 effects of steam treatment on chemical composition and bio-utilization
The treatment conditions tested in this study, namely temperature, acid concentration and
reaction time affected all the chemical and biological parameters investigated (Table 2.3.3.1).
However, reaction time proved the least important variable of the three tested. A summary of the
results of all chemical analysis and biological assays by rumen microbes is shown in Table 2.3.3.2.
Fig 2.3.2.1
Effects of enzyme loading and incubation time on the cell wall hydrolysis of
steam-treated wheat straw (conditions: 134C, 120 min, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM
basis).
Table 2.3.3.1
treatment
2
Treatment effects on chemical and biological characteristics of steamtreated wheat straw.
AC
TE
RT
3
AC x TE
AC x RT
TE x RT
NDF
ADF
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.11
0.15
HEM
WL
ISTD
ISDIF
Level of significance of F test (%)

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.76
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.24
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.43
0.09
0.34
0.18
0.21
0.01
GP
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
AC = acid concentration; TE = temperature; RT = reaction time.

single treatment effect.
3
interactive treatment effect.
4
hemicellulose.
5
washing loss by nylon bag
6
in sacco total degradability after 20 h of incubation.
7
in sacco degradability of the insoluble fraction after 20 h of incubation.
8
in vitro gas production after 24 h of incubation.
2
It is evident that steam treatment was very ineffective in solubilizing hemicellulose at mild
o
conditions such as low temperature (98 C), with (0.6% H2SO4) or without sulphuric acid and short
reaction time (40 and 80 min). This was also reflected by the poor utilization of the mild steamtreated wheat straw by rumen microbes.
As expected, interactions between treatment conditions were observed in almost all
parameters analyzed (Table 2.3.3.2). Results also showed that a significant effect of the steam
treatment only started to occur when more severe conditions were used (134C, 1.2-1.8% H2SO4).
This trend is clearly illustrated by the changes in solubilized hemicellulose
(Fig 2.3.3.1) and in sacco total degradability (Fig 2.3.3.2). There was also a slight increase in ADF
content as treatment conditions became more severe, particularly when high levels of sulphuric acid
were used (1.8% on DM basis).
Table 2.3.3.2
Chemical composition (NDF, ADF and hemicellulose) and bio-utilization of untreated and steam-
treated wheat straw.
treatment conditions
H2SO4
(% DM)
chemical analysis
Temp
(C)
ISTD3
(%)
(ml)
32.9
17.7
39.8
22.4
51.1
29.3
17.7
39.1
21.3
51.3
29.2
19.1
41.0
21.9
80.3
52.5
27.8
17.0
40.8
21.0
40
80.8
53.2
27.6
18.4
43.7
22.1
80
79.7
53.1
26.6
19.2
46.5
22.4
120
79.6
53.1
26.5
19.5
44.0
22.2
40
80.1
52.5
27.6
19.4
43.4
21.3
80
77.4
51.9
25.5
23.2
41.6
22.4
120
77.4
53.6
23.9
21.3
44.5
22.2
40
81.1
49.0
32.1
18.0
42.5
19.5
80
80.8
49.8
31.0
18.8
41.3
20.8
120
81.0
50.1
30.9
19.6
42.9
20.4
40
81.3
50.6
30.7
21.2
43.7
21.3
80
81.2
51.7
29.5
20.4
44.6
20.8
120
79.0
52.0
27.0
21.4
40.5
22.6
40
79.3
49.7
29.6
24.1
47.8
22.6
80
78.6
53.2
25.4
22.4
40.1
22.9
120
76.8
53.8
22.9
23.6
47.6
23.1
40
79.9
46.9
32.9
19.3
41.1
19.1
80
79.2
47.8
31.4
20.5
43.7
20.0
120
79.7
46.2
33.5
22.2
45.9
19.1
40
77.4
46.9
30.5
25.1
49.6
20.8
80
76.7
49.5
27.3
23.4
47.1
22.7
120
74.7
49.1
25.6
24.7
46.1
26.4
40
78.4
49.0
29.4
25.4
46.9
25.7
80
76.0
51.4
24.7
26.3
48.5
26.8
120
72.0
51.3
20.8
28.9
50.9
29.0
40
82.0
48.8
33.2
15.9
40.3
22.5
80
80.6
47.7
32.9
18.1
42.6
22.8
120
79.9
49.4
30.5
19.7
39.2
22.7
40
75.8
49.3
26.5
24.8
47.8
26.1
80
73.6
49.6
24.0
26.2
49.6
26.3
120
73.0
51.3
21.7
27.8
47.4
26.4
40
70.6
51.2
19.4
28.0
51.0
26.2
80
66.8
53.2
13.6
33.3
53.4
28.6
120
64.9
54.1
10.8
35.7
54.7
29.2
1.08
1.11
1.00
1.27
2.26
0.81
NDF
ADF
79.4
46.5
40
80.4
80
80.5
120
HEM1
biological assay
WL2
Time
(min)
(% on DM basis)
control
0
98
121
134
0.6
98
121
134
1.2
98
121
134
1.8
98
121
134
SED
hemicellulose.
washing loss by nylon bag.
3
in sacco total degradability after 20 h of incubation.
4
in vitro gas production after 24 h of incubation.
2
GP4
Fig 2.3.3.1
Effects of acid concentration and temperature on the hemicellulose solubilized
during the steam treatment.
Fig 2.3.3.2
Effects of temperature and reaction time on the in sacco total degradability

after 24 h incubation.
The effect of the steam treatments used in these experiments was significantly lower than
reported in other studies conducted at similar temperatures (Cunningham and Carr, 1984;
Grohmann et al., 1985). However, the results of Cunningham and Carr (1984) and Grohmann et
al. (1985) showing a more extensive hemicellulose hydrolysis (>95%) can be explained by the
higher levels of sulphuric acid used (>4.5% H2SO4 on DM basis). Two further aspects that might
have influenced the response of the steam treatment are;
a) type of substrate: the wheat straw used in the present work showed a low bio-utilization
by cell-free enzymes (9% after 48 h of incubation), and
b) amount of water: the higher dry matter content after acid addition (20% in this study)
compared to 10% described in the two other studies might have influenced the efficiency of
heat transfer and acid impregnation.
Even though the effects of the steam treatments were lower than expected, it was still
possible to obtain evidence that the extent of hemicellulose breakdown, estimated by a decrease in
NDF content, was positively correlated with in vitro gas production (Fig 2.3.3.3) and in sacco total
degradability (Fig 2.3.3.4). The high number of scattered points at the bottom and right-hand side
of the two figures, which relate to a low extent of hemicellulose hydrolysis at mild conditions of
treatment also underlines that the majority of the treatments conducted in this study had very little
effect on cell wall disruption.
Increasing levels of washing loss with harshness of treatment correlated well with
decreasing NDF (and hence hemicellulose content) (Fig 2.3.3.5) which accords with the results of
Castro (1989). Therefore, washing loss can be used as a quick method to estimate extent of
hemicellulose breakdown by steam treatment at mild conditions.
Fig 2.3.3.3
Correlation between neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content and 24 h in vitro

gas production of steam-treated samples.
Fig 2.3.3.4
Correlation between neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content and 20 h in sacco

total degradability of steam-treated samples.
Fig 2.3.3.5
Correlation between washing loss measured by in sacco technique and neutral

detergent fibre (NDF) content of steam-treated samples.
As higher hemicellulose solubilization was only observed at severe conditions of steam

treatment, a set of such steam-treated samples (120 min with 1.8% H2SO4 at 98, 121 and 134C)
were used for a more detailed evaluation.
The effects of the steam treatment previously mentioned (hemicellulose hydrolysis and
increase in bio-utilization) is indicated by the data in Table 2.3.3.3. Although these data clearly
show a higher nutritive value of the steam-treated wheat straw compared to control, it does not
give evidence of higher cell wall utilization, i.e. gas production could have been a result of the
fermentation of both cell wall and soluble sugars released by the treatment (Fig 2.3.3.6). However,
it is important to highlight that the higher content of soluble sugars of steam-treated samples might
have influenced the pattern of in vitro fermentation by rumen microbes. As previously reported
(Castro and Machado, 1990), the compositional changes
Table 2.3.3.3 In vitro gas production, washing loss, insoluble nitrogen and hemicellulose content
of untreated and steam-treated (1.8% sulphuric acid for 120 min at various
1
temperatures) wheat straw .
temperature
(C)
control
98
121
134
SEM
24 h gas production
(ml)
c (%/h)
d4
c
21.1
3.61
c
b
23.5
3.93
b
a
27.7
4.55
a
a
30.7
4.72
0.33
0.05
washing
loss
c
17.7
c
19.7
b
27.8
a
35.7
0.72
N - ADF
(%)
d
14.9
c
19.5
b
35.0
a
45.8
0.70
HEM
32.9
a
30.5
b
21.7
c
10.8
0.86
unwashed and dried (45C) samples.

as a percentage of the total nitrogen content in the control.
3
means on the same column with differing superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05).
4
hemicellulose.
2
Fig 2.3.3.6
In vitro gas production of steam-treated wheat straw using unwashed and dried
(45C) samples.
occurring during steam treatment, namely release of sugars from the hemicellulosic matrix, affects
VFA proportion. Levels of propionate are increased thereby the amount of gaseous by-products
such as methane and carbon dioxide produced per unit of substrate fermented would be decreased
(Beuvink and Spoelstra, 1992). There are two important aspects related to this shift in pathway of
rumen fermentation of steam-treated lignocellulosics. Firstly, because of the high sugar content in
steam-treated samples, the use of the gas production technique would probably underestimate its
nutritive value, particularly for comparisons between untreated and steam-treated samples. The use
of extensively washed steam-treated samples, as proposed in this study, could overcome such a
disadvantage and enable the evaluation of in vitro residual cell wall degradability of steam-treated
samples. Secondly, this shift in the pattern of fermentation would be beneficial for ruminant animals
because of the lower production of CH4 and CO2, and thereby a higher capture of energy from the
substrate into VFA.
Another important alteration in chemical composition observed in steam-treated samples
was the increase in ADF content (Table 2.3.3.2) and insoluble nitrogen (Table 2.3.3.3). This is
probably explained by the occurrence of browning reactions through the amino-transformation
pathway, where amino groups catalyse sugar dehydration and fission leading to a formation of
insoluble polymers (Hodge, 1953). Presence of such reactions during steam treatment has a double
disadvantage because it decreases the amount of bio-available nitrogen and also increases the loss
of sugars previously released from the hemicellulose fraction.
2.3.4 effect of drying post-treatment on cell wall bio-utilization

The effect of the steam treatment on the cell wall microstructure was measured by
subjecting steam-treated and washed samples to drying post-treatment at 105C. Drying posttreatment had little effect on the gas production of untreated wheat straw, whereas a significant
depression of in vitro cell wall utilization of steam-treated samples was observed (Table 2.3.4.1).
Table 2.3.4.1 Comparison of undried and dried samples by in vitro gas production and in sacco
degradability.
1
temperature (C)
gas production
steam
treatment
c (%/h)
control
98
121
134
drying
posttreatment
undried
105
SEM
undried
105
SEM
undried
105
SEM
undried
105
SEM
a2
3.16
b
2.85
0.06
a
3.25
b
2.39
0.10
a
3.61
b
3.14
0.06
a
4.04
b
3.05
0.07
24 h
(ml)
21.6
21.4
0.70
a
24.4
b
17.6
0.77
a
26.4
b
22.4
0.49
a
27.2
b
22.4
0.56
in sacco
degradability (%)
total
insoluble
24 h
96 h
24 h
96 h
ab3
56.3
56.2
63.4
45.1
2.02
38.7
34.3
42.6
bc
18.8
45.4
19.9
45.3
ab
20.1
51.1
69.1
19.5
54.5
1.75
1.06
1.99
washed samples.
means on the same column within temperature of steam treatment with differing
superscripts differ significantly
(P<0.05).
3
2
Similar assays were completed using unwashed steam-treated samples which were dried at
either 45 or 105C. Drying post-treatment at 105C had a more deleterious effect on cell wall
degradation by rumen microbes than drying at 45C (Table 2.3.4.2). Previous studies (Grous et al.,
1986; Wong et al., 1988) have shown that in addition to changes in chemical composition
alteration in physical microstructure occurred during treatment. Such physical changes are also
partly responsible for improving cell wall hydrolysis by cell-free enzymes. Additionally, pore
collapsing caused by drying post-treatment negatively affected cell wall hydrolysis by cell-free
enzymes.
Table 2.3.4.2 Comparison of samples dried at different temperatures by in vitro gas production
and in sacco total degradability.
temperature (C)
control
98
121
134
SEM
1
2
drying post-treatment (C)

45
105
45
105
gas production
20 h in sacco
c value (%/h)
degradability (%)
c2
c
c
ab
3.50
39.8
38.7
3.61
b
b
c
b
3.93
3.87
39.2
34.3
a
a
b
a
4.55
4.42
47.4
42.6
a
a
a
a
4.72
4.62
54.7
45.1
0.08
0.08
1.32
2.02
unwashed samples.
In contrast, it has been suggested that microstructure plays a minor role on the cell wall
degradation by rumen bacteria (Lin et al., 1985). Changes in macrostructure, i.e. surface area and
particle size, being the key physical factors to control bacterial degradation of cell wall. The need
for bacterial adhesion onto the fibre surface prior release of cellulolytic enzymes could partially
explain Lin's conclusions. However, the data obtained in the current study showed evidence that
cell wall degradation by rumen microbes can also be affected by changes in cell wall microstructure.
The finding of Wilkie (1979) that oven-drying affects hemicellulose characteristics, e.g.
conformation, thereby negatively affecting its availability, would suggest that drying post-treatment
used in the current experiment would have led to secondary effects. However, the similarity of gas
production data from untreated wheat straw before and after oven-drying did not accord with
Wilkie's conclusions. Therefore, the depression in bio-utilization by rumen microbes when drying
post-treatment was applied to steam-treated samples can be explained by pore collapsing.
Cell wall solubilization by cell-free enzymes was significantly improved by subjecting wheat
straw to mild steam treatment (Table 2.3.4.3). The extent of cell wall solubilization of the control
(untreated wheat straw) was rather low when compared to its in sacco degradability of the
insoluble fraction. This indicates that measurements of bio-utilization of low quality lignocellulosics
can be significantly affected according to the degradation system used, i.e. rumen microbes or cellfree enzymes. Moreover, although no improvement on the in sacco total degradability after 24 h of
incubation was observed for steam-treated samples, cell wall solubilization by cell-free enzymes at
24 h was increased, by about three fold, after steam treatment (1.8% H2SO4, at 134C for 120
min). However, the extent of cell wall degradation by rumen microbes from both untreated and
steam-treated samples was much higher than that observed by cell-free enzymes.
After enzymic treatment, a decrease in degree of polymerization of the hydrolysate from
washed steam-treated samples with increasing harshness of treatment is obtained
(Table 2.3.4.3). These results may indicate that key activities required for complete hydrolysis of
soluble oligomers were not present in the mixture of polysaccharidases used, therefore contributing
to the lower efficiency of the enzyme mixture used in this experiment. An analysis of the glycosidic
linkage pattern of the soluble oligomers resulting from a range of treatments could indicate what
activities are deficient in this particular enzyme mixture.
Table 2.3.4.3 Enzymic hydrolysis of untreated and steam-treated (1.8% sulphuric acid on DM
1
basis for 120 min at various temperatures) wheat straw .
incubation time (h)
temperature (C)
24
degree of
polymerization at 24
2
h
48
(mg total sugars/g DM substrate)

a3
59.1
99.0
129.6
169.2
1.72
control
55.1
98
87.1
121
116.8
134
SEM
1.42
1.27
1.19
187.4
1.19
2.58
0.03
ab
ab
b
washed samples.
total sugar (mg/g DM)/reducing sugar (mg/g DM).
3
2
Chemical analysis of wheat straw polysaccharides indicates the theoretical maximum bioconversion (mbc) levels achievable, i.e. total carbohydrate release. This can be compared to what
was actually achieved by combining steam treatment and enzymic hydrolysis in the current study.
Even though a considerably high level of hemicellulose hydrolysis was obtained after steam
treatment (1.8% H2SO4, at 134C for 120 min), the enzyme mixture used still fell short of the
theoretical mbc (Fig 2.3.4.1).
Fig 2.3.4.1
Cell wall hydrolysis of unwashed wheat straw subjected to a combination of

1
low temperature steam treatment and enzymic treatment. maximum bioconversion.
The philosophy of matching enzyme activities to substrate composition will enable more
efficient enzyme preparations to be formulated. This together with optimizing steam treatment
conditions should lead to very efficient methods of utilizing lignocellulosics.
2.4 Conclusions
Steam treatment completed at temperatures as low as 134C and with use of small amounts
(1.8% on DM basis) of exogenous H2SO4 as an acidic catalyst is capable of; solubilizing most
(67%) of the hemicellulose fraction, changing cell wall porosity and improving the bio-utilization of
remaining cell wall material by rumen microbes and cell-free enzymes. Despite the mild conditions
of steam treatment used in this experiment, nitrogen insolubilization and increasing content of acid
insoluble cell wall fraction suggested that undesirable browning reactions were occurring.
Even though there was an improvement in cell wall bio-utilization of steam-treated wheat
straw, it did not reach the same extent as reported in other studies that used more severe conditions
of treatment. A more detailed study on the chemico-physical composition of the steam-treated
wheat straw is required to better understand the low response of the steam treatment obtained in
the present experiment. Further studies using a combination of steam treatment at harsher
conditions are needed to optimise the nutritional utilization of lignocellulosic by-products and to
determine the ideal combination treatment. These aspects will be addressed in the next two
chapters.
CHAPTER 3
EFFECTS OF LOW TEMPERATURE STEAM TREATMENT ON THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND BIO-UTILIZATION OF WHEAT STRAW
3.1 Introduction
Although the use of mild steam treatment improves cell wall bio-utilization of wheat straw,
the effect is significantly less than achieved by more severe treatments applied to a similar substrate
(results of Chapter 2 compared to Grohmann et al., 1985). The major advantage of using a mild
treatment is the high recovery of hemicellulosic sugars achievable. Solubilization of hemicellulose,
which accounts for about 40% of the total cell wall polysaccharide in wheat straw, during steam
treatment is of a great relevance in the context of ruminant feeding. Firstly, individual hemicellulosic
sugars are completely utilized by rumen microbes, whereas utilization of hemicellulosic polymers is
variable according to both species and stage of maturity of the plant. Additionally, the capture of
energy expressed as VFA produced per unit of degradable substrate is higher for sugars compared
to polysaccharides fermentation. This is expected as methane production per unit degradable
substrate is higher in the latter (Moss, 1993).
In spite of the considerable hemicellulose solubilization achieved after mild steam treatment,
little improvement in residual solid cell wall utilization was observed. This suggests that there are
physico-chemical barriers still present in those steam-treated samples and limiting cell wall
accessibility to both cell-free and bacterial enzymes. The effects of steam treatment on disrupting
these barriers, e.g. lignified cell wall, particle size and cell wall swelling, will be discussed below.
In addition to hemicellulose hydrolysis, lignin depolymerization and redistribution within the

cell wall also play an important role in improving cellulose bio-availability of steam-treated
lignocellulosics (Wong et al., 1988; Toussaint et al., 1991). As a result of that, there is formation of
regions with variable degree of lignification within the cell wall. Poorly lignified regions, containing
high proportions of cellulose can therefore be easily attacked by the enzymes. It is possible
therefore that, mild treatment conditions are not adequate to promote such changes in the lignin
fraction.
In considering physical characteristics, the use of rapid decompression after the treatment
has shown to promote an extensive defibration and alter particle size (surface area) (Capretti et al.,
1987). The positive effect of increasing surface area on the rate of cellulose hydrolysis by cell-free
enzymes has been clearly established (Fan et al., 1981b; Gharpuray et al., 1983). This is explained
by a higher substrate surface area allowing a more extensive enzymic action. Yet, Brownell et al.
(1986) obtained similar results of cellulose hydrolysis by cell-free enzymes as those after explosive
decompression by simply extending reaction time. With respect to cell wall ruminal utilization it is
still unclear from the published data whether the effect of steam treatment on particle size is
beneficial, i.e. surface area and cell wall swelling factors outweighed by faster throughput.
Cell wall swelling during the treatment has been positively correlated with cellulose
hydrolysis by cell-free enzymes (Wei and Cheng, 1985; Grous et al., 1986; Wong et al., 1988;
Toussaint et al., 1991). In some cases degree of cell wall swelling has been suggested as a limiting
factor to upgrade certain lignocellulosics, e.g. the lower efficiency of steam treatment of Pinus
compared to either hardwoods or cereals has been attributed to the lower degree of cell wall
swelling occurred in the former (Grethlein et al., 1984). Cell wall swelling can be also
affected by impregnating the substrate with sulphuric acid prior the treatment and thereby greater
cellulose hydrolysis by cell-free enzymes is achieved (Toussaint et al., 1991).
Unlike cell-free enzymes, Lin et al. (1985) have reported that cell wall swelling occurred
during treatment of cellulosic materials did not have a significant effect on substrate availability to
rumen bacteria. According to the authors, physical characteristics that affect bacterial adhesion onto
cell wall surface, e.g. particle size and surface area, may play a more important role in improving
substrate utilization by rumen bacteria than microstructure features, e.g. fibre porosity. The fact that
bacterial adhesion to the substrate is required prior release of their enzymes somewhat agrees with
Lin's findings. On the other hand, previous observations by Kerley et al. (1988) and preliminary
results from this study (Chapter 2), which showed that dried steam-treated wheat straw was less
degradable than samples never dried, contradict such hypothesis.
The use of both mild and severe drying post-treatment has been shown to cause the
collapse of cell wall pores, thereby depressing both rate and extent of enzymic hydrolysis (Grous et
al., 1986; Wong et al., 1988). Results given in Chapter 2 indicated that drying post-treatment
negatively affected cell wall utilization by either cell-free enzymes or rumen microbes. Such results
were attributed to a pore collapsing occurring during the drying post-treatment. However, no
attempt was made to measure changes that occurred in cell wall microstructure, thereby giving
direct evidence for such a conclusion.
The objective of the experiments designed in this chapter was to evaluate the effect of low
temperature steam treatment on both chemical composition and pore size distribution of wheat
straw together with its subsequent utilization by rumen microbes and cell-free enzymes. Drying
post-treatment was used as a method to produce substrates with similar chemical composition and
different cell wall porosity. The effects of drying post-treatment on both cell wall pore distribution
and bio-utilization were investigated.
3.2.1 substrate
Wheat straw was used as a model substrate for the experiments described in this chapter.
Prior to use wheat straw, Triticum sp. (variety Riband) was ground through a 2.5 mm sieve using a
hammer mill (Section 3.2.1) and used as a substrate for the steam treatments.

