Fuel Cells in a Sustainable

Energy Economy
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Global Science Forum on Scientific Challenges for Energy Research
Paris, France (May 17-18, 2006)

David P. Wilkinson
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
University of British Columbia
& NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

1
 Fuel Cells – Is The Time Now???

•In 1894, Wilhelm Ostwald envisioned two

pathways for the future development of
energy technology.
In the one, combustion engines would work
inefficiently burdened by the Carnot efficiency
limitations on the conversion of heat to
mechanical energy, and causing atmospheric
pollution to rise to unacceptable levels.
In the other, fuel cells would work efficiently,
silently, and without pollution, creating electricity
directly.

Source: Journal of Electric Chemistry, Vol. 1, Pg. 122 (1894)

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Energy Conversion Chain and the Fuel Cell

Processing
Energy Carriers
Energy Sources • Refined products
• Fossil Fuels • Electricity
• Nuclear Excess Energy • Hydrogen
• Renewables • Heat

Storage Fuel Cell

ICE, turbine, etc
• Refined products
• Hydrogen End use
conversion
• Batteries / Capacitors Fuel Cell
ICE, turbine, etc
• mechanical (flywheel,
hydro, etc) Overall Efficiency = ηT = η1 η2 η3 … ηn
Reduce number of steps to increase efficiency

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Drivers for Fuel Cell Technology
• Environmental pollution challenges, acidification and global warming

• Pressures to de-centralize power generation

• Energy security issues

• Increasing vehicle numbers and energy consumption

• Limitation and concentration of fossil fuel reserves

• Long term sustainability of energy supply

• Energy storage and conversion for renewables

• Increasing marginal costs and limits for further optimization of

conventional technologies

• Etc

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Fuel Cells -Transformative Technology?

Are fuel cells a “transformative” technology like the automobile, the telephone
and the internet?

•Fuel Cells are a “replacement”

technology which promise to
replace combustion engines and
battery technologies in most
applications
•Benefits of fuel cells are mainly
societal not consumer driven
•Energy technologies are slow to
Fuel Cell penetrate market without strong
(1839 or 1940s ???) incentives

Source: Fuel Cells: The Opportunity for Canada

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Predicted Market Penetration of Fuel Cells

Fuel Cells could win on:

• Application scalability
• Cost /kW (smaller scale)
• Efficiency
• Energy Density
• Emissions
• Durability (electrochemical
versus mechanical)
• Reversible fuel cell reactions
• Etc

Data from “Fuel Cell Industry Competitive Analysis - Assessment of Major

Players, Global Markets, and Technologies” 2003 Allied Business
Intelligence Inc., Courtesy Industry Canada

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 “Application Scalability”

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Trend towards Distributed Power and Smaller Power Plants

Cost Projections (2000-2015)

$/kW (U.S.)
500,000

100,000
Photovoltaics Fuel Cells^
10,000
PEM Fuel Industrial Pulverized
Cells Gas Coal
1,000 Turbines
Fuel
100 Cells^^ IC Aero-CT
Microturbines Engines
Combined
10 Cycle

1
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 500,000
^ High temperature tubular SOFC and MCFC
(Source:Dan Rastler, Electric Power Research Institute)
Size in kW ^^ High temperature planar SOFC

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Heat Engines Limited by Thermodynamic Carnot Cycle
Fuel Cell Efficiency = ∆G / H = -nFE / ∆H
Limited conducting materials in
Carnot Efficiency= (1 – TC /TH )100% 150oC to 500oC range

PEMFC
AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC

Norby, Solid State Ionics 125 (1999) 1-11

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

RAGONE PLOT (Energy Characteristics of the Fuel Cell)

Progress for Fuel Cell Vehicles

(includes tank and fuel)

• ICE presently has highest power

density and energy density with
gasoline
• Change to sustainable
renewable fuel for ICE  lower
energy density
• FC closing the gap

www.thewatt.com

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Status and Progress of Fuel Cells Today
• Significant progress in key technical areas

• Low volume manufacturing

• Multiple fuels (fuel neutral) demonstrated

• Multiple applications (transportation, utility, portable, micro, etc)

• Product advancement (field trials /early commercialisation)

• Fuel cell partnerships and demonstration programs

• Progress in codes and standards

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Significant Progress but New Technology Approaches Required!

Next Generation Technology

1400
Conventional approaches limited • 1310
(physical, engineering
Stack Power Density (W/l)

1200
and material constraints, etc) • 1200
1000
PNGV Goal 1000 •1000
800
Auto Goal 800

600
• 570
400
•290
200 2010 US DOE Target
•140 2000 Watts Net/Liter
0 • 85
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
Calendar Year
Interface (The Electrochemical Society), Vol. 10, No. 1 (Spring 2001)

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Fuel Cell Product Introduction

• Industrial mass markets will

likely develop in the following
order
– Micro-fuel cells
– Portable
– Stationary
– Transportation
• Transportation applications
are the most technically
challenging (cost
requirements, demanding
operating conditions, etc) Nexa™ Power Module

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Challenges for Fuel Cells Going Forward