Ground wheat straw (70 g), of about 88% DM, was placed in 1 l beakers. Sulphuric acid
solution was added to obtain approximately 20% DM content with 1.8% sulphuric acid
concentration on a dry matter basis. After acid addition, straw samples were autoclaved (Section
2.2.2) at 98, 116 and 134C for 120 min. The pressures obtained at 116 and 134C were 0.8 and
2.1 atm, respectively. Control and steam-treated wheat straw samples were used either unwashed
or after extensive washing with water until a pH of 5.5 was achieved. Unwashed samples were kept
at -20C until further sample preparation for chemical analysis.
3.2.3 drying post-treatment

The washed samples were divided into two groups; a) undried and b) dried (oven dried
overnight at 105C). After drying, samples were rehydrated to the same level of moisture as that of
undried samples. All washed samples (undried and dried) were kept wet at 4C until further
biological assays and pore size measurement were completed.
3.2.4 sample preparation for chemical analysis

Frozen samples were thawed, oven-dried at 45C for 48 h, and finely ground for 1 min in
an analytical mill (IKA Labortechnik - Germany, model Janke & Kunkel) at 20,000 rpm. Ground
samples were stored in a desiccator under vacuum over P2O5 until chemical analysis were
conducted.

A factorial design of 4 X 2 (temperature of steam treatment X drying post-treatment) was
used with 2 replicates per treatment. Effects of treatment were measured by analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and differences between averages by Bonferroni T test at P<0.05.

Cell wall in vitro utilization by rumen microbes was estimated by the Menke and Steingass
(1988) technique by incubating washed samples in triplicate as described in Section 2.2.6. Gas
production was recorded after 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of incubation.

Washed samples were subjected to enzymic hydrolysis in an identical manner to that
described in Section 2.2.8 using 0.5 g of substrate on DM basis. The effect of higher
substrate:buffer ratio was measured by incubating 2.5 and 5.0 g sample on DM basis in 50 ml of
acetate buffer. In all assays an enzyme loading of 32 IU CMCase/g substrate was maintained.
Aliquots were taken after 6, 24 and 48 h of incubation for total sugar (Dubois et al., 1956) and
reducing sugar (Nelson, 1944) analysis.
3.2.7 neutral sugar composition

Total (insoluble and soluble) neutral sugar residues of unwashed samples were measured as
their alditol acetates by Gas Chromatography according to the method of Blakeney et al. (1983).
Dried sample (10 mg) was weighed into a screw-cap tube, H2SO4 solution (0.25 ml, 6 M) was
added and mixed intermittently for 1 h. Distilled water (2.75 ml) was added to alter the acid
concentration to 0.5 M, tubes were then flushed with N2, sealed and kept for 3 h in a water bath at
100C. The hydrolysate was neutralized with NH4OH solution (0.64 ml, 15 M), and internal
standard (0.1 ml of 20 mg inositol/ml) was added.
Reduction of the solubilized sugars was achieved by adding 1 ml of 2% sodium
borohydride in dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) to 0.2 ml of hydrolysate and heating at 40C for 90
min. Excess sodium borohydride was destroyed by adding 0.1 ml of acetic acid. Reduced sugars
were then derivatized by adding of 0.2 ml of 1-methyl imidazole and 2 ml of acetic anhydride, and
kept for 15 min at room temperature. Distilled water (5 ml) was added to hydrolyse any excess
acetic anhydride and the mixture kept in ice bath for 10 min. Alditol acetates were then extracted in
dichloromethane (2 ml), and washed 3 times with 5 ml of distilled H2O. The remaining
dichloromethane solution containing the derivatized sugars was transferred to a vial and the solvent
evaporated off in a stream of nitrogen. Acetone (100 l) was added to the vial and the mixture
injected into a GC fitted with a flame ionization detector (FID) and a wide bore capilary column
(30 m, 0.53 mm i.d., Supelco SP-2380). The following temperatures were used: injector (t=50C),
column oven (tinitial=50C, t increased at a rate of 40C/min until 240C and tfinal=240C, total
time=15 min) and FID (t=250C).
The same procedure as described above was followed for the standard neutral sugars, i.e.
arabinose, fucose, galactose, glucose, mannose, rhamnose and xylose, for calculating their
respective response factors.
3.2.8 soluble sugar and hemicellulose content

Total hemicellulosic sugar (hemicellulose matrix plus soluble sugars) content was estimated
by measuring total sugar content after trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) hydrolysis (Ternud et al., 1989).
TFA solution (1 ml, 2 M) was added to screw-cap tubes containing 1 mg of dried sample, and
kept for 1 h in an oil bath at 121C. Solutions were cooled, diluted with 5 ml of distilled water,
centrifuged (3,000 x g for 15 min). The supernatant fluid was analyzed for total sugar (Dubois et
al., 1956) as described in Section 2.2.12, using xylan from oat spelts as a standard.
Soluble sugar content was measured by the phenol-sulphuric method (Dubois et al., 1956)
using xylan from oat spelts as a standard. Xylan stock solution (100 mg/l) was initially prepared by
dissolving xylan into saturated benzoic acid solution and mixed. However, an overestimation of
soluble sugar content was obtained due to an incomplete xylan solubilization. Therefore,
ultrasonication for 10 min in an ice bath was used as an additional step to aid xylan dissolution. The
soluble sugar content was obtained by soaking known amounts of dried samples (10 - 40 mg) in 15
ml distilled water at 40C, mixed intermittently for 1 h. The extracts were then centrifuged (3,000 x
g for 15 min) and the supernatant fluid analyzed for total sugar (Dubois et al., 1956).
Hemicellulose content was estimated by difference between total soluble sugars content in
the extracts after and before TFA hydrolysis.
3.2.9 extractable and total phenolic content
Extractable phenolic content was determined by extracting with 70% acetone solution
(Mueller-Harvey and Dhanoa, 1991). Acetone solution (5 ml, 70%) was added to a test tube
containing 100 mg of dried sample and ultrasonicated for 10 min in an ice bath. The solution was
centrifuged at 4,500 x g for 30 min at 4C. An appropriate amount of the supernatant fluid was
weighed into test a tube, evaporated to dryness at 40C under vacuum and analyzed for total
phenolics as described below.
Total phenolic content from both sample and evaporated extract were estimated by a
colorimetric method (Morrison, 1972) using ferulic acid as a standard. To either 10 mg of dried
sample or evaporated extract acetyl bromide (1 ml, 25% in acetic acid) was added, the screw-cap
tube was sealed, and kept for 30 min in an water bath at 70C. The mixture was transferred to a 50
ml volumetric flask containing NaOH (0.9 ml, 2 M) and 5 ml of acetic acid. The residue in the test
tube was washed at least four times with acetic acid and transferred to the volumetric flask. Before
making up to 50 ml with acetic acid, hydroxy ammonium chloride (1.6 ml, 0.5 M) was added into
the volumetric flask and kept for 1 h at room temperature. An aliquot (2 ml) of the supernatant
fluid was taken and the A280 was recorded. Phenolic content was calculated from the ferulic acid
standard curve.
3.2.10 micropore distribution

Accessible pore volume (micropore distribution) was determined by the solute exclusion
technique (Stone and Scallan, 1968) with some modifications. Wet sample was kept in contact with
one of a range of carbohydrate probe solutions, ie. fructose (180 mol. wt.), raffinose (504 mol. wt.)
or one of the 8 dextran of 10,200; 19,600; 38,900; 72,600; 162,000; 298,000; 485,000 or
2,000,000 mol. wt. The respective molecular diameter of these 10 compounds are: 0.8, 1.2, 4.9,
6.6, 9.0, 12.0, 17.4, 22.9, 28.7 and 54.9 nm.
Wet washed samples (0.7 g, DM basis) were placed (n = 2) in 20 ml plastic vials. Probe
solution (10 ml) was added, vials were sealed and kept for 24 h at 4C. The sample-probe mixture
was agitated 4 times during this period. Aqueous probe solutions contained approximately 2%
probe and 0.1% sodium azide as a preservative.
After equilibrium, the sample-probe mixture was filtered through a sintered glass No.2 filter
until about 4 ml filtrate was obtained. The filtrate was diluted with distilled water to reach
approximately 100 mg sugar/l and kept at -20C.
Dry matter content of each sample was determined (n = 4) by oven drying overnight at
105C.
Concentration of carbohydrate in probe solutions was determined (n = 3) by the
colorimetric method of Scott and Melvin (1953). To 1 ml of sample 5 ml of freshly prepared
anthrone reagent (1% anthrone and 1% thiourea in 67% sulphuric acid solution) was added, vortex
mixed and kept for 20 min at 100C. After cooling the solution the A625 was recorded. A series of
glucose solutions (0, 50, 100 and 150 mg/l) was used for obtaining the standard curve.
From the resulting data the volume of inaccessible water for each probe was calculated
according to the following formula proposed by Stone and Scallan (1968):
where:
+ q)/p - (w.Ci)/(p.Cf)
LQDFFHVVLEOH ZDWHU POJ Z
ZHLJKW RI GH[WUDQ VROXWLRQ J T
ZHLJKW RI ZDWHU LQ
sample, g; p = weight of dry sample, g; Ci = initial concentration of probe solution; Cf = final

concentration of probe solution.
Accessible water (accessible pore volume) at diameter "d" was calculated by subtracting
d
from
54.9
(largest probe), since all micropores are essentially inaccessible for the largest probe.
Pore distribution was calculated from the inaccessible pore volume (inaccessible water)
data which was fitted to the classic Logistic function using Fig.P software (Fig.P Software
Corporation, ver 6.0c, 1992):
[-k.(x - x50)]
y = min + (max - min)/{1 + e
}, where min, max (fibre saturation point), k (inflection point)
and x50 are constants, x is the log probe diameter and y is the inaccessible pore volume to the
substrate at probe diameter x.

The total (cell wall and soluble) carbohydrate composition of steam-treated samples is
showed in Table 3.3.1.1. Fucose and rhamnose were detected in trace amounts only in all samples.
A slight decrease in hemicellulosic sugar content (non-glucose neutral monosaccharides, ngm) was
found at higher temperatures of treatment. Dehydration of the pentoses, particularly xylose, with
release of furfural partially explains this trend. It seems that mild conditions of steam treatment, as
those used in the current study, are essential for a high recovery of pentoses.
Table 3.3.1.1
treatment
temperature (C)
Carbohydrate composition of untreated and steam-treated (1.8% sulphuric

1
acid for 120 min at various temperatures) wheat straw .
glu
xyl
ara
man
gal
ngm
total
(%)
control
31.9
18.8
3.2
1.2
1.0
24.2
56.1
98
34.4
18.8
3.6
1.2
1.1
24.7
59.1
116
34.5
18.6
3.3
0.5
1.1
23.5
58.0
134
33.2
16.0
2.5
0.2
0.6
19.3
52.5
unwashed samples.
% as anhydro sugars: glu, glucose; xyl, xylose; ara, arabinose; man, mannose; gal,
galactose; ngm, non
glucose neutral monosaccharides; total, total neutral monosaccharides.
2
Changes in the hemicellulose content of unwashed samples are illustrated in Table 3.3.1.2.
A low content of soluble sugar (2.7%) was observed in the untreated wheat straw, and as the
temperature of treatment increased, higher amounts of soluble sugars were recovered (P<0.05).
Estimation of the extent of hemicellulose hydrolysis, using TFA hydrolysis and the phenol-sulphuric
method for measuring sugar content, indicated 50.3% hemicellulose solubilization after steam
treatment at 134C. This is significantly lower than the 67% estimated by difference between NDF
and ADF fractions. The increase in ADF fraction observed at more severe conditions of treatment
was the probable reason for the underestimation of hemicellulose content in the residual solid.
Indeed, if the ADF content of untreated wheat straw is used for calculating hemicellulose content
of steam-treated sample at 134C a better agreement, with regard to degree of hemicellulose
hydrolysis is obtained, 55.9% compared to 53%.
Table 3.3.1.2
treatment
temperature (C)
control
98
116
134
C.V. (%)
Carbohydrate and lignin content of untreated and steam-treated (1.8%

1
sulphuric acid for 120 min at various temperatures) wheat straw .
soluble
2
sugars
d5
2.7
c
3.9
b
7.0
a
13.3
3.08
hydrolyzed
3
sugars
total
4
phenolics
(%)
c
5.8
b
20.4
a
50.3
5.11
11.8
a
12.0
ab
11.5
b
10.8
2.06
ab
soluble phenolics
as % of
total
DM
phenolics
c
c
2.2
18.6
c
c
2.4
20.2
b
b
2.8
24.2
a
a
3.2
29.8
2.33
2.27
unwashed samples.
total soluble sugar as xylan.
3
as a percentage of total sugar released by TFA hydrolysis.
4
as ferulic acid.
5
means on same column with differing superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05).
2
3.3.2 lignin depolymerization

Total phenolic (lignin) content showed no consistent variation with increasing in treatment
temperature (Table 3.3.1.2). This indicates that despite the formation of browning reaction
products (see Table 2.3.3.3, Chapter 2, a increasing N-ADF content) there was no significant
increase of 280 nm absorbing compounds as measured by the acetyl bromide technique (Morrison,
1972). According to Hodge (1953) late stage browning reaction products absorb at 280 nm.
However, it might be possible that due to the mild treatment used in the current study browning
reactions did not reach the stage at which such compounds form.
The content of extractable phenolics (expressed as a percentage of total phenolic content)
increased from 18.6% (control) to 29.8% (134C), this suggests that lignin underwent
depolymerization during steam treatment. Apparently lignin depolymerization starts at early stages
of treatment, i.e. before the completion of hemicellulose hydrolysis. Lignin depolymerization has
consistently been referred to as one of the key effects of the steam treatment (Cunningham and
Carr, 1984; Delong et al., 1990; Toussaint et al., 1991). However, no data has been reported
previously as to the extent of lignin depolymerization reactions that can occur at mild conditions
(t140-150C).
3.3.3 cell wall bio-utilization

The confirmation of previous findings (Chapter 2) that mild steam treatment (t134C)
improved cell wall bio-utilization of wheat straw is presented in Table 3.3.3.1. When drying posttreatment at 105C was applied to steam-treated samples, there was a decrease on cell wall
utilization by both rumen microbes (Table 3.3.3.1 and Fig 3.3.3.1 3.3.3.3) and cell-free
enzymes (Table 3.3.3.2 and Fig 3.3.3.4).

Such a decrease in cell wall utilization could be explained by a drying post-treatment effect
on either the nature of the hemicellulose fraction (Wilkie, 1979) or on cell wall microstructure.
Additionally, it was noted that drying post-treatment had no effect on 24 h gas production of
untreated wheat straw, although a significant positive effect on enzymic hydrolysis was observed
(Fig 3.3.3.5).
Table 3.3.3.1
steam
treatment
The effect of steam treatment (1.8% sulphuric acid for 120 min at various
temperatures) and drying post-treatment on in vitro gas production from
1
and enzymic hydrolysis of, wheat straw .
drying posttreatment
temperature (C)
control
105
98
105
116
105
134
105
C.V. (%)
in vitro
gas production
3
c
(A+B)
24 h
(%/h)
(ml)
3.16
43.9
21.6
2.90
46.9
21.9
a
a
46.3
23.2
3.24
b
b
2.39
46.2
17.6
a
a
47.0
25.5
3.60
b
b
3.18
45.5
22.4
a
a
45.5
26.5
4.00
b
b
3.04
46.6
21.8
2.47
4.45
5.99
enzymic hydrolysis
after
6h
24 h
48 h
(mg sugar/g substrate)
b4
31.0
50.3
61.0
a
51.3
72.7
79.4
32.1
45.1
53.4
19.4
38.4
41.6
a
53.6
76.7
92.1
b
44.0
72.2
93.9
a
76.6
120.7
144.3
b
62.2
104.3
122.4
5.47
8.28
5.12
washed samples.
enzymic treatment was completed with 0.5 g substrate. Results expressed in mg reducing
sugars/g substrate,
DM basis.
3
potential gas production.
4
means on same column within steam treatment with differing superscripts differ
significantly (P<0.05).
2
The fact that bigger relative differences between undried and dried steam-treated samples
were obtained with cell-free enzymes than with rumen microbes may simply reflect the smaller size
of enzymes. Being smaller, the free enzymes would be able to utilize any increase in accessible pore
volume (APV) more efficiently than the rumen microbes. Therefore, collapsing of cell wall
micropores after drying post-treatment would have a greater effect on enzymic hydrolysis.
That the extent of hydrolysis using 0.5 g substrate was less compared to that achieved with
2.5 and 5.0 g substrate while keeping total reaction volume (50 ml) and enzyme loading (32 IU
CMCase/g substrate) constant (Table 3.3.3.2) could be explained by the desorption/adsorption of
enzymes from active surface sites being facilitated with increasing concentration of substrate.
Table 3.3.3.2
temperatures) and drying post-treatment on enzymic hydrolysis of wheat
1
straw .
steam
treatment
temperature (C)
control
98
116
134
C.V. (%)
105
105
105
105
substrate loading (g)

2
0.5
2.5
(mg sugar/ g substrate)
b3
53.1
81.5
a
74.9
92.5
a
a
93.7
61.3
b
b
45.4
70.8
98.0
144.6
95.9
133.6
a
137.2
176.4
b
121.3
161.1
2.98
2.85
5.0
91.6
95.5
a
110.5
b
86.1
a
147.8
b
137.4
a
173.7
b
162.6
1.56
IP
1.31
1.20
1.31
1.34
1.34
1.31
1.26
1.28
2.51
washed samples.
index of polymerization (total sugar/reducing sugars).
3
means on same column within steam treatment with differing superscripts differ significantly
(P<0.05).
2
Fig 3.3.3.1
In vitro gas production of undried and dried (105C) steam-treated wheat

straw (98C, 120 min, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis).
Fig 3.3.3.2

Fig 3.3.3.3

Fig 3.3.3.4
Effect of steam treatment (134C, 120 min, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis) and
drying post-treatment (105C) on cell wall hydrolysis by cell-free enzymes.
Fig 3.3.3.5
Effect of drying (105C) on in vitro gas production and enzymic hydrolysis of

untreated wheat straw.
3.3.4 cell wall porosity

The hypothesis that drying post-treatment had an effect on cell wall microstructure was
confirmed by accessible pore volume (APV) measurements (Table 3.3.4.1). There is a trend of
decreasing APV for all probe diameters after drying (Fig 3.3.4.1). Similarly, APV and fibre
2
saturation point (FSP) decreased after drying of steam-treated samples. The APV4.9 and APV6.1
results are relevant to the accessibility of fungi cellulase into the cell wall matrix, as the average
diameter of a Trichoderma spp. cellulase is about 5.11.9 nm (Cowling, 1975). On the other hand,
such an ability to penetrate the cell wall matrix is not expected from rumen microbial cellulases as
much of their activity is closely associated with the physical location of the bacterial cell. Therefore
water absorbed by the fibre at which all sorption sites are fully saturated with water but no free water is present in the lumina.
a low cellulase activity is observed in cell-free rumen fluid. Nevertheless, results presented in this
study indicated that, in addition to the effect of particle size, cell wall porosity may also affect the
efficiency of cell wall degradation by cellulolytic rumen bacteria.
Table 3.3.4.1
temperatures) and drying post-treatment on accessible pore volume of
1
wheat straw .
steam
treatment
Temperature (C)
Control
98
116
134
C.V. (%)
105
105
105
Probe size (nm)

2
4.9
0.104
0.248
0.154
a3
0.190
b
0.131
a
0.290
b
0.104
12.7
6.1
(ml H2O/g substrate)
0.029
0.167
0.095
0.166
0.070
0.168
0.068
33.2
FSP
0.382
0.544
0.432
0.475
0.356
a
0.554
b
0.379
7.4
washed samples.
fibre saturation point (inaccessible pore volume at 54.9 nm).
3
means on same column within steam treatment with differing superscripts differ significantly
(P<0.05).
2
Pore distribution curves calculated from the inaccessible pore volume data are illustrated in
Fig 3.3.4.2 3.3.4.4. Although a significant change in pore distribution was observed after drying
steam-treated samples at 134C, only a slight effect was observed for the other groups of samples.
Interestingly, when pore size distribution was significantly affected by the steam treatment (134C),
the effect of drying post-treatment was more severe. Indeed, dried samples had pore distribution
characteristics less favourable to enzyme infiltration into the cell wall matrix than that of untreated
wheat straw (Fig 3.3.4.4). This finding may explain the higher negative effect that drying posttreatment had on steam-treated samples at 134C compared to the other two treatment
temperatures. This effect may well be associated with a greater cell wall physico-chemical
disruption occurred at harsher treatment temperature.
Fig 3.3.4.1
Accessible pore volume of untreated and steam-treated wheat straw at various

temperatures.
Therefore, better utilization of steam-treated wheat straw at mild conditions (98, 116 and
134C) can be mostly explained by hemicellulose hydrolysis, lignin depolymerization and cell wall
swelling. In order to obtain a more complete cellulose utilization further increase in APV4-5 values
may be needed, therefore requiring harsher treatment conditions.
Fig 3.3.4.2
Micropore distribution of untreated and steam-treated wheat straw (98C, 120

min, 1.8% H2SO4) subjected or not to drying (105C) post-treatment.
Fig 3.3.4.3
Micropore distribution of untreated and steam-treated wheat straw (116C,

120 min, 1.8% H2SO4) subjected or not to drying (105C) post-treatment.
Fig 3.3.4.4
Micropore distribution of untreated and steam-treated wheat straw (134C,

120 min, 1.8% H2SO4) subjected or not to drying (105C) post-treatment.
3.4 Conclusions
Improvement of the bio-utilization of wheat straw by steam treatment at low temperatures
(134C) and with low acid concentration (1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis) is mainly explained by
changes in the hemicellulose and lignin fractions. Changes in cell wall porosity had a minor
contribution in this respect. On the other hand, a progressive weakening of the cell wall structure
appeared to have occurred as treatment temperature was increased. Additionally, collapsing of the
cell wall microstructure caused by drying post-treatment led to a lower bio-utilization. Even though
physico-chemical changes have been noticed after mild steam treatment results of enzymic
hydrolysis and in vitro gas production indicated that cell wall accessibility is still limited. As
complete hemicellulose hydrolysis was not achieved, it is difficult to assess whether hemicellulose
or lignin was primarily responsible for such low cell wall bio-utilization. Experiments using more
severe conditions of treatment in order to achieve complete hemicellulose solubilization may help in
the understanding of the process.
CHAPTER 4
COMPARISON OF LOW AND HIGH TEMPERATURE STEAM TREATMENTS ON

HEMICELLULOSE SOLUBILIZATION, LIGNIN DISRUPTION AND
CELL WALL BIO-UTILIZATION OF WHEAT STRAW
4.1 Introduction
Results in the previous two chapters demonstrated that although mild steam treatment
(t134C, reaction time120 min and H2SO41.8% DM basis) affected the physico-chemical
characteristics of wheat straw, maximum theoretical cell wall bio-utilization was not achieved. It is
possible that the remaining hemicellulose fraction in mild steam-treated samples, by definition the
most resistant to acid attack and less bio-available, could be covalently bound to lignin. Therefore,
hemicellulose-lignin linkages together with the high content of core lignin in mildly steam-treated
samples might, at least in part, explain the observed low treatment efficiency. Clearly to achieve
more complete hemicellulose solubilization, which would involve disruption of hemicellulose-lignin
linkages, harsher treatment conditions are required. Two options were considered; low temperature
(134C) combined with acid (1.8% DM) and long reaction times (>120 min) or high temperature
(210C) with or without acid for short reaction times.
Understanding how hemicellulosic sugars, readily available nutrients, can be destroyed
during treatment is very important when optimizing treatment conditions. It is known that sugars
can undergo a series of reactions under severe treatment conditions. At temperatures over 160C
pentoses can be dehydrated to furfural and hexoses to hydroxymethyl-furfural (HMF) (Grohmann
et al., 1985). According to Baugh et al. (1988) these dehydration reactions can not be completely
avoided but can be minimized by lowering treatment pH values to 2.0-2.5 and using lower
temperatures. The formation of both furfural and HMF has biological consequences as these
products are known to have inhibitory effects on rumen microorganisms (Kyuma et al., 1991).
These furan compounds are labile and can in turn be degraded by high temperature and low pH,
resulting in polymeric browning reaction products or organic acids, e.g. levulinic and formic acids
(Baugh and McCarty, 1988). Loss by volatilization is also possible as furan derivatives have a low
boiling point (bp165C). The net result of the series of decomposition reactions is loss of nutrients
and formation of anti-nutritional compounds.
Equally, the lignin fraction can undergo a sequence of reactions when subjected to severe
treatment conditions. These chemical reactions have been studied under specific treatment
conditions, i.e. acid-hydrolysis (low or high temperatures in presence of acidic catalyst) or autohydrolysis (high temperature, t>160C, with no exogenous acid catalyst). Acid-hydrolysis studies
have revealed that lignin undergoes depolymerization, i.e. cleavage of arylglycerol--aryl ether
bonds (Lundquist, 1967) and condensation reactions (Kavanagh and Pepper, 1955). Similar results
were observed by Wayman and Chua (1979a,b) under auto-hydrolysis conditions. Auto-hydrolysis
treatment has been shown to result in a more drastic cleavage of lignin-lignin and lignincarbohydrate bonds compared to low temperature acid-hydrolysis.
There are several reports on use of low (Cunningham and Carr, 1984; Grohmann et al.,
1985) and high temperature steam treatment (Dekker and Wallis, 1983; Castro, 1989) for
upgrading lignocellulosics for either saccharification purposes by enzymic treatment or ruminant
feeding. However, with respect to ruminant feeding no attempt has been made to compare the
effect of such treatments in order to: a) assess the treatment efficiency, and b) develop analytical
parameters for quality control, with respect to residual cell wall bio-utilization.
The objective of the experiments described in this chapter was to compare the effect of a
range of low (134C) and high (210C) temperature steam treatments on the final bio-utilization of
lignocellulosics. The chemical changes due to treatment, i.e. hemicellulose solubilization, sugar loss,
lignin depolymerization and formation of insoluble artifacts, were analyzed and the results
compared to bio-utilization data. The data generated enabled the key treatment effects, with respect
to bio-utilization, to be identified.
4.2.1 substrate
Wheat straw (var. Riband and Corgi) was used for both the low (134C) and high (210C)
temperature steam treatments. Substrate for low temperature treatments was prepared as described
previously (Section 2.2.1). Chopped wheat straw with an average length of 3 cm was used as a
substrate for high temperature treatments.
4.2.2 low temperature (134C) acid-hydrolysis steam treatment

Wheat straw (70 g), of about 88% DM, was placed in 1 l beaker. Sulphuric acid solution
was added to obtain approximately 20% DM content and 1.8% H2SO4 on a DM basis. The
samples were kept in a fridge overnight after acid impregnation and then autoclaved (Section
2.2.2) at 134C for 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 min. Low temperature steam-treated samples will
be referred to as the LAc series samples (LAc100, LAc200, LAc300, LAc400 and LAc500,
respectively).
4.2.3 high temperature (210C) acid-hydrolysis steam explosion treatment

Wheat straw (1 kg) was mixed with sulphuric acid solution as described above, except that
for practical reasons the acid impregnation was completed immediately prior to treatment. The
straw samples were steam-treated at 210C for 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 and 6.0 min (20 l high pressure vessel,
ASCAF - France; Fig 4.2.3.1). After the end of the steam treatment, samples were subjected to a
rapid decompression (explosive decompression). Samples will be referred to as the HAcE series
samples (HAcE1.5, HAcE3, HAcE4.5 and HAcE6, respectively).
Fig 4.2.3.1
Schematic representation of the pilot reactor used for steam treatment. (with
the permission of ASCAF - Plateforme Exprimentale, Soustons - France)
4.2.4 high temperature (210C) auto-hydrolysis steam explosion treatment

The treatment was completed as described in Section 4.2.3, except that water was added
instead of acid solution at the acid impregnation stage. Samples will be referred to as the HAuE
series samples (HAuE1.5, HAuE3, HAuE4.5 and HAuE6, respectively).
4.2.5 post-treatment sample processing
Wet samples (HAcE and HAuE series) were mixed with approximately the same weight of
ground dry ice, kept for 10 min and ground through a 5 mm bar sieve in a hammer mill (Section
2.2.1).
All steam-treated samples (LAc, HAcE and HAuE series) were kept frozen at -20C until
subjected to further chemical and biological measurements. Samples used for chemical analysis
were thawed, oven-dried at 45C for 48 h, ground through a portable mill (Section 3.2.4) for 1 min
and kept in a desiccator under vacuum over P2O5. All biological assays were completed with
samples that had not been dried.
4.2.6 dry matter loss

LAc series samples were freeze-dried, and then kept overnight in a desiccator containing
P2O5. The DM losses were calculated by comparing final and initial weights. DM losses in HAcE
and HAuE samples were indirectly estimated by their ash contents according to the formula:
y = 100[1 - (a0/a1)]
where: y = DM loss (%),
a0 and a1 are the ash contents (%) before and after steam treatment, respectively.
Ash content was determined by incinerating 1 g of sample in a muffle furnace at 550C for 6 h.
4.2.7 standard in vitro gas production

Gas production was measured on wet samples (200 mg DM) after 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and
96 h incubation according to the procedure of Menke and Steingass (1988) (Section 2.2.6).
4.2.8 in vitro degradability technique

In vitro degradability was assayed by a modification of the Tilley and Terry (1963)
technique. Wet sample (0.5 g DM), 40 ml of artificial saliva (Table 2.2.6.1) and 10 ml of strained
rumen fluid were put in a 100 ml conical flask, flushed with CO2, the flask sealed with a stopper
fitted with a bunsen valve and transferred to a water bath at 39 C. After 48 h incubation the
reaction mixture was transferred to a beaker containing 100 ml of neutral detergent solution. NDF
content was determined as described by Goering and van Soest (1970) (Section 2.2.9.1). Total and
cell wall (neutral detergent fraction) in vitro degradability were estimated by weight loss after
filtering the residues through a sintered glass No.1 filter.
4.2.9 particle-bound microbial carboxymethylcellulase (CMCase) activity

CMCase activities of control, LAc, HAcE1.5 and HAcE6 samples were measured using
the solid residue obtained from in sacco degradability experiments. In sacco degradability assays
were completed as described by Mehrez and rskov (1977) (Section 2.2.5). Approximately 3 g of
wet sample was placed in nylon bag (45-55 m mesh, Locker, Wire Weavers - UK) and incubated
for 6 h in sheep fitted with rumen canulae. After removing from the rumen, nylon bags and contents
were washed extensively. The solid residues were kept at -20C overnight. The particle-bound
enzymic activity of in sacco solid residue was extracted (Silva et al., 1987) by mixing 100-200 mg
of frozen sample with 16 ml of phosphate buffer (pH 6.8, 10 mM), 2 ml of carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4) and 0.2 ml of lysozyme solution in phosphate buffer (2 mg/ml). The solution was kept for 3
h in a water bath at 39C and centrifuged at 15,000 g for 15 min at 4C. The enzyme activity of the
extract was immediately assayed by mixing 0.2 ml of extract with 0.3 ml of 0.1% CMC solution in
phosphate buffer (pH 6.8, 10 mM) and incubating for 30 min at 39C. The reaction was terminated
and the reducing sugar concentration was measured by the method of Nelson (1944). Glucose
solutions were used to standardize the assays.

Approximately 0.5 g (DM basis) wet sample was subjected to enzymic hydrolysis as
described in Section 2.2.7.
4.2.11 carbohydrate composition

Both the soluble sugar and hemicellulose content of samples were estimated by sequential
use of TFA hydrolysis and the phenol-sulphuric method (Dubois et al., 1956) as described in
Section 3.2.8. A xylose:arabinose mixture (0.85:0.15, respectively) was used to standardize the
procedure as this ratio of pentoses is representative of the average hemicellulosic composition of
wheat straw.
Total reducing sugar (cell wall and soluble fractions) composition was estimated by
quantification of alditol acetate derivatives after H2SO4 hydrolysis (Blakeney et al., 1983) as
described in Section 3.2.7 The same method was applied to determine the soluble sugar and
hemicellulose composition of control and steam-treated samples. The extract for soluble sugars
determination was obtained by weighing an appropriate amount of sample (0.1-1 g) into a test tube
containing 10 ml of distilled water and kept for 30 min at 40 C with intermittent mixing. The
extract was centrifuged (3,000 g for 15 min) and the supernatant fluid (1 ml) transferred to a screw
cap glass tube containing 0.25 ml of 6 M H2SO4 and 1.75 ml of distilled water. The mixture was
kept for 3 h at 100C, after which neutral (Section 3.2.7) and acidic sugar analyses were
completed. Acidic sugars were measured by the method of Blumenkrantz and Asboe-Hansen
(1973). An aliquot of 0.5 ml of hydrolysate was added to a test tube containing 0.5 ml of distilled
water and 6 ml of 12.5 mM sodium tetraborate decahydrate in concentrated H2SO4. The tube was
cooled in an ice bath, thoroughly mixed with a vortex mixer and then heated to 100C for 10 min.
After cooling 100 l of 0.15% m-hydroxy-diphenyl in ethanol was added, vortex mixed and the
A520 was recorded. A series of D-glucuronic acid solutions (0, 10, 20 and 40 g/ml) were used for
calculating a standard curve.
The difference between the analyses of the water-soluble fraction and H 2SO4 hydrolysate
from the original sample was used to estimate both the hemicellulose and cellulose content and
composition.
4.2.12 acid detergent fibre - ADF

ADF content was determined according to the procedure of Goering and Van Soest (1970)
(Section 2.2.9.2).
4.2.13 nitrogen
Control samples and the ADF residues of both control and steam-treated samples were
analyzed for nitrogen content by the method of Davidson et al. (1970) as described in Section
2.2.10.
4.2.14 total phenolics

Total phenolics content (lignin) was estimated by the acetyl-bromide method (Morrison,
1972) using ferulic acid as a standard (Section 3.2.9).
4.2.15 total extractable phenolics

Phenolic material was extracted using a 70% acetone solution (Mueller-Harvey and
Dhanoa, 1991) as described in Section 3.2.9. The phenolic content of the extract was measured by
the Folin & Ciocalteu's phenol method (Julkunen-Titto, 1985) using tannic acid as a standard. To
0.1 ml of extract 0.9 ml of distilled water, 0.5 ml of 1 N Folin & Ciocauteu's phenol reagent and 2.5
ml of 20% Na2CO3 solution were added. After the addition of each reagent the mixture was vortex
mixed. The solution was kept for 35 min at room temperature, centrifuged at 4,500 g for 15 min at
4C and the A725 recorded. A standard curve was constructed using 0, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 160 l
of 0.5 mg/ml tannic acid in 70% acetone solution. Volumes were made up to 1 ml with an
appropriate amount of distilled water.
4.2.16 analysis of volatile fatty acids - VFA

VFA content and composition of samples (control, HAcE1.5 and HAcE6) collected after
48 h in vitro incubation (Section 4.2.8) was quantified by Gas Chromatography. To 1 ml of sample
250 l of internal standard (20 mM 2-ethylbutyric acid in 20% w/v orthophosphoric acid) was
added and the mixture centrifuged at 20,000 g for 30 min at 4C. The fluid supernatant was
analyzed by Gas Chromatography.

Due to the large number of samples generated in the present study a quick and accurate
method for estimating hemicellulose and soluble sugar content was required. Methods based on
measuring individual sugars, i.e. GC or HPLC, though laborious and time consuming, are claimed
to give the most accurate estimates. Spectrophotometric methods are quicker and much simpler,
but may give false results depending on the sugar composition of the sample relative to the
standard. Additionally, such methods only give information on total sugar content and nothing on
sugar composition. The combination of a GC method (Blakeney et al., 1983) (neutral sugars) with
a spectrophotometric method (Blumenkrantz and Asboe-Hansen (1973) (acidic sugars) was
compared to the spectrophotometric method of Dubois et al. (1956) (total reducing sugars). A high
correlation (r = 0.98) between the two systems was observed (Fig 4.3.1.1). The
spectrophotometric method (Dubois et al., 1956) gave an accurate estimate over a wide range of
hemicellulose contents. As each sugar has a particular light absorbance characteristic (Dubois et al.,
1956) the accuracy of the hemicellulose estimate can be significantly affected by the composition of
the standard used. This is particularly relevant for the two main hemicellulosic pentoses present in
wheat straw, i.e. xylose and arabinose, which have higher A490 than hexoses. Moreover, as A490 of
xylose is about 50% higher than for arabinose, previous knowledge of the hemicellulose
composition is essential for preparing the standard mixture. The 85% xylose - 15% arabinose
standard mixture chosen for the present study proved to give accurate estimates.
Overall treatment effects on hemicellulose and soluble sugar contents, degree of
polymerization of sugars and dry matter loss are illustrated in Table 4.3.1.1. Extensive
hemicellulose solubilization was observed in most of the steam-treated samples, exceptions being
LAc100 and HAuE1.5 with 51 and 37% hemicellulose solubilization, respectively. Results clearly
indicated that to achieve equal hemicellulose solubilization shorter reaction times were necessary if
either treatment temperature or addition of H2SO4 were increased. Additionally, with extensive
hemicellulose solubilization at high temperature treatment lower losses of both DM and
hemicellulosic sugars (as given by TFA hydrolysate content) were observed when sulphuric acid
was added. That is, parallel to an extensive hemicellulose solubilization, a high total soluble sugar
content (16.3 - 19.4%) was observed after such treatments. With respect to residual sugar content
in steam-treated samples auto-hydrolysis was as efficient as acid-hydrolysis. However, the degree
of polymerization (DP) of the soluble sugar fraction varied significantly according to the treatment
applied. Both the concentration of H2SO4 and treatment reaction time were important factors in
determining DP.
Fig 4.3.1.1
Comparison between the alditol acetates-uronic acid and phenol sulphuric

method for estimating hemicellulose content.
Table 4.3.1.1
Effects of low and high temperature steam treatment on dry matter loss
and carbohydrate fraction of wheat straw.
1
treatment
temp (C)
TFA
HEM
time (min)
control
SCHO
DP
DM loss
(% on DM basis)
26.8
25.1
1.7
0.84
acid-hydrolysis (1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis)

134
100
24.6
12.3
12.3
1.94
0.1
200
23.0
6.7
16.3
2.02
0.2
300
23.3
5.0
18.2
1.96
0.3
400
22.1
2.6
19.5
1.71
0.3
500
21.4
2.4
19.0
1.48
0.4

210
1.5
25.8
7.4
18.4
2.14
10.9
24.3
6.5
17.8
2.34
12.0
4.5
19.4
0.0
19.4
1.78
25.4
17.8
0.8
17.0
1.69
29.1
1.5
27.6
15.7
11.9
3.37
16.3
26.1
9.8
16.3
3.45
22.5
4.5
25.9
8.9
17.0
3.23
24.1
21.9
4.3
17.6
2.87
29.0
0.98
0.74
0.24
0.07
0.83
auto-hydrolysis (no acid added)

210
SEM
1
TFA hydrolysate content (hemicellulose plus soluble sugars).

hemicellulose.
3
soluble carbohydrates.
4
index of polymerization (total:reducing sugar ratio).
5
directly measured by freeze drying and indirectly estimated by ash content in steamtreated samples at low and high temperatures, respectively.
2
The DP data has important implications if steam-treated LC material is to be used as a

monogastric feed. Such animals do not possess endogenous enzyme systems capable of hydrolysing
oligomeric sugars. They would however gain some nutritional benefit via hind gut fermentation but
it would be far more efficient if the soluble sugars were present as monomers which can be directly
absorbed in the small intestine. Therefore, an enzymic or chemical post-treatment of the sugar
fraction may be required. In the case of ruminant animals, the presence of oligomeric sugars is not
nutritionally limiting as they are very rapidly degraded by rumen microbes (van Soest, 1982).
DM loss during treatment was significantly affected by temperature (134 vs. 210C),
temperatures of 210C causing much higher DM loss. Increasing DM loss with increasing
temperature (152 to 176C) was also observed by Rangnekar et al. (1982). It is likely that DM loss
is related to extensive dehydration of pentoses into furfural (Baugh and McCarty, 1988) and its
subsequent volatilization as the boiling point of furan derivatives is lower than the treatment
temperature. That the observed high DM loss in the HAcE and HAuE samples was the result of the
volatilization of the furan derivatives is shown by the relatively high soluble sugar and TFA
hydrolysate values compared to the furan data. However, when considering total recovery the TFA
hydrolysate values in HAuE and HAcE samples is significantly lower than in LAc samples (Fig
4.3.1.2). Loss of sugars at high temperature is mainly explained by acid-catalyzed dehydration of
pentoses into furfural and its subsequent polymerization or volatilization, whereas at low
temperature formation of acid-insoluble polymers is predominant.
The sugar composition of steam-treated samples showed that pentoses are more sensitive
to treatment conditions than hexoses (Fig 4.3.1.3). Both xylose and arabinose exhibited similar
extent of decomposition ( 50%) when the harsh treatments were applied. However, the
exponential shape of the xylose curve indicates a greater decomposition rate than that of arabinose.
Of the minor sugars galactose showed a higher decomposition rate than mannose but both these
hexoses were more resistant than either arabinose or xylose (Fig 4.3.1.3 and 4.3.1.4), confirming
the observations of Baugh and McCarty (1988).
Fig 4.3.1.2
Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) hydrolysate content of steam-treated wheat straw at

low and high temperatures corrected for dry matter loss occurred during
treatment.
Fig 4.3.1.3
Thermo-chemical decomposition of xylose, mannose and galactose relative to

arabinose occurred during steam treatment.
Fig 4.3.1.4
Thermo-chemical decomposition of mannose and galactose relative to xylose

occurred during steam treatment.
4.3.2 lignin depolymerization and the formation of acid-insoluble artifacts

Low temperature steam treatment did not affect total phenolic content (lignin) (Table
4.3.2.1) as measured by UV spectrophotometry (A280). However, a significant increase in lignin
concentration was observed in HAuE and HAcE samples with increasing treatment reaction time.
This effect was considerably greater than could be explained by the DM loss data. As furfural and
HMF have been reported as absorbing at A280 (Porretta, 1992) it is possible that their presence in
high temperature steam-treated samples (see Chapter 5) contributed to this effect. Similarly other
compounds formed by browning reactions may also have affected UV readings, it is these
compounds, other than lignin, which absorb at A280 which are referred to as artifacts. Under acidic
conditions and high temperature furfural and HMF can undergo aromatization (Hodge, 1953),
which in turn may be polymerized into acid-insoluble polymers, also called lignin-like compounds.
Therefore, the higher content of total phenolics after steam treatment at 210C is probably due to
the presence of furan derivatives and aromatized sugars, the DM loss also being partly responsible
for the relative increase in concentration.
Table 4.3.2.1
Effects of low and high temperature steam treatment on lignin fraction and
formation of acid-insoluble artifacts.
total
1
phenolics
treatment
temp (C)
time (min)
control
extractable
2
phenolics
ADF
N-ADF
(% on DM basis)
10.7
1.26
46.3
17.6
acid-hydrolysis (1.8%H2SO4 on DM basis)

134
100
11.3
3.73
50.6
43.6
200
11.3
4.62
54.2
49.8
300
10.9
5.09
56.0
52.8
400
12.3
5.55
57.4
57.4
500
11.9
5.60
59.6
57.3

210
1.5
13.9
5.35
49.8
50.3
13.7
5.18
53.3
55.2
4.5
17.1
8.43
53.6
44.0
18.7
8.95
55.3
44.5
1.5
12.5
3.67
50.2
56.0
12.3
4.61
47.8
56.5
4.5
13.5
7.13
47.3
45.4
14.6
8.71
49.4
51.5
0.50
0.12
0.62
0.50

210
SEM
1
as ferulic acid.
as tannic acid.
3
percentage of the total nitrogen (control) recovered in the ADF fraction.
2
Results indicates that core lignin underwent depolymerization during treatment, i.e.
extractable phenolic content increased with reaction time (Table 4.3.2.1). Analysis of the data
shows that treatment temperature has a greater effect on lignin disruption than the presence of
H2SO4 (compare HAuE to LAc results) this is in agreement with the observations of Chua and
Wayman (1979b). Although increasing phenolic extraction during treatment may not be entirely
related to lignin depolymerization, i.e. formation of artifacts may also have some contribution, the
magnitude of the observed increases does suggest that phenolics released from core lignin had a
major contribution.
The effect of steam treatment on formation of acid-insoluble browning reaction products,
estimated from the ADF analysis, is illustrated by the data in Table 4.3.2.1. As addressed above,
polymerization of furan derivatives via browning reactions is probably related to this phenomena.
Additionally, the greater recovery of insoluble nitrogen (N-ADF) in steam-treated samples suggests
that such reactions involved aminoacids present in wheat straw. In contrast to lignin
depolymerization the relative increase in N-ADF content with increasing treatment reaction time
was greater when sulphuric acid was used (LAc and HAcE series samples). Maillard reactions
involving sugars is one mechanism that helps explain how loss of hemicellulosic sugars were not
accompanied by equivalent DM loss data in the LAc samples.
4.3.3 substrate bio-utilization

Gas production from steam-treated samples was always higher than control values (Table
4.3.3.1). Relatively smaller differences were observed within each series of steam-treated samples.
This suggests that soluble sugars, which were detected in high amounts after treatment, may have
an important contribution to the nutritive value, or bio-utilization, of steam-treated samples. A
similar trend was observed with the in vitro degradability data, i.e. treated samples always having
higher values than the control.
Table 4.3.3.1
treatment
Effects of low and high temperature steam treatment on in vitro substrate

utilization by rumen microbes (gas production and degradability assays) and
cell-free enzymes.
microbial fermentation
degradability
1
2
total
gas
NDF
production
(ml)
time (min)
temp (C)
control
33.2
134
100
43.7
200
43.5
300
42.8
400
42.9
500
40.8
210
1.5
54.2
3
51.8
4.5
53.3
6
50.1
210
1.5
49.8
3
51.7
4.5
50.2
6
50.5
SEM
1.21
enzymic hydrolysis
3
total
(%)
52.0
40.9
7.6
9.1
61.8
61.6
62.9
64.3
62.4
43.2
42.5
39.6
40.4
38.8
31.6
37.1
39.1
38.4
40.4
34.7
37.8
38.9
44.3
44.1
77.6
76.9
78.7
82.8
56.8
57.2
58.4
67.8
55.7
53.1
61.4
61.6
65.7
67.2
91.7
92.0
67.7
77.7
78.1
77.8
0.56
50.5
60.8
55.6
54.7
0.82
23.0
37.6
45.2
46.8
0.40
28.1
43.3
54.1
69.8
1.06
after second stage of digestion (neutral detergent solution).

as neutral detergent fibre (ie. cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin).
3
total soluble sugars released from both steam treatment and enzymic hydrolysis.
4
total soluble sugars released from cell wall polysaccharides by cell-free enzymes.
2
CW
With the LAc samples increased degradability was almost certainly due to the presence of
soluble sugars as cell wall in vitro degradability was shown to be unaffected by such treatment
(Table 4.3.3.1). The importance of soluble sugars in determining the overall nutritive value of
steam-treated samples and the pattern of fermentation in particular is clearly illustrated by the data
given in Table 4.3.3.2. For example, HAcE1.5 and HAcE6 samples resulted in higher VFA
production and, specifically, propionate levels were increased compared to control levels, indicating
that the both extent and pattern of fermentation were changed.
Table 4.3.3.2
Volatile fatty acids (VFA) composition from in vitro degradability assay

after 48 h of incubation.
C2
C3
C4
ISO
total VFA
sample
1
(%)
control
2
HAcE1.5
3
HAcE6
(mM/l)
68.7
21.3
6.3
3.8
58.5
61.5
29.5
6.5
2.5
95.6
60.1
30.8
6.6
2.5
86.0
C2, acetic acid; C3, propionic acid; C4, butyric acid; ISO, iso-acids: 2-methyl-butyric +
iso-valeric + valeric
acid.
2
3
and steam-treated sample (210C, 1.8% H2SO4, explosive decompression, for 1.5 and 6
min, respectively).
With the LAc samples overall NDF (cell wall) in vitro degradability remained
approximately constant and of similar value to the control. However, as hemicellulose sugars are
solubilized during treatment (see above) this means that the relative polysaccharide content of the
NDF fraction of treated samples decreases. Therefore, to maintain the constant NDF degradability
values the remaining NDF polysaccharide (primarily cellulose) must have been more extensively
degraded.
The simultaneous effect of steam treatment on the disruption of both hemicellulose and
lignin fractions partly explains the higher observed cell wall utilization by rumen microbes.
Compared with low temperature treatments bio-utilization (gas production and degradability) was
noticeably greater with high temperature treatment samples. This may be related to the more
thorough lignin depolymerization which occurs at high temperature (Fig 4.3.3.1).
Fig 4.3.3.1
Correlation between hemicellulose and extractable phenolic contents of steamtreated wheat straw.
Another biological indication of the increased bio-availability of high temperature treated

LC is given by the bacterial adhesion on the substrate as measured by the CMCase activity. The
data shown in Fig 4.3.3.2 on (in sacco) microbial colonization indicates the potential of higher
levels of attachment to HAcE1.5 and HAcE6 samples compared to control or LAc samples. It is
important to note that the diet of these animals precluded the possibility of inhibitory substances
due to steam treatment. Bacterial attachment to fibrous material is reliant on the availability of
specific attachment sites (Bhat et al., 1990) with different
Fig 4.3.3.2
Effect of steam treatment on potential colonization, as measured by CMCase

activity, after 6 h in sacco incubation of wheat straw.
microbial species recognizing different attachment sites. One possible interpretation from the
comparison of HAuE and HAcE samples with LAc samples is that it is the explosion which is the
key to exposing more of the attachment sites. However, results given in Chapter 6 will clearly
show that it is the difference in temperature that is the key factor. It is possible that due to the long
treatment reaction times needed for the completion of hemicellulose hydrolysis with LAc treatment
extensive lignin repolymerization reactions occurred (Chua and Wayman, 1979a). This could have
affected cellulose accessibility by simply creating lignin steric blocks. Fig 4.3.3.3 clearly indicates
that the low and high temperature treatments behave very differently which could be explained by
the time related repolymerization phenomena.
Fig 4.3.3.3
Correlation between harshness of treatment (sugar loss) and in vitro

degradability from untreated and steam-treated wheat straw.
Hydrolysis of steam treated LC by cell-free enzymes, like bio-utilization by rumen

microbes, increased with increasing treatment temperatures (Table 4.3.3.2). However, in
contrast to the rumen microbes data addition of sulphuric acid improved potential substrate
utilization by cell-free enzymes. Enzymic hydrolysis of cellulose is known to be affected by several
factors, e.g. particle size, active surface area, degree of polymerization and crystallinity (Cowling
and Kirk, 1976; Fan et al., 1981b). In particular, with respect to steam treatment, Puri (1984)
reported that the degree of polymerization of cellulose in various LC was significantly decreased
when sulphuric acid was added. Results shown in Fig 4.3.3.4 confirm that the use of an acidic
catalyst does increase enzymic hydrolysis.
Fig 4.3.3.4
Correlation between harshness of treatment (sugar loss) and solubilized carbohydrates by

cell-free enzymes from untreated and steam-treated wheat straw.
When considering rumen microbes and cell-free enzymes as systems to evaluate the bioutilization of LC it should always be remembered that there is a considerable difference, primarily in
size, between the two. Therefore it is not surprising that different steam treatments have
significantly different effects on the relative efficacy of these two systems. With control samples the
rumen microbial system was far more efficient (25.8% cell wall
degradation, Fig 4.3.3.5) than the enzyme system (7.6% cell wall degradation, Fig 4.3.3.6). With
the best treatment conditions, HAcE4.5 (based on the total substrate conversion) the two systems,
rumen microbes and cell free enzymes, achieved very similar results (Fig 4.3.3.5 and 4.3.3.6).
Although maximum effects by both rumen microbes and cell-free enzymes are similar (i.e. the
HAcE4.5 data) the rumen microbe system approached maximal efficiency at far less harsh
conditions than the cell-free enzyme system (Fig 4.3.3.7). The variable response to treatment
conditions underline the importance of matching the treatments to any one given objective.
Fig 4.3.3.5
Cell wall hydrolysis of wheat straw subjected to a combination of steam treatment and rumen
microbial degradation. 1maximum bio-conversion.
Fig 4.3.3.6
Cell wall hydrolysis of wheat straw subjected to a combination of steam

1
treatment and enzymic treatment. maximum bio-conversion.
Fig 4.3.3.7
Correlation between in vitro degradability and solubilized carbohydrates by

cell-free enzymes from untreated and steam-treated wheat straw.
4.4 Conclusions
The main conclusion is that all steam treatments (low or high temperature, with or without
acidic catalyst, short or long reaction times) improve the bio-utilization of lignocellulosic material.
There are however notable differences in bio-utilization of samples treated under different
conditions. Equally, measurement of bio-utilization is dependent on the system used, i.e. rumen
microbes or cell-free enzymes.
In particular, low temperature conditions (134C, >200 min, 1.8% H2SO4) resulted in
maximum hemicellulosic sugar recovery and minimum DM loss. With high temperature treatments
the soluble sugar concentrations were in fact similar to the low temperature-treated samples as DM
losses compensated for the lower recovery. At a given level of hemicellulose solubilization a higher
degree of lignin depolymerization occurred under high temperatures compared to low temperature
conditions.
Chemical analysis for assessing the effectiveness of the steam treatment on substrate
utilization by rumen microbes, i.e. measurements of hemicellulose and lignin fractions, can give an
accurate estimate of potential nutritive value. Similar assessments of steam treatment in producing
substrates for a cell-free enzyme system would require a more detailed analysis, e.g. degree of
polymerization and available active surface area.
CHAPTER 5
FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS DURING STEAM TREATMENT

WHICH ARE INHIBITORY TO RUMEN MICROBIAL FUNCTION
5.1 Introduction
The presence, in some forages, of compounds inhibitory to rumen microbial function (e.g.
tannins) can be an important factor limiting the nutritive value of the forage to ruminants. Although
such compounds occur infrequently in lignocellulosics (LC) there are indications that they can be
present in alkali- (Chesson, 1981) and steam-treated LC (Forsberg et al., 1986, Kyuma et al.,
1991).
The nutritional evaluation of steam-treated samples by biological assays described in the
previous chapters was based on standard in vitro and in sacco techniques. Although these
techniques are very useful for estimating potential substrate utilization by rumen microbes they may
not be suitable for establishing the concentration, or indeed the presence, of inhibitory compounds
because of the low substrate:inoculum-buffer ratio. It is therefore unlikely that such compounds
affected the bio-utilization results previously presented in this study.
The steam treatment effects on both the hemicellulose (solubilization) and lignin
(depolymerization) fractions, essential for upgrading LC bio-utilization (see Chapter 4), are always
associated with the formation of undesirable products. It is the balance between the beneficial and
detrimental reactions which will determine the worth of any treatment.
The most studied of all the toxic derivatives released during treatment are furfural and
HMF (Azhar et al., 1981; Sanchez and Bautista, 1988). These compounds, formed at early stages
of browning reactions, are toxic to rumen microbes (Kyuma et al., 1991) and, specifically,
anaerobic methano-bacteria (Rivard and Grohmann, 1991). There are indications that both furfural
(Kyuma et al., 1991) and HMF (Butterbaugh and Johnson, 1974) can affect voluntary feed intake
in ruminants. This agrees with the practical observation (Castro,
unpublished data) that intake of steam treated bagasse improves when this material is stored for a
short period compared to feeding immediately after treatment, i.e. the furfural content could be
lowered due to acid-catalyzed polymerization reactions (Baugh and McCarty, 1988).
Though furan derivatives per se are the most abundant soluble sugar decomposition
products formed during treatment a wide variety of compounds can also be formed by
aromatization reactions of furan derivatives (Hodge, 1953; Popoff and Theander, 1972; Theander
and Nelson, 1978). At later stages of browning reactions these aromatic compounds can
polymerize eventually becoming an insoluble matrix. This fraction exhibits chemical similarities to
lignin, i.e. alkali solubility, acid insolubility and optical activity typical of phenolics, and has been
classified as a lignin-like fraction (Van Soest, 1982).
Lignin depolymerization can also be considered as an anti-nutritional reaction, since low
molecular weight soluble phenolic compounds released during treatment have an inhibitory activity
on cell-free enzymes (Mes-Hartree and Saddler, 1983, Sharma et al., 1985) and cellulolytic rumen
microbes (Forsberg et al., 1986). Of the low molecular weight soluble phenolics the lignin
precursors, i.e. p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillin and syringaldehyde, in steam-treated LC are of
particular importance (Chua and Wayman, 1979b; Van Tran and Chambers, 1985). These
compounds have been widely studied in experiments in vitro and proved to inhibit rumen microbial
activity (Jung, 1985; Borneman et al., 1986; Varel and Jung, 1986; Martin and Akin, 1988). One
known effect of these compounds is to inhibit bacterial attachment onto their substrates, thereby
preventing cell wall degradation (Varel and Jung, 1986).
Depolymerization, through hydrolytic reactions, is not the only transformation observed in
lignin during steam treatment. Condensation reactions and incorporation of non-lignin components
into phenolic compounds can also occur (Chua and Wayman, 1979a). This suggests that there may
be other phenolic compounds of unknown chemical structure and biological toxicity in the liquid
hydrolysate. For example, indirect evidence that tannin-like compounds are formed during steam
treatment is given by the rapid ruminal disappearance of polyethylene-glycol (PEG 4000) in diets
containing steam-treated sugarcane bagasse (Castro, 1989). As PEG is known to form an insoluble
complex in the presence of tannins (Jones, 1965), such a rapid disappearance was attributed to
tannin-like compounds in steam-treated bagasse. Additionally, tannins are well known for inhibiting
enzymic (Sanderson, 1965) and microbial activity (Jung and Fahey, Jr.,1981; Kumar and Singh,
1984).
The phenolic acids (PAC), e.g. p-coumaric and ferulic acids, are an integral part of the
carbohydrate-lignin complex in plants. They are cross-linked to hemicellulose moieties by alkalilabile bonds (Hartley and Jones, 1978) and to lignin by either ester or ether bonds (Billa et al.,
1993). The PAC-hemicellulose structures have been mooted as a possible barrier to complete
enzymic hydrolysis of plant hemicellulose (Jeffries, 1990). Since hemicellulose is extensively
hydrolyzed during the steam treatment, it is unlikely that carbohydrate-lignin interactions via
phenolic acids play any importance in limiting the degradability of steam-treated LC. However,
both p-coumaric and ferulic acids are known to be toxic to rumen microbes (Akin, 1982).
The objective of this series of experiments was to investigate the kinetics of the production
of anti-nutritional (inhibitory) compounds during steam treatment. In order to do this standard in
vitro techniques were adapted by increasing the substrate:inoculum-buffer ratio thereby allowing
inhibitory effects to be determined.
5.2.1 substrate, steam treatment and sample preparation

The type of substrate and sample preparation were as described in Sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.4,
respectively. LAc and HAcE samples were steam-treated according to description given in
Sections 4.2.2 and 4.2.3, respectively.
5.2.2.1 effect of substrate loading and addition of PVP on in vitro microbial fermentation.
The incubation of 200 mg DM sample (Menke and Steingass, 1988) as described in Section 2.2.6
was considered unsuitable for detecting the effects of toxic compounds because of the low
substrate:rumen fluid + artificial saliva ratio. Therefore, in vitro gas production from LAc, HAcE
and HAuE samples was also completed with 1,000 mg substrate but maintaining the volumes of
rumen fluid (10 ml) and artificial saliva (20 ml) unaltered.
Polyvinyl-polypyrrolidone (PVP) and polyethylene-glycol 4,000 MW (PEG) are known to
complex with tannins (Badran and Jones, 1965; Loomis et al, 1966; Andersen and Sowers, 1968)
and thereby negating their toxic properties (Jung and Fahey, Jr., 1981). Therefore, gas production
differences between in vitro systems with and without PVP and PEG were used to determine the
biological effect of tannin-like compounds and the effectiveness of each of the two chemicals as a
tannin absorber. PVP and PEG 4,000 were initially tested on a 1:1 weight basis with HAcE6
sample at both 200 and 1,000 mg levels. The gas production assay from LAc and HAcE samples
was then completed at three levels of substrate (200, 600 and 1,000 mg) and with or without the
addition of PVP. Readings of gas production were taken after 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h
and gas composition (Section 5.2.3.5) after 6, 24 and 48 h.
The affinity between PVP and furfural was studied in order to ensure that any response to
addition of PVP could be attributed to phenolic tannin-like compounds rather than furans. Aliquots
of 2.5 ml of two furfural solutions (0.5 and 1 g/l) were transferred into tubes containing 100 mg
PVP. The mixtures were kept in ice bath for 10 min and centrifuged at 4,500 g for 30 min at 4C.
The supernatant fluids were diluted to reach 100 mg furfural/l and analyzed for total sugar by the
phenol-sulphuric acid method (Section 2.2.12) using furfural as a standard.
In vitro degradability measurements (Tilley and Terry, 1963; see Section 4.2.8) were also
completed with control, HAcE1.5 and HAcE6 samples using either 500 or 1,000 mg substrate and
with or without the addition of PVP. Supernatant fluids after 48 h fermentation were analyzed for
VFA composition (Section 4.2.17).
5.2.2.2 effect of furan derivatives on in vitro microbial fermentation. The effect of adding
exogenous furfural, the major pentose decomposition product, on gas production (Section 2.2.6)
was determined by incubating 200 and 1,000 mg untreated wheat straw with 0, 0.5, 1, 2 and 4% of
exogenous furfural on DM basis substrate.
The effect of similar levels of exogenous furfural on in vitro degradability (Section 4.2.8)
of untreated wheat straw (500 and 1,000 mg) was also measured. HAcE1.5 and HAcE6 samples
were incubated in the same assay. The fluid supernatant of all samples were collected after 6, 24
and 48 h fermentation and analyzed for both furfural and HMF concentrations (Section 5.2.3.4)
and VFA composition (Sections 4.2.17).
5.2.2.3 in vitro particle-bound microbial carboxy-methyl-cellulase activity. Carboxy-methylcellulase (CMCase) activities of control, LAc100, LAc500, HAcE1.5 and HAcE6 samples were
measured from the undegraded residue obtained from in vitro incubation. Residues from 6 and 24 h
incubation (Section 2.2.6.) of either 200 and 1,000 mg on DM basis substrate were transferred to
nylon bags, extensively washed and stored overnight at -20C. The in vitro CMCase activity of the
residue was measured as described in Section 4.2.9.
5.2.3 Chemical analyses
5.2.3.1 total extractable tannins. Two ml of the extract obtained as described in Section 3.2.9
was added to a test tube containing 100 mg of polyvinyl-polypyrrolidone (PVP). The mixture was
vortex mixed, kept in ice bath for 10 min, occasionally mixed and centrifuged at 4,500 g for 30 min
at 4C. The phenolic content of the supernatant was determined as for total extractable phenolics
described in Section 4.2.15. Total extractable tannins were estimated as a difference between the
contents of phenolic compounds after and before the addition of PVP (Watterson and Butler,
1983), which includes hydrolysable and condensed extractable tannins.
5.2.3.2 condensed extractable tannins. Condensed extractable tannins were measured by the
vanillin-HCl assay (Broadhurst and Jones, 1978), using catechin as a standard. Fifty l of sample
extract obtained as described in Section 3.2.9 was transferred into a test tube containing 200 l of
50% (v/v) methanol solution. One and a half ml of 4% vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) solution in methanol and 0.75 ml HCl were added. The mixture was vortex mixed,
kept at room temperature for 10 min and the A500 read. Blank was obtained by using of 50l of
70% acetone solution and 200 l of 50% methanol solution. Catechin solution (0.5 mg/ml of 70%
acetone solution) was added at different amounts (20, 40, 80 and 160 l), made up to 250 l with
the appropriate amount of 100% methanol and used as a standard.
5.2.3.3 phenolic acids. Phenolic acids (cis/trans p-coumaric and ferulic acids) were determined by
reverse phase HPLC (Wallace, 1989). Analysis was completed on LAc samples before and after
extensive washing with water. About 10 mg of dry sample was mixed with 1 ml of 1 M NaOH
solution, and stirred continuously under an atmosphere of N2, in the dark, overnight. After addition
of an internal standard (200 l of 1 mg anesic acid/ml), PAC were filtered and the tube was rinsed
with distilled water for a more complete recovery of the PAC. The filtrate was extracted twice with
5 ml of ethyl acetate, centrifuged at 4,500 g for 10 min at 4C and the supernatant was transferred
to rounded bottomed glass. The extract was then evaporated to dryness in a rotary evaporator and
diluted with 0.5 ml of methanol and 0.5 ml of running eluent (98.3, 1.2 and 0.5% (v/v/v) of H2O,
butanol and acetic acid respectively). Diluted extract was filtered through 0.2 m nylon membrane
and kept in freezer at -20C until quantified. The same procedure was followed with a mixture of
cis/trans p-coumaric and ferulic acids used as a standard. Fifty l of sample was injected through a
Rheodyne valve with a 20 l loop into an HPLC and the A280 recorded.
5.2.3.4 HPLC analysis of phenolic compounds, furfural and hydroxy-methylfurfural.

Analysis of phenolic compounds, furfural and hydroxy-methylfurfural (HMF) were completed by
reverse phase HPLC. Acetic acid aqueous solution (2.5% v/v basis) and 100% methanol were used
for gradient elution at 2 ml/min and the measurements were taken at 280 nm wavelength
(McMurrough, 1981). The sample extracts were initially obtained by diluting wet samples (0.5 g on
DM basis) with 10 ml of either 70% acetone (v/v basis). Latter extractions were completed using
50% methanol (v/v basis) solution as a solvent. The solvent-sample mixture was ultrasonicated for
10 min in ice bath, centrifuged at 15,000 g for 30 min at 4C, and the supernatant used for analysis.
Fluid supernatant (10 ml) from the in vitro assays, i.e. gas production and degradability, were
centrifuged at 15,000 g for 30 min at 4C and the supernatant directly injected into the HPLC.
Another aliquot from the syringes (3 ml) was mixed with 100 mg PVP, ultrasonicated for 10 min
ice bath and centrifuged at 4,500 g for 30 min at 4C. The supernatant fluid was injected into an
HPLC and the A280 recorded.
5.2.3.5 analysis of gas composition. Gas syringes were transferred to an ice bath and gas
composition (CO2, CH4 and H2) was estimated by direct injection from the gas syringes into a Gas
Chromatograph fitted with a glass column (Porapack Q packing) and a thermal conductivity
detector.
5.3.1 phenolic compounds

Results presented in Chapter 4 clearly indicated that steam treatment had a significant
depolymerizing effect on the lignin fraction of LC. This effect coincided with an increase of nontannin-like extractable phenolic (NTEP) material, i.e. extractable phenolics not absorbed by PVP
(Table 5.3.1.1). Total tannin-like content was also increased after treatment, although at
concentrations considerably lower than NTEP. This would indicate that although tannin-like
compounds are formed during treatment they are only a minor fraction of the extractable phenolic
fraction. Whether, at these low concentrations, any inhibition of rumen microbial activity could be
expected will depend on the type of tannin-like compounds formed. It is known that the linkages
between tannins and PVP are primarily those involving hydrogen bonds (Andersen and Sowers,
1968) (Fig 5.3.1.1).
Fig 5.3.1.1
Postulated hydrogen bonding of plant phenol to polyvinyl-pyrrolidone. (from Andersen and

Sowers, 1968)
Therefore, phenolic compounds rich in hydroxyl groups, preferably ortho-positioned, e.g.

caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, condensed and hydrolysable tannins, will probably have stronger
affinity to PVP than other phenolic moieties. Lignin precursors, i.e. p-hydroxybenzaldehyde,
vanillin and syringaldehyde, which can be released during treatment, have fewer hydroxyl groups,
relative to their molecular weight, compared to the structures given above (caffeic acid, etc).
Therefore a lower affinity to PVP could be expected. HPLC chromatograms of HAcE samples
gave very similar profiles (concentration and type) of lignin precursors irrespective of whether the
material analyzed was an extract obtained before or after adding PVP. This supports the hypothesis
given above, i.e. lignin precursors (low hydroxyl content) were not expected to bind strongly to
PVP. Therefore, the tannin-like compounds present in steam-treated samples, as measured by
binding to PVP, are unlikely to be simple lignin precursors.
Of the tannins present in plant material it is the condensed tannins which are considered to
be the most inhibitory to rumen microbial activity (Mueller-Harvey and McAllan, 1992). The
formation of condensed tannins during steam treatment increased with the harshness of treatment
whilst remaining a constant but small fraction of the total tannins (Table 5.3.1.1). One difficulty in
interpreting the data is that some artifacts interfered with the assay. To overcome this, condensed
tannins were also measured in the same samples after adding PVP. The presence of artifacts can be
indirectly measured by the difference between the content of "condensed tannins" with and without
the presence of PVP. The results showed that 50% of the "condensed tannin" fraction was indeed
true condensed tannin by this test. Taking this into consideration, the highest level of condensed
tannin recorded was 0.5% on DM basis (HAcE4.5, HAcE6 and HAuE6). It was observed that
with the vanillin-HCl method used to detect tannins the standards (catechin) gave a pink colour but
the extracts of treated samples gave rise to a brownish colour, suggesting the existence of a range
of chemical structures in these samples. This also implies that levels of condensed tannin in steamsamples might have been underestimated because readings were taken at one particular wavelength.
Table 5.3.1.1 Content of non-tannin extractable phenolic (NTEP), tannins, furfural and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) of untreated and steam-treated wheat straw at low (134C)
and high (210C) temperatures.
treatment
o
temp ( C)
NTEP
total
tannin
time (min)
control
condensed
tannin
furfural
HMF
(% on DM basis)
0.91
0.35
0.07
nd
nd

134
100
2.96
0.77
0.30
0.08
0.12
200
3.74
0.88
0.35
0.14
0.16
300
4.31
0.78
0.36
0.31
0.27
400
4.51
1.04
0.41
0.42
0.36
500
4.77
0.83
0.46
0.41
0.36

210
1.5
5.23
0.31
0.63
0.29
0.14
4.51
0.67
0.48
0.26
0.10
4.5
7.66
0.77
1.02
1.17
0.34
7.88
1.02
1.09
1.23
0.42
1.5
3.07
0.59
0.42
0.01
0.05
3.86
0.75
0.55
0.05
0.05
4.5
6.14
0.99
0.78
0.13
0.09
7.67
1.04
0.97
0.32
0.12
0.17
0.13
0.15
auto-hydrolysis (no H2SO4 added)

210
SEM
1
not determined.
Using 70% acetone solution to obtain extractable phenolics and tannins for HPLC
quantification was unsatisfactory as the acetone peak obscured some of these compounds. This
problem was overcome using 50% methanol as the extractant. A typical chromatogram obtained
from a sample extracted with 50% methanol and containing furfural, HMF, p-hydroxy-benzoic
acid, p-hydroxy-benzaldehyde, vanillic acid, syringic acid, vanillin, syringaldehyde, ferulic acid and
p-coumaric acid is given in Fig 5.3.1.2.
HPLC chromatograms of LAc500, HAcE6 and HAuE6 samples (Fig 5.3.1.3 5.3.1.5)
clearly show that the sum of phenolics detected was far below of that measured by other methods,
i.e. Folin-Ciocalteau and acetyl-bromide. For example, the sum of phenolics detected by HPLC of
the HAcE6 sample extract (0.4%) was much lower than the extractable phenolic content
measured by the Folin method (9%).
Fig 5.3.1.2
HPLC chromatogram of a standard containing lignin precursors and furans dissolved in 50%
methanol aqueous solution (1: hydroxymethyl-furfural, 2: furfural, 3: p-hydroxybenzoic acid,
4: p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 5: vanillic acid, 6: syringic acid, 7: vanillin, 8: syringaldehyde,
9: p-coumaric acid and 10: ferulic acid).
Fig 5.3.1.3
HPLC chromatogram of LAc500 sample (1.8% H2SO4, 134C for 500 min) (1:
hydroxymethyl- furfural, 2: furfural, 3: p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 4: vanillin, 5: p-coumaric
acid and 6: ferulic acid).
Fig 5.3.1.4
HPLC chromatogram of HAcE6 sample (1.8% H2SO4, 210C for 6 min and explosive
decompression) (1: hydroxymethyl-furfural, 2: furfural, 3: p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4: phydroxybenzaldehyde, 5: syringic acid, 6: vanillin, 7: p-coumaric acid and 8: ferulic acid).
Fig 5.3.1.5
HPLC chromatogram of HAuE6 sample (210C for 6 min and explosive decompression)
(1: hydroxymethyl-furfural, 2: furfural, 3: p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4: p-hydroxybenzaldehyde,
5: syringic acid, 6: vanillin, 7: p-coumaric acid and 8: ferulic acid).
Such differences in concentrations can be attributed to the presence, in large amounts, of

extractable phenolics which, although absorbing at 280 nm (see spectrophotometric data, Fig
5.3.1.6), are very nonpolar thereby attaching strongly to the HPLC column (Lomax, personal
communication). This fraction probably consists of phenolic oligomers, high molecular weight
phenolics (HMWP), phenolics conjugated with carbohydrate derivatives or browning reaction
phenolic products. Chua and Wayman (1979a) reported that HMWP can contribute up to 60% of
the extracted phenolics.
A series of measurements of phenolic acids (PAC) were completed with LAc samples
(before and after washing with water) to determine the fate of PAC during treatment. The results
showed that total levels of both p-coumaric and ferulic acids is less after steam treatment and these
levels decreased with increasing treatment reaction time (Table 5.3.1.2).
Fig 5.3.1.6
Detection of extractable phenolic in untreated (control) and steam-treated wheat straw (1.8%
H2SO4, 134C) for 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 min (LAc100, LAc200, LAc300, LAc400 and
LAc500, respectively) by the acetyl bromide spectrophotometric method.
Table 5.3.1.2 p-Coumaric (p-cou) and ferulic (fer) acid content of steam-treated wheat straw at
low temperature (134C) before and after washing.
treatment
reaction time (min)
unwashed samples
p-cou
fer
washed samples
total
p-cou
fer
total
(% on DM basis)
control
0.41
0.27
0.68
0.35
0.26
0.61
100
0.37
0.23
0.60
0.37
0.36
0.73
200
0.37
0.18
0.55
0.38
0.35
0.73
300
0.36
0.15
0.51
0.36
0.31
0.67
400
0.33
0.13
0.46
0.30
0.25
0.55
500
0.33
0.13
0.46
0.30
0.21
0.51
SEM
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.03
This suggests that PAC can be converted into other compounds possibly by conjugation
with sugar derivatives (Chua and Wayman, 1979a). Interestingly, even though both hemicellulose
and lignin were extensively disrupted during treatment, the level of PAC associated with the solid
fraction remained almost constant (Fig 5.3.1.7). The relevance of these results, i.e. low recovery
and solubility of PAC after steam treatment, is that PAC released during steam treatment are
unlikely to act as inhibitory compounds to rumen microbes.
Fig 5.3.1.7
Effect of low temperature (134C) steam treatment on both total recovery and solubilization
of phenolic acids in wheat straw.
5.3.2 carbohydrate derivatives

Furfural and HMF were detected in significant amounts (>1%) in all steam-treated samples
(Table 5.3.1.1). At the three optimum treatment conditions (LAc300, HAcE3 and HAuE6), i.e.
complete hemicellulose solubilization and extensive lignin disruption were achieved with minimum
losses of sugars, there were negligible differences in furfural content. This indicates that both use of
low treatment temperature and addition of an acidic catalyst do not contribute to minimizing levels
of furan derivatives when optimum treatment conditions are considered. However, there was an
effect of treatment temperature on HMF levels. HMF content, relative to furfural, was consistently
lower in high temperature-treated samples compared to low temperature samples. The differences
in boiling points (bp) of HMF (115C) and furfural (162C) probably affected the extent of
volatilization of these compounds when either low (134C) or high (210C) temperature treatment
were used.
As shown in Chapter 4 the sum of furan compounds detected in steam-treated samples
was far lower than total sugar losses. This is evidence that furfural and HMF are not the main endproducts of sugar decomposition. There are two types of decomposition reactions which probably
account for the results observed in this study: 1) reaction between furan compounds and phenolics
resulting in conjugated phenolics (not detected by the HPLC analysis), and 2) polymerization
reactions of the conjugated phenolics leading to formation of acid-insoluble polymers (detected by
the ADF analysis, Chapter 4).
5.3.3 effect of substrate loading on in vitro microbial fermentation

Results of the chemical analysis given above clearly indicated there was an increasing
concentration of furan and phenolic compounds in steam-treated samples as harsher treatment
conditions were applied. The increasing levels of inhibitory compounds did not, however, lead to
lower substrate bio-utilization when standard in vitro methods were used (see Chapter 4). But, at
higher substrate loading there was a clear effect of treatment reaction time on in vitro gas
production (Table 5.3.3.1). It is also apparent that depression of gas production, as a result of
longer treatment reaction times, was greater for HAcE samples compared to LAc and HAuE
samples (Fig 5.3.3.1 5.3.3.3). This is an indication that inhibitory compounds are formed to a
greater extent when high temperature treatment is combined with an acidic catalyst. However, it is
important to highlight that at optimum treatment conditions, i.e. greatest cell wall disruption with
the least sugar loss (such as LAc300, HAcE3 and HAuE6), the negative effects of such inhibitory
compounds on microbial fermentation were less evident than at more severe treatment conditions.
Table 5.3.3.1 In vitro gas production after 48 h fermentation of acid-hydrolysis (1.8% H2SO4)
steam-treated wheat straw at low (134C) and high temperature (210C).
(substrate loading, mg)
treatment
200
temp (C)
time (min)
control
134
210
SEM
600
1,000
(gas production, ml)

34.4
98.0
124.3
100
46.0
110.6
122.5
200
44.4
106.6
118.9
300
45.2
100.5
104.8
400
44.1
101.3
100.1
500
46.7
99.5
96.5
1.5
54.7
103.6
101.7
3.0
55.2
103.8
101.1
4.5
56.1
93.9
87.0
6.0
53.1
90.3
65.9
1.5
2.5
1.8
Fig 5.3.3.1
In vitro gas production at high substrate loading (1,000 mg) of untreated (control) and low
temperature (134C) steam-treated wheat straw with 1.8% H2SO4 for 100, 300 and 500 min
(LAc100, LAc300 and LAc500, respectively).
Fig 5.3.3.2
In vitro gas production at high substrate loading (1,000 mg) of untreated (control) and high
temperature (210C) steam-treated wheat straw with 1.8% H2SO4 for 1.5, 3, 4.5 and 6 min
(HAcE1.5, HAcE3, HAcE4.5 and HAcE6, respectively).
Fig 5.3.3.3
In vitro gas production at high substrate loading (1,000 mg) of untreated (control) and high
temperature (210C) steam-treated wheat straw for 1.5, 3, 4.5 and 6 min (HAuE1.5, HAuE3,
HAuE4.5 and HAuE6, respectively).
Although the concept of increasing substrate loading was useful in identifying the presence
of inhibitory compounds to rumen microbes one has to consider that possible variation of pH
values of the artificial saliva-rumen fluid mixture may also affect microbial activity and gas released
data. It is interesting to note that although pH values dropped to 5.8 when 1,000 mg control
sample was incubated (48 h fermentation) substrate utilization was not significantly affected. This is
shown by the relatively constant gas production/200 mg substrate when either 200, 600 or 1,000
mg control sample was incubated (Fig 5.3.3.4). A much greater effect (a decrease) on gas
production/200 mg substrate was observed with steam-treated samples. Another aspect to be
considered when substrate loading is increased is that greater amounts of CO2 will be released from
the artificial saliva contributing to the total gas production (O'Hara et al., 1974). This phenomena
means that as substrate loading was increased the amount of gas effectively released from the
fermentation of the samples would have been even lower than the observed values. This is
particularly important when gas production data of steam-treated samples are compared to control
sample, because lower pH values (0.2-0.4 units) were always observed with the former.
Fig 5.3.3.4
Effect of substrate loading on in vitro gas production of untreated (control) and steam-treated
wheat straw with 1.8% H2SO4 at 134C for 500 min (LAc500), 210C for 1.5 min
(HAcE1.5) and 210C for 6 min (HAcE6).
Since in vitro gas production and nutritive value are well correlated (Menke and Steingass,
1988) the results discussed above suggest that inhibitory compounds present in steam-treated
wheat straw do have a deleterious effect on rumen microbial fermentation. This was confirmed by
the effect of substrate loading on in vitro degradability (Tilley and Terry method). With different
substrate loading (500 and 1,000 mg) in vitro degradability of control samples were not affected
(51.1 and 50.1%) but there was a significant depression of degradability of HAcE1.5 (83.7 and
61.2%) and HAcE6 (87.8 and 62.7%) samples. It should be noted that, at higher substrate loading,
degradability of HAcE6 sample was not inferior to HAcE1.5 sample as it was suggested by the gas
production data.
Gas composition data obtained from the in vitro fermentation of control, HAcE1.5 and
HAcE6 samples showed that the percentage of methane in the gas produced from the incubation of
steam-treated samples (HAcE1.5 and HAcE6) was lower than for control sample (Table 5.3.3.2).
This effect being greatest with the HAcE6 sample.
Table 5.3.3.2 Effect of steam treatment on gas composition (methane and carbon dioxide) and
production released from rumen microbial fermentation in vitro.
methane (CH4)
treatment
carbon dioxide (CO2)

incubation time (h)
06
624
2448
06
624
2448
(gas composition, %)
control
16.8
17.5
21.7
82.9
82.5
78.3
10.7
18.8
20.1
89.3
81.2
79.9
HAcE6
4.0
11.2
14.4
94.6
88.7
14.4
SEM
0.14
0.15
1.16
0.07
0.14
1.16
HAcE1.5
2

control
4.3
16.9
23.3
21.3
80.6
103.8
HAcE1.5
6.2
16.4
18.2
52.3
96.3
103.5
HAcE6
1.4
7.2
10.4
32.8
79.1
97.8
SEM
0.05
0.14
0.16
0.03
0.12
0.14
1
2
steam-treated sample (210C, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis, 1.5 min, explosive decompression).
steam-treated sample (210C, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis, 6 min, explosive decompression).
Additionally, higher levels of hydrogen gas were detected after 6 h incubation of HAcE6
sample (1.4%) compared to control sample (0.3%). The hydrogen concentration effect disappeared
after 24 h incubation as the concentration of hydrogen was negligible in all cases. In order to obtain
such an effect two options can be considered, a) activity of methano-bacteria was depressed, and/or
b) cellulolytic bacteria were selectively affected, i.e. Ruminococcus sp. being affected to a larger
extent than Fibrobacter succinogenes. The variable sensitivity amongst different species of
cellulolytic bacteria to phenolic compounds (Chesson et al., 1982; Jung, 1985) supports the latter
option.
The deleterious effects of inhibitory compounds formed during treatment on substrate
utilization by rumen microbes was also observed by the relatively lower CMCase activity in vitro
(bacterial adhesion on to the substrate) of steam-treated samples compared to control sample (Fig
5.3.3.5). This effect was particularly apparent on HAcE6 sample which had the lowest associated
CMCase activity. Given that a low adhesion of cellulolytic bacteria to the substrate is not related to
the limited number of sites for colonization in steam-treated samples (Chapter 4) this result
suggests that inhibitory compounds affected microbial activity at high concentrations [compare in
sacco (dispersion of inhibitors) to in vitro (closed system) data].
Fig 5.3.3.5
CMCase activity after 24 h in vitro incubation of untreated (control) and steam-treated wheat
straw at 134C with 1.8% H2SO4 at 134C for 100, 300 and 500 min (LAc100, LAc300 and
LAc500, respectively) and 210C for 1.5 and 6 min (HAcE1.5 and HAcE6, respectively).
5.3.4 effect of addition of PVP on in vitro microbial fermentation

In order to determine the effect of tannin-like compounds formed during treatment on
microbial fermentation, tannin-absorbers (insoluble PVP and PEG 4,000) were used in in vitro
assays. PVP and PEG are known to have strong affinity with tannins thereby negating their toxic
properties. A preliminary trial was completed to determine the effect of adding PVP or PEG on in
vitro gas production from HAcE6 sample. The results indicated that the presence of both tanninabsorbers resulted in increased gas production, the response to addition of PVP being slightly better
(2.4%). PVP was used in all subsequent assays using tannin-absorbers.
Addition of PVP to LAc and HAuE samples had only a negligible effect on gas production
as substrate loading and sample treatment reaction time were increased. However, positive
response was always observed when PVP was added to HAcE samples. The highest response was
observed from HAcE6 sample, the harshest treatment conditions used in this study (Fig 5.3.4.1).
Fig 5.3.4.1
In vitro gas production as affected by incubation of either untreated (control) or steam-treated

(1.8% H2SO4, 210C for 6 min, HAcE6) sample with or without polyvinyl-polypyrrolidone
(PVP).
Greater VFA production paralleled the increased gas production when tannin-like
compounds were complexed by PVP (Table 5.3.4.1), particularly when 1,000 mg substrate was
incubated. The lack of effect on VFA composition indicates that these compounds do not have a
selective effect upon rumen microbial VFA metabolism.
Table 5.3.4.1 Effect of polyvinyl-polypyrrolidone (PVP) on volatile fatty acids (VFA) production
and composition after 48 h in vitro fermentation of untreated and steam-treated
wheat straw samples.
C2
C3
total VFA
(mM/l)
treatment
C4
iso-acids
(molar %)
(substrate loading, 500 mg)

control
58.5
68.7
21.3
6.3
3.8
61.3
67.7
21.9
6.0
4.3
HAcE1.5
95.6
61.5
29.5
6.5
2.5
+ PVP
97.4
61.6
30.0
5.8
2.7
HAcE6
85.0
60.1
30.8
6.6
2.5
+ PVP
95.8
60.9
30.1
6.5
2.6
SEM
1.94
0.39
0.47
0.14
0.17
+ PVP
2
control
181.1
63.4
21.9
11.3
3.5
+ PVP
170.2
64.7
21.4
10.4
3.4
HAcE1.5
185.6
61.1
28.3
8.3
2.3
+ PVP
206.6
61.4
27.9
8.4
2.3
HAcE6
184.0
57.3
31.1
8.8
2.8
+ PVP
203.1
56.8
31.5
8.7
3.0
SEM
9.60
0.94
0.38
0.70
0.19
C2, acetic acid; C3, propionic acid; C4, butyric acid; iso-acids, 2-methyl-butyric + iso-valeric + valeric
acid.
2
steam-treated sample (210C, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis, 1.5 min, explosive decompression).
3
steam-treated sample (210C, 1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis, 6 min, explosive decompression).
5.3.5 effect of furfural and HMF on microbial activity

In order to clarify whether furfural was responsible for the observed depression on
microbial activity in vitro assays were completed with the addition of exogenous furfural to control
sample. Furfural is of particular interest as it is present in high concentrations in steam-treated
samples and has been proved to be the most toxic compound within the furans (Sanchez and
Bautista, 1988).
The results (Tables 5.3.5.1 and 5.3.5.2) showed that the addition of up to 400 ppm furfural
(2% DM basis) to control samples did not affect in vitro substrate utilization after 48 h incubation,
regardless of the substrate loading used. However, at earlier stages of fermentation (6 h and to a
lesser extent 24 h) there was a slight decrease in gas production with increasing levels of furfural.
Kyuma et al. (1991) observed similar early stage (<12 h) inhibition of degradation when different
levels (200 and 600 ppm) of furfural were added to cellulose.
Table 5.3.5.1 Effect of addition of exogenous furfural on 48 h in vitro degradability of untreated

wheat straw (control).
(substrate loading, mg)
furfural (% on DM of control)
500
1,000
(degradability, %)
51.1
50.9
0.5
51.2
51.5
1.0
54.3
50.7
2.0
53.0
50.4
SEM
0.80
0.52
Table 5.3.5.2 The effect of addition of exogenous furfural on in vitro gas production from
1
untreated wheat straw (control).
(incubation time, h)
furfural (% on DM basis
of control)
12
24
48

0
54.0
83.5
99.1
0.5
56.8
86.6
102.1
1.0
52.3
83.1
100.4
2.0
50.0
79.9
97.0
4.0
47.1
79.9
99.0
SEM
0.36
0.23
0.30
all data from fermentation of 1,000 mg of straw.
The lack of furfural toxicity on 48 h in vitro degradability and gas production was
confirmed by VFA data (Table 5.3.5.3). Regardless of the substrate loading or the level of furfural
added, there was no clear indication that furfural affected either VFA production or composition.
Results of furfural in the supernatant fluid obtained from the in vitro assays of control samples,
indicated that, despite the high concentration (400 ppm) of furfural, this compound was not
detectable after 6 h incubation. When the concentration of furfural was determined in the
supernatant fluid from the in vitro incubation of HAcE6 sample minimal amounts (1.2% of the
initial concentration) of furfural were still detected. Slightly higher concentrations of HMF (6.7 and
2.3% of the initial levels) were observed after 6 and 24 h, respectively. It is possible that the rumen
microbes were metabolizing both furfural and HMF. This possibility is supported by HPLC data of
the fluid supernatant from the control sample incubated with furfural which showed a double peak
at 10.5 min run time (Fig 5.3.5.1). The peak height was affected by level of furfural added
indicating that it may be a product of microbial detoxification of furfural.
Table 5.3.5.3 Effect of furfural on volatile fatty acids (VFA) production and composition after 48
h in vitro fermentation of untreated wheat straw (control).
C2
furfural (% on DM basis
of control)
total VFA
(mM/l)
C3
C4
iso-acids
(molar %)

0
58.5
68.7
21.3
6.3
3.8
0.5
61.3
67.7
21.9
6.0
4.3
1.0
62.9
67.2
21.0
8.2
3.7
2.0
61.7
68.5
20.8
7.0
3.7
SEM
1.72
0.31
0.30
0.28
0.07

0
181.1
63.4
21.9
11.3
3.5
0.5
170.2
64.7
21.4
10.4
3.4
1.0
165.5
64.1
21.4
10.9
3.6
2.0
173.2
65.2
21.0
10.2
3.8
SEM
3.53
0.82
0.37
0.67
0.11
C2, acetic acid; C3, propionic acid; C4, butyric acid; iso-acids, 2-methyl-butyric + iso-valeric + valeric acid.
Fig 5.3.5.1
HPLC chromatogram of supernatant fluid obtained from in vitro incubation

untreated wheat straw with 2% exogenous furfural.
(24 h) of
5.4 Conclusion
Hemicellulose solubilization and lignin depolymerization reactions which occur during
steam treatment can result in formation of large amounts of inhibitory compounds, i.e. furans and
phenolics, to rumen microbes. In vitro assays showed that rumen microbes are tolerant to and can
quickly metabolise both furfural and hydroxymethyl-furfural, within the range of concentrations
normally detected in steam-treated samples. Therefore, inhibitory compounds present in steamtreated samples are phenolic-type compounds. These compounds can depress total microbial
activity (substrate degradation and gas production) and bacterial adhesion to the substrate and
affect selectively rumen fermentation. These negative effects were only observed when treatment
conditions exceeded those required to achieve maximum substrate utilization at minimum sugar
loss, i.e. optimum conditions. Therefore, it appears that levels of phenolic compounds in steamtreated samples can be maintained within a non-toxic range by controlling treatment conditions.
CHAPTER 6
EFFECTS OF STEAM TREATMENT AND EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT STRAW
6.1 Introduction
In order to improve the intake of low quality feeds such as LC by ruminants either rate of
passage through the rumen or degradation rate will have to be increased (see Chapter 1). One way
of increasing the rate of passage of LC, and consequently intake, is to alter its physical
characteristics, e.g. reduction of particle size by chopping, grinding, milling, etc (Walker, 1984).
Although particle comminution is known to increase enzymic (Stone et al., 1969; Ford, 1983) and
microbial utilization (Morrison, 1983) it has a small effect on the extent of fibre degradation in the
rumen. This is mainly because the higher degradation rate of physically-treated LC is counteracted
by its faster rates of passage in the rumen (Walker, 1984). However, chemical methods, e.g. alkali
and steam treatments, do improve potential and effective cell wall degradation by rumen microbes
(Jackson, 1977; Castro, 1989). In addition to any mechanical or chemical treatment it is essential to
ensure that: a) rumen environment is optimal for microbial growth and activity, and b) the treated
feed remains in the rumen for sufficient time to allow thorough degradation.
Inhibitory compounds need to be minimized to ensure maximum rumen function. The
presence of such compounds together with an associated low rumen pH are known to be problems
when feeding steam-treated LC (Forsberg et al., 1986; Castro and Machado, 1989; Kyuma et al.,
1991). Indeed, this study (Chapter 5) confirmed that toxic compounds, particularly non-furan
extractable compounds, can be formed in large amounts during steam treatment and these affect
microbial activity and substrate degradation. Work by Kaufmann et al. (1980) confirmed that
maintaining rumen pH values above 6.2 was critical in ensuring that the cellulolytic bacteria were
active. Castro and Machado (1989) reported that when cattle were fed diets containing 65% steamexploded bagasse the average daily rumen pH was 5.9 and both cellulolytic activity and effective
substrate degradation were significantly depressed.
Such a low rumen pH was mainly attributed to physical properties of the fibre which in turn
affected saliva secretion and consequently rumen buffering capacity. The importance of diet
structure on time spent eating, ruminating and chewing and the consequences on saliva secretion
has been well established (Nrgaard, 1989).
With respect to rate of passage through the rumen it was originally thought that this was a
primary function of particle size (Blaxter et al., 1956). Indeed, particle breakdown is a prerequisite
but not the rate-limiting step for particles to escape from the rumen (Ulyatt et al., 1986). More
recently, studies have shown that other fibre characteristics, e.g. specific gravity, of the smallparticle ( 1.18 mm) pool play a major role in determining rate of passage of the digesta through
the rumen (Siciliano-Jones and Murphy, 1991; Wattiaux et al., 1991a). Nevertheless, the presence
of a large-particle pool can both influence the kinetics of particles in the rumen and also help to
maintain rumen buffering capacity by stimulating rumination and saliva secretion.
In addition to these factors, water holding capacity (WHC) is another fibre property that
may play an important role in the rumen function, i.e. WHC can affect saliva secretion (Sudweeks
et al., 1981), liquid outflow rate (Froetschel and Streeter, 1989), efficiency of microbial production
in the rumen (Harrison et al., 1974), ruminal digesta fill, passage rate of solid phase and extent of
feed fermentation (Allen and Mertens, 1988).
With fibrous feeds, hemicellulose and lignin have been considered to be important factors
affecting WHC (Van Soest, 1982). These fractions undergo major changes during steam treatment
(see previous chapters) suggesting that WHC can indeed be affected by steam treatment.
The objective of this study was to determine the effects of steam treatment conditions
(reaction time and presence of exogenous acidic catalyst) and explosive decompression on the
physical characteristics of LC. In particular, particle size distribution, functional specific gravity and
water holding capacity of wheat straw was quantified.
6.2.1 substrate
Chopped wheat straw (Triticum sp., variety Corgi) was used as a substrate for the steam
treatments.
6.2.2 steam explosion treatment

Steam explosion treatments either with or without sulphuric acid (acid-hydrolysis, HAcE
samples and auto-hydrolysis, HAuE samples, respectively) were completed at 19 BAR (210C) as
described in Chapter 4.

Treatments were completed just as described above, either with or without sulphuric acid.
However, after the completion of treatment reaction time, pressure was progressively (15 sec)
released, the top lid of the reaction vessel opened and the steam-treated sample manually removed.
Steam-treated samples with H2SO4 for 1.5, 3, 4.5 and 6 min will be referred to as the HAc samples,
individually coded HAc1.5, HAc3, HAc4.5 and HAc6. Similarly, auto-hydrolyzed samples will be
referred to as the HAu samples, individually coded HAu1.5, HAu3, HAu4.5 and HAu6.
6.2.4 sample preparation

All samples were kept frozen at -20C until subjected to particle size distribution analysis.
Samples used for water holding capacity and functional specific gravity analyses were cut with
scissors and frozen at -20C. Samples used for biological assays were prepared as described in
Section 4.2.5.
6.2.5 particle size distribution - PSD

Particle size distribution measurements were completed by wet sieving. Approximately 10 g
(DM) wet sample (n = 2) was placed in an agitator (Endecotts LTD, London - UK) containing a
series of laboratory test sieves with the following apertures: 9.5, 4, 2, 1, 0.5 and 0.25 mm. Samples
were gently rinsed with 4 l water to enable dispersion of particles along the test sieves and partial
removal of both soluble compounds and small particles (<0.25 mm). The top test sieve was
covered with a lid fitted with three sprayers and kept under agitation (amplitude 6) for 30 min while
continuously sprayed with water. Test sieves were oven-dried at 105C overnight and the dry
weight was recorded. The cumulative particle size (CPS) data was corrected for presence of
soluble sugars. The resulting data was fitted to the classic Logistic function using Fig.P (Fig.P
Software Corporation, version 6.0c, 1992):
[-k.(x - x50)]
y = min + (max - min)/{1 + e
}, where min, max, k and x50 are constants, x is the test sieve
aperture in mm and y is the CPS at test sieve aperture x (CPSx). CPS1.18 was estimated from the
fitted curve for further comparisons with chemical and biological data.

Water holding capacity was determined according to the method of McConnell et al.
(1974). Wet sample (1 g DM) was gradually dehydrated in a series of ethanol solutions (30, 50,
70 and 90% v/v). Dehydration was completed by rinsing the residue three times with 100% ethanol
and oven-drying at 45C for 24 h. This procedure was followed in order to avoid pore collapsing
during drying. Dried sample was stored in a desiccator under vacuum over P2O5. To 200 mg of
dried sample (n = 2) 10 ml distilled water was added and the mixture centrifuged at 4,500 g for 30
min at 4C. The centrifuge tube was slowly inverted for draining the supernatant, kept up side
down for 30 min and weighed. The weight was recorded again after the residue had been
oven-dried at 105C overnight. Water holding capacity (WHC) was expressed as the amount of
water (ml) absorbed per 1 g (DM) of sample.

Functional specific gravity (FSG) was determined by the volume displacement method
(Siciliano-Jones and Murphy, 1991) with some modifications. Wet sample (2 g, DM basis) was
placed in Whatman No.1 filter paper and extensively washed with distilled water. Washed sample
(0.5 g, DM basis) was transferred to a previously calibrated 50 ml volumetric flask. Distilled water
at 20C was added to complete the volume desired and the weight recorded. The volumetric flask
containing both washed sample and distilled water was emptied into a pre-weighed sintered glass
No.2 filter and the water left to drain for 1 h. The crucible containing the solid residue was dried at
105C for 6 h, cooled down in a desiccator and weighed. FSG (ml H2O/g DM sample) was
calculated as described by Wilfong (1966), according to the formula:
FSG = Wd/[W0 - (W1 - Wd)], where Wd is the sample weight (DM basis), W0 is the weight of
distilled water at 20C required to fill the volumetric flask during calibration and W1 is the weight
of washed sample plus distilled water at 20C required to fill the volumetric flask.

Both in vitro degradability (rumen microbes) and enzymic hydrolysis (cell-free enzymes)
assays using HAc and HAu samples were completed as described in Sections 4.2.8 and 2.2.7,
respectively. Data for HAcE and HAuE samples are as given in Chapter 4.
6.3.1 particle size distribution

The effect of treatment reaction time on particle size distribution of HAu, HAuE, HAc and
HAcE samples is illustrated in Fig 6.3.1.1 6.3.1.4, respectively. The results clearly show that
treatment reaction time affected the particle size distribution of all samples, HAuE and HAcE
samples being affected most. Although the cumulative particle size (CPS) data have been corrected
for soluble carbohydrate content, the amount of particles smaller than 0.25 mm (CPS<0.25) was
significantly higher after steam treatment. This is possibly due to an effect of treatment on both
particle comminution and the presence of non-sugar soluble compounds, e.g. browning reaction
compounds and lignin derivatives.
Fig 6.3.1.1
Effect of auto-hydrolysis steam treatment on cumulative particle size distribution of wheat

straw.
Fig 6.3.1.2
Effect of auto-hydrolysis steam explosion treatment on cumulative particle size distribution

of wheat straw.
Fig 6.3.1.3
Effect of acid-hydrolysis steam treatment on cumulative particle size distribution of wheat

straw.
Fig 6.3.1.4
Effect of acid-hydrolysis steam explosion treatment on cumulative particle size distribution of

wheat straw.
As mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, the quantity and properties of the small
particle (<1.18 mm) pool in the rumen have an important role in determining the rate of passage of
the digesta through the rumen (Poppi et al., 1981a,b). The CPS<1.18 data was estimated by fitting
the CPS data into the logistic model. The reliability of the estimated CPS<1.18 data is demonstrated
by the high coefficient of correlation (r = 0.998) of the fitted curves.
The CPS<1.18 data of steam-treated samples indicates that explosive decompression posttreatment had a major effect on particle comminution as compared to either treatment reaction time
or addition of exogenous acidic catalyst (Table 6.3.1.1). This effect was clearly observed when the
CPS<1.18 data is plotted with sugar loss (Fig 6.3.1.5). This indicated that explosive decompression
post-treatment is indeed the rate-limiting step for an extensive defibration.
Table 6.3.1.1 Effect of steam treatment and explosive decompression on physical characteristics
of wheat straw.
1
FSG
treatment
CPS<1.18
WHC
time (min)
(%)
control
13.0
1.03
10.7
1.5
42.3
1.39
10.9
42.5
1.60
11.0
4.5
47.4
1.58
9.7
48.8
1.44
10.9
1.5
31.6
1.50
11.6
64.4
1.59
10.0
4.5
93.2
1.68
10.1
95.2
1.33
8.9
(ml/g)
auto-hydrolysis
auto-hydrolysis steam explosion

1.5
38.2
1.67
14.1
51.2
1.58
13.0
4.5
52.8
1.61
12.4
57.9
1.44
11.7
acid-hydrolysis steam explosion (1.8%H2SO4 on DM basis)

1.5
72.5
1.51
11.8
85.5
1.62
13.0
4.5
96.4
1.79
10.6
94.9
1.29
7.6
SEM
1.88
0.04
0.21
cumulative particle size, particles < 1.18 mm.

functional specific gravity.
3
water holding capacity.
2
A similar effect of explosive decompression on particle comminution was observed from

the comparison between CPS data was plotted with lignin extraction (Fig 6.3.1.6).
Fig 6.3.1.5
Correlation between harshness of steam treatment as measured by loss of hemicellulosic

sugars and particle comminution.
Fig 6.3.1.6
Correlation between lignin depolymerization and particle comminution.
With respect to the effect of particle comminution on substrate hydrolysis by cell-free

enzymes it was observed that explosive decompression post-treatment had only a minor
contribution in improving substrate utilization (Fig 6.3.1.7). This is in agreement with previous
studies (Brownell et al., 1986; Brownell and Saddler, 1987). Equally, particle comminution did not
improve substrate degradation by rumen microbes (Fig 6.3.1.8). The fact that important changes in
fibre microstructure occur during chemical treatment, with (Grous et al., 1986; Wong et al., 1988)
or without (see Chapter 3) use of explosive decompression post-chemical treatment, may explain
the lack of effect of further particle comminution on substrate bio-utilization.
Fig 6.3.1.7
Effect of particle comminution due to steam treatment on enzymic hydrolysis of wheat straw.
Fig 6.3.1.8
Effect of particle comminution due to steam treatment on rumen microbial in vitro

degradability of wheat straw.
The choice of using steam treatment in absence of explosive decompression post-treatment,

although not relevant to enzymic treatment, seems to be an important aspect when considering
production of ruminant feed. Ruminants require adequate amounts of coarse-textured feeds to: 1)
help maintain proper muscle tone in the digestive system, 2) maintain an adequate rumen pH, 3)
increase retention time of particles in the rumen, and 4) avoid metabolic disorders (Sudweeks et al.,
1981). Therefore, as explosive decompression post-treatment decreases mean particle size, i.e.
coarseness, but does not improve enzymic or microbial utilization its use can be disadvantageous
for producing ruminant feed.
The effects of treatment conditions and explosive decompression post-treatment on WHC
are shown in Table 6.3.1.1. Steam treatment had negligible effect on WHC in HAu samples
whereas for the other treatment conditions there was a trend of decreasing WHC as longer
treatment reaction times were used. According to Van Soest (1982) the amount of both phenol and
hydroxyl groups present in the lignin and hemicellulose fractions respectively have an important
contribution to fibre hydration capacity. The fact that these two fractions undergo extensive
disruption during treatment may well explain this decrease in WHC. However, given the extent of
chemical disruption during treatment one would expect that WHC would have been even more
affected. Results from the literature (Grous et al., 1986 and Wong et al., 1988, Yamashiki et al.,
1990) and from this study (see Chapter 3) clearly showed that fibre microstructure is extensively
modified during treatment. This effect may have, at least partly, counteracted the losses of these
functional groups, i.e. hydroxyl and phenol, from both hemicellulose and core lignin fractions.
The effect of steam treatment in the presence of exogenous acidic catalyst on WHC data
shows how fibre property can be improved by treatment. Indeed, these results agree with previous
observations that the fibre fraction undergoes more extensive changes, e.g. defibrillation, decrease
in the degree of polymerization of cellulose and increase of fibre saturation point, when steam
treatment is completed in presence of exogenous acidic catalyst (Puri, 1984; Yamashiki et al.,
1990).
The fact that WHC is not negatively affected by treatment suggests that steam-treated fibre
can still exhibit its natural function of regulating ruminal digesta fill, provided that particle size is not
affected by too great an extent.
The importance of feed FSG in affecting rate of passage is well established (Campling and
Freer, 1962; Ehle, 1984; Haske and Engelhardt, 1990). Studies completed with plastic particles as
markers indicated that maximum rate of passage is achieved at FSG 1.35 ml/g (Ramanzin et al.,
1991). It appears that more dense particles would tend to sink and remain longer in the rumen
ventral sac, whereas less dense particles would float and consequently be subjected to further
rumination. In both cases, particles would probably be retained in the rumen for longer periods.
As the method used for determining FSG in this study does not take into consideration gas
entrapment, FSG data will be deemed to be potential FSG. The positive effect of steam treatment
on potential FSG is clearly illustrated in Table 6.3.1.1. The results also showed that, in all
treatment conditions tested, there was an initial increase then a decrease in potential FSG with
increasing treatment reaction time, i.e. quadratic effect. The large variation (1.29 - 1.79 ml/g) in
potential FSG obtained in this study indicates that treatment conditions may have a considerable
effect on rate of passage of particles.
When optimum treatment conditions are considered, i.e. maximum bio-utilization with
minimum sugar loss, potential FSG from samples steam-treated with exogenous acidic catalyst
(HAc4.5 and HAcE3 samples) was greater than auto-hydrolyzed samples (HAu6 and HAuE6)
(Table 6.3.1.1), agreeing with the trend observed in the WHC data. These results suggest that use
of exogenous acidic catalyst may be beneficial in producing dense particles (FSG>1.35 ml/g) which
in turn may increase their retention time in the rumen.
Another factor that can affect the stratification of particles in the rumen, hence effective
FSG, and consequently the rate of passage of particles is gas entrapment. Gas produced as a result
of microbial degradation of feeds can be entrapped in the substrate thereby affecting its density and
buoyancy (Hooper and Welch, 1985; Wattiaux et al., 1991b). The extent of gas entrapment is
positively correlated with degradation rate of the substrate (Wattiaux et al., 1991a). This means
that effective FSG of highly degradable fibres can be substantially less than the corresponding
potential FSG which is determined in distilled water (as in this study). Such an effect was clearly
observed in the present study when steam-treated samples were incubated in vitro with rumen
microbes. Although steam-treated samples tended to sink when buffer-rumen liquor mixture was
added, a significant proportion was observed floating after 12-24 h of incubation. This is the period
of fermentation when maximum substrate degradation and gas production occurs (Fig 6.3.3.1).
Such a change in particle density due to gas entrapment, particularly at initial stages (12-24 h) of
fermentation, may well increase the chance for particles to leave the rumen (desBordes and Welch,
1984). In case of steam-treated samples, because both FSG and particle size can be simultaneously
affected by treatment it is possible that large quantities of potentially degradable substrate leave the
rumen after short periods of fermentation. It is therefore crucial to avoid extensive defibration
during treatment in order increase retention time of particles in the rumen and effective
degradability.
Fig 6.3.3.1
Effect of steam treatment on the rate of fermentation of wheat straw by rumen microbes as
measured by the gas production technique.
6.4 Conclusions
It can be concluded from this study that steam treatment and explosive decompression
post-treatment can have major effects on the physical properties of wheat straw. With respect to
ruminant nutrition, the main positive effects being the increase in both functional specific gravity
and water holding capacity. Such changes would probably benefit degradation of substrate in the
rumen by affecting the kinetics of solid and liquid phases, rumen motility and saliva secretion.
Parallel to such changes there may be a significant decrease in particle size. Although all conditions
tested in this study, i.e. treatment reaction time, presence of exogenous acidic catalyst and explosive
decompression post-treatment, affected particle size the latter showed to be the most important. In
this respect, as bio-utilization of treated samples only marginally improved when explosive
decompression post-treatment was applied it appears that avoiding its use will help in producing
high quality roughage for ruminants.
CHAPTER 7
DISRUPTION OF CELL WALL COMPONENTS AND UPGRADING

OF WHEAT STRAW, MAIZE STOVER, SUGAR CANE BAGASSE
AND EUCALYPTUS WOOD
7.1 Introduction
Results from previous chapters clearly indicate that the chemico-physical properties and
bio-utilization of wheat straw can be manipulated by varying steam treatment conditions. The
definition of optimum steam treatment conditions depended on the objective of the treatments, e.g.
optimal bio-utilization by rumen microbes or cell-free enzymes.
Substrate choice is an important factor in determining treatment efficiency. For example,
softwoods respond to a lesser extent to steam treatment, particularly auto-hydrolysis treatment,
compared to other LC (Grethlein et al., 1984). This variable response to treatment can be
attributed to variations in the chemico-physical characteristics of the different LC.
The nutritive value of LC material largely depends on the ratios of the three main cell wall
components, cellulose, hemicellulose and, in particular, lignin. When a single plant species is
considered, there is a well established negative relationship between maturity and nutritive value,
which is associated with the degree of lignification (Van Soest, 1982). This trend, however, is not
always followed across plant species. For example, leguminous plants have, in general, higher lignin
content than grasses but this is not necessarily associated with a lower nutritive value (Van Soest
and Robertson, 1985). This means that cell wall lignin content per se does not account for all
observed variations in bio-utilization of cell wall polysaccharides.
The chemistry and nature of association between individual cell wall components is a major
factor contributing to such variation. Qualitative properties of the hemicellulose and lignin fractions
of different LC was previously discussed in Sections 1.2.2 and 1.2.3, respectively.

With respect to hemicellulose there are many aspects that can affect treatment efficiency.
The ratio of pentoses to hexoses, the type and abundance of functional groups attached to the sugar
molecules and the types of sugar-sugar and sugar-lignin bonds will all effect the LC's susceptibility
to treatment. Recovery of hemicellulosic sugars after steam treatment depends upon the balance of
the rates of hemicellulose solubilization and sugar decomposition, the latter being more significant
for pentoses compared to hexoses (Fig 4.3.1). The extent of hemicellulose hydrolysis and lignin
depolymerization reactions during auto-hydrolysis steam treatment is largely dependent upon the
amount of acetyl groups associated with the hemicellulose which will act as an acidic catalyst (Chua
and Wayman, 1979b; Dekker and Wallis, 1983). LC with a low acetyl content, e.g. softwoods
compared to hardwoods and monocotyledonous plants (Timell, 1967), would therefore respond
less to auto-hydrolysis steam treatment. Addition of exogenous acidic catalyst improves treatment
efficiency of softwood substrates, indeed it is essential (Wayman and Parekh, 1990). Finally, the
resistance of both hemicellulose and lignin to chemical attack can also be affected by the degree and
nature of bonds between the two fractions. In monocotyledonous plants, hemicellulose is thought
to be cross-linked to lignin mainly by ether and ester bonds via phenolic acids (Billa et al., 1993).
The absence of phenolic acids in woods suggests that different types of bonds exist between the
two fractions (Higuchi, 1985). The nature of lignin also varies considerably amongst LC, i.e.
proportions of lignin precursors (vanillin, syringaldehyde and p-hydroxy-benzaldehyde), bond types
and presence of functional groups (Sjstrom, 1981).
All the factors mentioned above can affect the resistance of both hemicellulose and lignin to
chemical and biological attack, which in turn affect cellulose bio-availability.
In order to validate the important results demonstrated when using wheat straw as a model
LC (Chapters 2 6) three different LC materials (sugar cane bagasse, maize stover and
eucalyptus) were subjected to similar steam treatment. Results are presented in this chapter.
7.2.1 substrate
Three types of monocotyledonous plants, i.e. wheat straw var. Riband, sugar cane bagasse
and maize stover, and a hardwood, i.e. Eucalyptus grandis wood, were used in the present
experiment. Wheat straw was collected in Aberdeenshire (Scotland) and the other three substrates
were collected in So Paulo State (Brazil). All samples were chopped as described in Section 4.2.1
prior to treatment.
7.2.2 high temperature steam explosion treatment

Wheat straw sample was steam-treated at 210C at different conditions (HAcE and HAuE
samples) as described in Chapter 6.
Sugar cane bagasse, maize stover and eucalyptus samples (10 kg DM basis) were
hydrated to approximately 50% DM content and steam-treated at 180C (14 BAR) in a high
pressure pilot vessel (250 l capacity, CEBIQ-FAENQUIL, Brazil) for 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 min.
After the end of the steam treatment, samples were subjected to a rapid decompression as described
in Section 4.2.3.
7.2.3 post-treatment sample preparation

All steam-treated samples were frozen until further analyzed or biologically treated.
Samples used for chemical analysis were oven-dried at 45C for 48 h, finely ground (Section 3.2.4)
and kept in a desiccator under vacuum over P2O5. Samples (undried) used for biological assays
were defrosted, mixed with dry ice and ground through a 5 mm bar sieve (Section 2.2.1). Ground
samples were frozen at -20C until subjected to biological measurements.

In vitro gas production and degradability assays were completed with wet samples as
described in Sections 2.2.6 and 4.2.8, respectively. Enzymic hydrolysis was completed with cellfree polysaccharidases according to the procedure described in Section 2.2.7.
7.2.5 chemical analyses

Samples were analyzed for TFA hydrolysable components, hemicellulose and soluble
sugars (Section 4.2.11), total phenolic (Section 3.2.9) and extractable phenolic (Section 4.2.15)
contents.

The chemical composition and nutritive value of untreated wheat straw, sugar cane
bagasse, maize stover and eucalyptus wood samples are given in Table 7.3.1. The
monocotyledonous samples, i.e. wheat straw, sugar cane bagasse and maize stover, were similar in
hemicellulose (28.90.67%) and lignin (10.60.85%) contents. Extractable phenolic contents were
low and variable (1.1, 0.3 and 0.4%, respectively). The eucalyptus sample had a lower
hemicellulose content (19.3%). The levels of both lignin (12.6%) and extractable phenolic (1.6%)
in eucalyptus did not differ markedly from the monocotyledonous samples. The level of soluble
sugars was very low (1.7%) in all samples.
Table 7.3.1
Compositional data and nutritive value of untreated wheat straw (WS),

sugar cane bagasse (SB), maize stover (MS) and eucalyptus wood (EU).
chemical analysis
1
hem
sCHO
lignin
in vitro assay (48 h)

3
ext. phen.
(%)
gas production
degradability
(%)
(ml)
WS
28.0
1.7
11.8
1.1
35.6
52.0
SB
29.0
1.0
10.1
0.3
26.5
45.2
MS
29.7
1.4
9.9
0.4
32.8
46.4
EU
19.3
0.6
12.6
1.6
1.2
10.1
hemicellulose.
soluble carbohydrates.
3
extractable phenolics.
2
Despite the similarities in chemical composition, the nutritive value, as measured by in vitro
48 h degradability, of the different monocotyledonous plants was variable (45.2 52.0%). Such
variation in nutritive value was also dependent on the method of analysis used, i.e. in vitro
degradability or gas production. For example, there was a small difference for 48h degradability
values between sugar cane bagasse and maize stover (45.2 and 46.4%), whereas a much greater
difference was observed for 48 h gas production (26.5 and 32.8 ml, respectively). However, the
largest difference in nutritive value was between the eucalyptus and monocotyledonous samples.
Eucalyptus giving much lower values as measured by in vitro assays. The difference between
monocotyledonous and eucalyptus samples are greater than would have been expected from the
compositional data, suggesting that, as mentioned in Section 7.1, intrinsic properties of the cell wall
also have an important role in determining nutritive value.
As discussed previously in this study, steam treatment can be affected by several factors,
e.g. treatment temperature, reaction time, presence of exogenous catalysts and type of substrate.
Because the LC samples used in this experiment were steam-treated under different conditions, e.g.
temperature and presence of exogenous catalyst, it was necessary to represent severity of treatment
by an index. In this experiment, it was decided that severity of treatment would be best represented
by sugar loss, which is an intrinsic characteristic of the substrate and well known to be affected by
treatment conditions (Baugh and McCarty, 1988). The sugar loss was calculated by comparing
total hemicellulosic sugar content, i.e. sum of soluble sugars and hemicellulose, before and after
steam treatment. As sugar loss can be indirectly affected by dry matter losses the index which will
be referred to hereafter as 'sugar loss' is actually the overall balance of both sugar decomposition
and dry matter loss occurred during steam treatment.
When the in vitro degradability data obtained from different substrates treated at various
conditions were plotted against sugar loss, it can be observed that monocotyledonous samples
responded very similarly to treatment conditions (Fig 7.3.1). The plateau of in vitro degradability
curve, i.e. potential nutritive value, was reached at approximately 10% sugar loss. Eucalyptus
samples responded in a very different manner. Within the range of sugar loss achieved in this
experiment for eucalyptus (<50%), it was observed that at a similar level of sugar loss steamtreated eucalyptus samples had a much lower nutritive value than monocotyledonous samples. It
appears that, in eucalyptus samples, to achieve similar degradability values to those observed for
monocotyledonous samples much harsher steam treatment conditions have to be applied, i.e. sugar
loss greater than 50%. One disadvantage of using such conditions is the occurrence of high dry
matter loss during treatment.
Fig 7.3.1
Effect of harshness of treatment as measured by sugar loss on in vitro 48 h

degradability of wheat straw (WS), sugar cane bagasse (SB), maize stover (MS) and
eucalyptus wood (EU).
In practical terms, these findings suggest that monocotyledonous samples can be

significantly upgraded by auto-hydrolysis steam treatment with an associated low sugar loss
(<15%). The nutritive value of eucalyptus is also significantly increased after auto-hydrolysis steam
treatment, though, in absolute terms, by less than monocotyledonous samples. Results from studies
completed with hardwoods, e.g. poplar (Toussaint et al., 1991), suggest that the potential nutritive
value of eucalyptus could be increased further by using exogenous acidic catalyst during steam
treatment. One resulting negative effect would be, however, an increase in the levels of inhibitory
compounds (see Chapter 5).
In order to understand why these two groups of LC were affected differently by steam
treatment, in vitro degradability data was compared to lignin extraction data, hence degree of lignin
disruption. The results indicated that monocotyledonous plants and eucalyptus wood exhibited a
different behaviour (Fig 7.3.2). Maximum in vitro degradability from the monocotyledonous plants
was achieved at about 40-50% lignin extraction, whereas at similar lignin extraction eucalyptus
samples had a much lower nutritive value.
Fig 7.3.2
Effect of lignin depolymerization reactions occurred during steam treatment on in

vitro 48 h degradability of wheat straw (WS), sugar cane bagasse (SB), maize stover (MS)
and eucalyptus wood (EU).
This suggests that although the lignin fraction of eucalyptus samples was extensively
disrupted during treatment there were still other factors limiting substrate bio-utilization.
Similar steam treatment conditions as judged by the 'sugar loss' measure did not yield
similar lignin extraction data with different substrates. Wheat straw was particularly different when
compared to the other substrates. At a given sugar loss, lignin extraction of treated samples at
180C, i.e. sugar cane bagasse, maize stover and eucalyptus, was always lower than wheat straw
samples which were steam-treated at 210C (Fig 7.3.3). It is possible that at higher treatment
temperatures (210 vs 180C) lignin depolymerization reactions would have occurred at a greater
extent. Similar findings were reported by Chua and Wayman (1979b).
Fig 7.3.3
Effect of harshness of treatment as measured by sugar loss on the extent of lignin

depolymerization reactions in wheat straw (WS), sugar cane bagasse (SB), maize stover (MS)
and eucalyptus wood (EU).
When comparing bio-utilization of steam-treated samples by either rumen microbes or cellfree enzymes the results suggested that monocotyledonous plants behave similarly. For these
samples, maximum utilization by rumen microbes was achieved at milder treatment conditions
compared to those required for enzymic hydrolysis (Fig 7.3.4). Eucalyptus data showed an
opposite correlation, i.e. maximum bio-utilization by cell-free enzymes was reached even though
microbial in vitro degradability was still increasing. This substantiates the hypothesis that inherent
characteristics of the substrate affects not only its bio-utilization but also the degree of response to
a particular treatment.
Fig 7.3.4
Response in bio-utilization of steam-treated wheat straw (WS), sugar cane bagasse

(SB), maize stover (MS) and eucalyptus wood (EU) as measured by in vitro degradability
(rumen microbes) and solubilized sugars (cell-free enzymes).
7.4 Conclusion
Results from this study clearly showed that monocotyledonous plants, e.g. wheat straw,
sugar cane bagasse and maize stover, despite having differences in origin and nutritive value and
having been subjected to different steam treatment conditions, responded very similarly to steam
treatment. Both sugar loss and lignin extraction showed to be promising indices for quality control
of steam treatment of monocotyledonous plants as they are well correlated with nutritive value. The
results obtained from eucalyptus wood indicate that, under auto-hydrolysis conditions, the response
to treatment is different than for monocotyledonous plants. Further studies are needed to
investigate the effects of steam treatment, in presence of exogenous acidic catalyst, on the chemical
composition and bio-utilization of eucalyptus wood.
CHAPTER 8
GENERAL DISCUSSION
8.1 Introduction
As previously discussed in this study lignocellulosics (LC) are an underutilized renewable
resource which is produced in large amounts. In order to obtain novel products from LC it is
essential that its inherent chemico-physical structure is disrupted in such a way as to allow its main
components, e.g. cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, to be more efficiently utilized. This can be
achieved by a number of processes, e.g. chemical (alkali and oxidative), physical (grinding and
milling) and biological (enzymic and microbial).
Research on upgrading of LC by chemical treatments have always received considerable
attention because such treatments combine a high efficiency in disrupting cell wall structure, high
throughput and low running costs, therefore being very appropriate to industrial applications.
Although steam treatment is considered to be a thermo-mechanical treatment (Marchessault and St
Pierre, 1980) it could also be classified as a chemical treatment because the main treatment effects
are caused by acid-hydrolysis reactions. However, steam treatment can be considerably different in
terms of requiring less, or literally no, input of exogenous chemicals and a higher energy demand
(heat and pressure) compared to other chemical treatments. In particular, the possibility of limiting
the use of chemicals when upgrading LC by steam treatment is very attractive as this would lead to
developing a more environmentally friendly process of recycling biomass.
With respect to the energetics of steam treatment, the type and quantity of fuel used to
produce the steam needed for the treatment are two important aspects that have to be considered.
Because of its abundance, high calorific value (Kling et al., 1987) and low price it appears that LC
would be the most appropriate fuel to supply high temperature steam. It is, however, crucial that a
high energy efficiency (kg treated LC/kg LC burnt) is achieved. This can be done by either
improving the energy efficiency of steam generation (kg steam/kg LC burnt) or steam treatment (kg
treated LC/kg steam). One of the important results obtained in this study is concerned with
increasing the energy efficiency of the latter. This will be discussed later in this chapter.
It is apparent from the literature available on upgrading of LC by steam treatment (see
Chapter 10) that the use of steam-treated LC for saccharification by cell-free enzymes has been
considerably more studied than its use for animal feeding. Although nutritionists have used the
background knowledge from enzymic hydrolysis of steam-treated LC to develop technologies for
producing animal feed many important aspects concerning animal feeding have been neglected. For
example, the effects of physico-chemical changes occurring during steam treatment on substrate
utilization by rumen microbes and on the overall digestion by animals has been poorly studied.
Additionally, little is known about the effect of both toxic compounds and the physical structure of
the substrate, which are both affected by treatment, on the substrate degradation by rumen
microbes.
8.2 Steam treatment conditions

This study has shown that important chemico-physical reactions associated with high
temperature steam treatment also occur at t<134C (low temperature treatment) if small quantities
of exogenous acidic catalyst (<1.8% H2SO4 on DM basis) are added. However, the extent of sugar
loss, lignin depolymerization reactions, cell wall swelling and the observed increase in bio-utilization
are consistently lower than those achieved by high temperature treatment. It appears that to achieve
a more complete cell wall disruption at such low temperature larger amounts of chemicals (>1.8%
H2SO4 on DM basis) are needed. Results from other studies on low temperature steam treatment
(Grohmann et al., 1985) using larger amounts of acid (>4.5% H2SO4 on DM basis) corroborate
this statement.
Considering that both low and high temperature steam treatment can potentially upgrade
LC to a similar extent, the treatment conditions of choice will be ultimately defined by economical,
energetic and environmental constraints.
One of the major limitations of the high temperature treatment is the high cost of the
equipments (boiler, pipe and vessel) necessary to produce such pressures (>13 BAR). Therefore,
the option of steam-treating LC at high temperature is normally restricted to large industrial
complexes which already have such equipment.
Because of the milder conditions (temperature and pressure) associated with low
temperature treatment one could expect some advantages over high temperature treatment, e.g.
lower demand for energy, less expensive equipments and lower loss of nutrients during treatment
(see Chapter 4). On the other hand, treatment reaction time is considerably longer than at high
temperature treatment, which in turn can affect the throughput. Because of these factors, low
temperature steam treatment appears to be more suitable for small scale plants where high
throughput is not a limitation and equipment is not available on site. For example, farm-scale plants,
hence crop refineries, capable of treating crop residues by low temperature treatment would be an
interesting technology when associated with conventional cropping. Unfortunately, the present
study has shown that the efficiency of low temperature treatment is directly dependent on the use of
significant amounts of chemicals (>1.8% H2SO4 DM basis). The consequences of this on increasing
the running costs and the risks of environmental pollution have to be carefully considered.
Very promising results were achieved in this study when high temperature steam treatment
was used. Data from three monocotyledonous plants, i.e. wheat straw, sugar cane bagasse and
maize stover, showed that high temperature treatment without addition of catalysts, i.e. autohydrolysis treatment, was successful in disrupting both hemicellulose and lignin fractions and
increasing substrate bio-utilization. It was also possible to observe that addition of sulphuric acid
did not have, in most cases, any beneficial effects on the chemical characteristics and nutritive value
of steam-treated samples. It is, however, important to note that such results were only possible
because optimum treatment conditions were achieved. Such conditions were monitored by several
chemical analyses and the results indicated that sugar loss and lignin extraction were the best
parameters for quality control.
The use of sulphuric acid in high temperature treatment was only beneficial when enzymic
saccharification was considered. It appears that some important changes in the cellulose structure,
which will affect its accessibility to cell-free enzymes, occur to a greater extent when steam
treatment is completed in presence of exogenous catalyst. It is also believed that the efficiency of
steam treatment on eucalyptus wood, as observed in this study, could have been improved by
adding small quantities of exogenous catalyst. The importance of using exogenous chemicals
(H2SO4 and SO2) during steam treatment of woody plants has been previously reported (Puri,
1983; Grethlein et al., 1984; Parekh et al., 1988).
Considering that steam treatment was efficient in producing substrates containing high
levels of sugars and highly degradable cellulose it is suggested that such substrates can be used as a
source of good quality roughage for ruminants. As the cellulose fraction also proved to be
extensively hydrolysable by cell-free enzymes it is likely that further enzymic treatment could
produce a substrate containing even greater sugar contents. Such a high sugar content feed could
well be used for both ruminant and monogastric feeding. It is the cost of treatment, which is
associated with treatment conditions (e.g. enzyme loading and incubation time) and the relative
improvement of nutritive value that will determine the real advantage of using enzymic treatment
prior feeding steam-treated LC. The presence of large amounts of biologically active lignin in the
steam-treated LC can be, however, an important limitation to the efficiency of enzymic treatment
(Vallander and Eriksson, 1985; Kawamoto et al., 1992). Lignin from steam-treated LC has been
shown to negatively affect the hydrolytic activity of cell-free enzymes, thereby reducing the extent
of saccharification (Targo_ski, 1985; Sutcliffe and Saddler, 1986). It is, therefore, important to find
ways to overcome this problem. Another option for best utilizing steam-treated LC is to fractionate
the main cell wall fractions or derivatives after the LC has been subjected to steam treatment (see
Section 8.3).
Changes in the physical characteristics of the fibre, e.g. pore size distribution and particle
size, is another important effect of steam treatment. Such changes help to increase the cellulose
active surface area and improve its bio-utilization. In the early 80's, there was a great effort to
produce technologies whereby physical structure was extensively affected during steam treatment
hoping that bio-utilization would be further improved. This resulted in the development of specially
designed equipment used for either the Masonite batch (DeLong, 1981) or Stake continuous
(Muzzy et al., 1983) processes, which basically combined the concept of steam treatment with a
rapid decompression of the vessel immediately after the treatment. Such processes are called steam
explosion treatments. Despite the claims by the its inventors that explosive decompression was
beneficial to cellulose accessibility to cell-free enzymes later studies by Brownell et al. (1986)
indicated that the technique had only a minor contribution to the overall effect of treatment. The
present study has confirmed Brownell's findings that cellulose accessibility by cell-free enzymes was
only marginally improved by explosive decompression. Furthermore, it clearly indicated that
explosive decompression does not improve the potential degradability of steam-treated LC by

rumen microbes. Instead, it does affect LC particle size which in turn will decrease the retention
time of particles in the rumen and negatively affect its effective degradability (Oji et al., 1979;
Castro and Machado, 1990). Results from this study therefore suggest that avoiding explosive
decompression is advantageous when producing steam-treated LC for ruminant feeding.
8.3 Fractionation of steam-treated lignocellulosics

Due to the amount of variables, e.g. treatment conditions, type of substrate, physicochemical analysis and biological assays, considered in this study it was decided that steam-treated
samples should be analyzed without further fractionation. It is, however, important to point out
that, after steam treatment, LC can be easily fractionated into its main chemical components
(Galloway, 1975; Beltrame et al., 1991). This possibility is of great importance in providing
flexibility for the conversion of LC by producing several products (DeLong, 1981; Lipinsky, 1983;
Overend and Chornet, 1987). The effects of steam treatment observed in this study, e.g. release of
hemicellulosic sugars, lignin disruption and cellulose bio-availability, clearly indicate this potential.
Some possible routes for fractionation of steam-treated LC are shown in Fig 8.3.1. The
first and most easily extractable fraction from steam-treated LC is the water-soluble fraction, which
contains virtually all hemicellulosic sugars, a small proportion of the phenolics derived from lignin
and some browning reaction artifacts produced during steam treatment. This fraction can be
potentially used for animal feed, alcohol fermentation, production of single cell protein or as a
chemical feedstock. The main limitation when considering its use in biological systems being the
presence of toxic compounds, e.g. furfural, hydroxymethyl furfural and organic acids (acetic and
formic acids).
Fig 8.3.1
Routes for fractionation of steam-treated lignocellulosics.
Previous studies on yeast fermentation of pentose-containing spent sulphite liquor, which

contains similar toxic compounds as those present in steam-treated LC, showed that such inhibitory
effects can be partly overcome by direct steam stripping the solution prior fermentation (Yu et al.,
1987). This process partly removes furans and organic acids from the sugar solution therefore
improving its utilization by yeasts. The present study indicated that, unlike yeasts, rumen microbes
are very resistant to high concentrations of furans (furfural<4% and HMF<1%) and capable of
quickly metabolizing such compounds. There may be, however, some problems concerning the
effects of these compounds on voluntary intake. Kyuma et al. (1991) showed that voluntary intake
in sheep was significantly depressed when exogenous furfural was added (0.13-0.59% on DM
basis) to a high-roughage diet. Further studies are necessary to define the levels in which the
inhibitory compounds formed during steam treatment will affect voluntary intake by animal and to
develop alternative methods for removing such compounds. Considering that all these inhibitory
compounds have a low boiling point (40<bp<162C) it is possible that simple concentration of the
water-soluble fraction by direct heat will partly remove such compounds.
Another important aspect when considering the efficiency of bio-utilization of the sugar
mixture is its chemical characteristics (composition and degree of polymerization) and final
application, e.g. monogastric and ruminant feeding. Ruminants would be the least affected by these
parameters as they can quickly metabolize such sugars into volatile fatty acids, regardless of the
type of sugar or degree of polymerization. Therefore, in ruminant feeding conditions it is unlikely
that a significant proportion of sugars consumed by the animal will reach the small intestine.
However, both composition and degree of polymerization of sugars will most certainly affect the
site and extent of digestion of the water-soluble fraction by monogastrics. A sugar mixture
containing a high degree of polymerization will tend to be more extensively degraded in the large
intestine. As the digestion of sugars through fermentative processes (lower gut fermentation) is
energetically less efficient than enzymic digestion (small intestine) (McDonald et al., 1981) the
degree of polymerization of sugars is likely to affect the energy value of the sugar mixture. On the
other hand, it is known that monogastrics absorb and metabolise the hemicellulosic sugars (xylose
and arabinose) less efficiently than glucose (Yule and Fuller, 1992). This implies that avoiding
enzymic digestion in the small intestine, by feeding sugar mixture with high degree of
polymerization, may be advantageous because such compounds will be fermented in the lower gut
to render volatile fatty acids which will be fully utilized as a source of energy. Further research is
needed in order to define what conditions, i.e. site of digestion (small or large intestine) and level of
intake, will be most beneficial to the energy utilization of these sugars.
After removal of water-soluble compounds a solid-residue (cellulignin) containing high
quantities of cellulose and core lignin is obtained. This could be used directly as a ruminant feed or
subjected to further treatment to separate the lignin from the cellulose matrix. The main limitations
for using cellulignin as a roughage in ruminant feeding are the low level of readily fermentable
substrate (sugar) and the limited amount of degradable substrate (<65% cellulose). The latter can
be significantly increased by removing the lignin from the cellulignin. This can be achieved by using
either organic solvents (as described in this study) or mild alkali solutions. The advantage of
extracting, by chemical processes, the lignin from steam-treated LC is that much milder extraction
conditions (amount of chemicals and temperatures) are required compared to treating raw LC.
As shown in Fig 8.3.1 the possibilities for using fractionation on steam-treated LC are
extensive. Such flexibility is, however, only possible if the treatment conditions and equipment
required to obtain such products are compatible. The use of explosive decompression following
steam treatment is one parameter of treatment that has major consequences on this aspect. Besides
the little (or no) improvement on the extent of fibre bio-utilization the use of explosive
decompression has shown to negatively affect particle size distribution (see Chapter 6) as well as
the properties of the fibre regarding paper making (Marchessault et al., 1983; Capretti et el., 1987).
By avoiding the use of explosive decompression one would expect to broaden the applications of
steam-treated LC, particularly those concerning the fibre fraction.
Besides the advantages described above, avoiding explosive decompression also

enables the partial recovery of the spent-steam (Fig 8.3.2). Previous studies have shown that, under
steam explosion treatment conditions, the energy efficiency of treatment can vary from 0.49 to 1.30
kg steam/kg treated LC (DM basis) (Brownell and Saddler, 1984; Kling et al., 1987). Such a large
variation being mostly due an effect of the moisture content (38.6-57.8%)
Fig 8.3.2
An example of a twin high-pressure vessel used for recovery of the spent-steam.
of the LC before treatment, i.e. the greater the moisture content the higher the steam consumption.
Assuming the efficiency of steam generation of 4.7 kg of steam produced/kg LC burnt (DM basis)
from the sugar and alcohol industry (Mangolini, personal communication), the amount of LC
treated per kg (DM basis) of LC burnt can vary from 3.6-9.6 kg. By recycling the spent-steam with
the equipment described in Fig 8.3.2 it is possible to partly recover the heat, therefore increasing
the energy efficiency. It is, therefore, important to quantify the extent of energy savings by recycling
the spent-steam in comparison to conventional steam explosion. Other negative aspects which may
be associated with recycling the spent-steam, e.g. lower throughput and higher levels of volatile
compounds in the treated LC (Bungay et al., 1983), also need to be carefully investigated.
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
This study has shown that the use of low temperature (t<134C) steam treatment in
presence of small amounts (1.8% on DM basis) of exogenous H2SO4 is capable of solubilizing
hemicellulose, depolymerizing lignin, increasing cell wall porosity and improving bio-utilization of
wheat straw by both rumen microbes and cell-free enzymes. The extent of such changes was,
however, relatively lower than those achieved under more severe treatment conditions, i.e. greater
temperatures (t>160C) or amount of sulphuric acid (>4% on DM basis). Under low temperature
treatment and in presence of small quantities of catalyst the observed improvement in cell wall bioutilization was mainly explained by changes in both lignin and hemicellulose fractions. Changes in
cell wall porosity had a minor contribution in this respect. Data from low temperature treatment
also indicated that the relative low efficiency in upgrading wheat straw was due to an incomplete
disruption of the lignin fraction.
On the other hand, high temperature steam treatment, with or without exogenous catalyst,
proved to be very efficient in disrupting cell wall chemical barriers from monocotyledonous plants
(wheat straw, maize stover and sugar cane bagasse) thereby improving its bio-utilization to a
greater extent than low temperature treatment. Eucalyptus wood was the only substrate that did
not respond well to auto-hydrolysis treatment indicating the need of exogenous chemicals.
As the chemical changes occurred during treatment were accompanied by sugar loss and
formation of inhibitory compounds high temperature steam treatment was only considered to be
beneficial when optimum treatment conditions were achieved. This was possible to obtain by
monitoring both extent of sugar loss and lignin depolymerization occurred during treatment and the
resulting bio-utilization from various lignocellulosics. Although these two parameters were found
to be suitable to identify optimum treatment conditions for producing ruminant feed from
monocotyledonous plants they were less accurate in predicting the extent of substrate
saccharification by cell-free enzymes. It appears that additional information on substrate physical
structure, e.g. cell wall porosity and active surface area, is needed to complement the chemical data
and give a more reliable prediction of substrate utilization by enzymes.
Regarding the formation of inhibitory compounds during treatment, it was observed that
large amounts of potentially toxic compounds (furans and phenolics) to rumen microbes can be
formed during steam treatment as a result of hemicellulose solubilization and lignin
depolymerization reactions. In vitro assays showed that rumen microbes are tolerant to and can
quickly metabolise both furfural and hydroxy-methyfurfural. Therefore, inhibitory compounds
present in steam-treated samples are phenolic-type compounds. These compounds can depress
microbial activity and bacterial adhesion to the substrate and affect selectively rumen fermentation.
However, as these negative effects were only observed when the treatment conditions exceeded
optimum levels it is possible that levels of phenolic compounds in steam-treated samples can be
maintained within a non-toxic range by controlling treatment conditions.
Parallel to the chemical changes described above, high temperature steam treatment is also
capable to affect some important physical properties of fibrous feedstuffs, e.g. particle size
distribution, functional specific gravity (FSG) and water holding capacity (WHC). The changes in
FSG and WHC would probably benefit substrate degradation in the rumen by affecting the rumen
kinetics and saliva secretion. However, steam treatment has a major negative effect on particle size
which in turn could decrease the retention time of particles in the rumen and the effective
degradability. It is important to note, however, that such an extensive particle comminution only
occurs when steam treatment is followed by explosive decompression. Considering that explosive
decompression has only marginal effect in improving cell wall bio-utilization it is concluded that
such procedure should be avoided. Besides, less defibrated particles would be more appropriate for
other industrial applications, e.g. paper and cardboard production. Another important aspect of
avoiding explosive decompression is that it enables the recycling of the spent-steam, thereby
improving the energy efficiency of treatment (kg steam/kg substrate treated).
The data obtained in this study from the chemico-physical structure and bio-availability of
steam-treated lignocellulosics suggest that such a valuable resource can be efficiently recycled, as
an animal feed, with minimum input of chemicals and energy. It is, however, important to highlight
that, due to the unique characteristic of the steam-treated lignocellulosic, many other applications
can be conceived. Using steam-treatment in an integrated and multi-purpose process, e.g.
production of animal feed, paper, alcohol, chemical feedstock, etc., would hopefully increase its
chances to compete with traditional fossil fuel-dependent technologies.
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THE USE OF STEAM TREATMENT TO UPGRADE

LIGNOCELLULOSIC MATERIALS FOR ANIMAL FEED

FERNANDO BASILE DE CASTRO

(B.Sc., Agronomy - University of So Paulo)

Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Fernando Basile de Castro

voc Vicky, que sempre me deu todo o apoio e carinho to

dedico este trabalho

1.1 The dilemma of energy, biomass and food production

1.3 Cell wall components of lignocellulosics

1.4.1 rumen microbial system

1.5 Upgrading of lignocellulosics

CHAPTER 2 - THE POTENTIAL OF LOW TEMPERATURE STEAM

2.2 Material and methods

2.3.1 characterization of the enzyme mixture

CHAPTER 3 - EFFECTS OF LOW TEMPERATURE STEAM TREATMENT

3.2 Material and methods

4.3.1 hemicellulose solubilization

CHAPTER 5 - FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS DURING

5.2 Material and methods

5.2.1 substrate, steam treatment and sample preparation

5.3.1 phenolic compounds

CHAPTER 6 - EFFECTS OF STEAM TREATMENT

6.2 Material and methods

6.3.1 particle size distribution

7.2 Material and methods

CHAPTER 8 - GENERAL DISCUSSION

8.2 Steam treatment conditions

8.3 Fractionation of steam-treated lignocellulosics

Changes in the world population and fossil energy use before

Supply of cereal grain per world inhabitant over the period

The hydrogen-bonding network in cellulose. Each glucose residue

Possible configuration of glucuronoarabinoxylan, glucuronoxylan

Schematic structure of main units in gymnosperm lignin

Chemical structure of p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohol,

Cellulase (substrate = carboxymethylcellulose, CMC) activity of

Xylanase (substrate = xylan from oat spelt) activity of various

Effects of enzyme loading and incubation time on the cell wall

Effects of acid concentration and temperature on the hemicellulose

Effects of temperature and reaction time on the in sacco total

Correlation between neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content and 24 h

Correlation between neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content and 20 h

Correlation between washing loss measured by in sacco technique and

In vitro gas production of steam-treated wheat straw using

Cell wall hydrolysis of unwashed wheat straw subjected to a

In vitro gas production of undried and dried (105C) steam-treated

In vitro gas production of undried and dried (105C) steam-treated

In vitro gas production of undried and dried (105C) steam-treated

Effect of steam treatment (134C, 120 min, 1.8% H2SO4 on

Micropore distribution of untreated and steam-treated wheat straw

Schematic representation of the pilot reactor used for steam

Comparison between the alditol acetates-uronic acid and phenol

Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) hydrolysate content of steam-treated

Thermo-chemical decomposition of xylose, mannose and galactose

Thermo-chemical decomposition of mannose and galactose relative

Correlation between hemicellulose and extractable phenolic contents

Effect of steam treatment on potential colonization, as measured by

Correlation between harshness of treatment (sugar loss) and in

Correlation between harshness of treatment (sugar loss) and

Cell wall hydrolysis of wheat straw subjected to a combination

Postulated hydrogen bonding of plant phenol to polyvinyl-pyrrolidone

HPLC chromatogram of a standard containing lignin precursors and