• Product technology
gaps $3,000
Government Incentives
Required for:
$2,500 Commercially viable
• Investment in R&D

Cost (U S $)per kW
- Vehicle development &
early production costs
$2,000
- Fuel infrastructure
production and delivery
• Industry growth $1,500 Cost Today:
$3000 per kW
costs, risks

Cost at Maturity:
$1,000 $30 per kW
Projected Cost:
(comparable to
• Infrastructure $500
Funded by industry $100 per kW
ICE)

$0

• General public sector Incubation Growth Maturity

challenges
Implementation Tim eline

• Customer acceptance

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Case Study of the Effect of Government Incentives:
Denmark and Wind Power

• Example of how government support lead to

commercialization of a new technology
– In 2001 wind constituted 15% of state energy supply
– Goal: 50% by 2030
• Post 1973 Oil crises government decided to
develop alternative wind technology:
– Increased R&D of wind turbines
• 1979-1992
– Encouraged private investment
• 30% investment subsidy
• 1979-1989
– Eliminate economic uncertainties for private
owners
• 1984 ‘10 year contract’ between private owners
and power generating companies
– Reasonable price to connect to the grid
– Price to be paid for wind generated electricity
– Refund on part of electricity tax
• November 1992 – Act for Wind Turbines

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Federal R&D

Technical
Applied R&D Engineering
Demonstration Market Demonstration
Testing
Basic R&D Safety & Commercialization
Early Product Codes &
Emissions First Purchase
Development Standards
Testing

NSERC & Universities

NRC
NRCan
DND DND

Industry

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Major Technology Gaps Today for the Fuel Cell

• Reliability (early and long-term failure modes)

• Lifetime or Durability (for many applications only 25% of
target)
• Cost (factor of 2 – 10 times too high at volume)
• Operational flexibility (issues with sub-zero operation,
high temperature operation and duty cycles, etc)
• Limited direct liquid fuel capability and performance
• Technology simplification and integration
• Fundamental understanding and modeling of root
causes of performance effects
• Fuel infrastructure, fuel energy density and fuel storage

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Ballard Power Systems Inc., 2004 Annual Report
University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation
 New Design Approaches Required !

Anode flowfield plate

Conventional Fuel Cell Design
fuel gas channel

Generally 7 Layers
(5 layers with CCM)
air channel
flowfield landing
Cathode flowfield plate
e-

anode substrate 250 µm

anode catalyst
5 µm
layer membrane 30 m
5 µm
cathode catalyst cathode substrate 250 µm
layer
air
e-

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 New Performances Approaches Required!
Goal: Achieve Higher Current Density at Higher Voltage Efficiency (Higher Power)
1.0
Kinetic, mass transport
improvement
Ohmic , mass transport,
kinetic improvement
0.8 Kinetic
control

Ohmic
Cell voltage (V)

0.6 control

0.4 Mass
transport
control Mass transport
improvement
0.2

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Current density (A/cm2)

Three major performance losses contribute to the polarization curves

V = Vr - c - a – iR – MT

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 New Direct Liquid Fuel Approaches Required!
Poor performance (fuel cross-over, anode electro-catalysis)

Key Advantages
e.g., Direct Methanol Fuel Cell •No separate humidification
•No separate cooling
LOAD •No fuel processor
•Liquid fuel
e- e-
CO2 H2O H2O (CO )
CH3OH/H2O CO2 O2 2

+
H+ H+

+
H2O
FUEL + O2
CH3OH OXIDANT
CH3OH/H2O O2

- ELECTRODE + ELECTRODE
(Pt/Ru) (Pt)
POLYMER MEMBRANE (PEM)

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Significant Advances for Fuel Cells in the Future?

• Will the future fuel cell look anything like the

conventional fuel cells of today?

– No membrane (or permeable membrane)

– Intermediate temperature range (100oC to 400oC )
– No coolant Membraneless Microchannel Fuel Cell
– Little to no influence of water
– Non-noble metal based catalysts
– Unit cell with 3 layers or less
– Improved oxygen reduction kinetics
– Multiple direct fuels possible with high efficiency
– Integrated hydrogen storage with fuel cell
– Designed from the nano-scale to the macroscopic
scale J. Power Sources, 128 (2004) 54-60
– Validated and predictive models allowing virtual
design and testing

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Fuel Cells are Part of a Larger Sustainable Energy Economy

• Objectives
– To move away from fossil fuel dependency but develop a clean
transition strategy
– To develop alternative cleaner / renewable energy sources
– Maintain atmospheric CO2 levels below 500 ppmv
– Diversified sustainable energy base which matches regional
strengths
• Means to achieve the objectives:
– To increase fuel efficiency and energy density
– To sequester carbon from hydrocarbon fuels
– To develop effective governmental policy to accelerate a sustainable
energy economy
• Subsidies and tax Incentives, mandatory fuel efficiency standards,
deregulation of public utilities, etc

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Clean energy is one of the fastest growing business sectors with a strong
link to fuel cell technology: higher efficiency and optimal temperature required!

C & EN News (Feb. 23, 2004) p 20

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Increased Anthropogenic Emissions and Climate Change?

Increased GHG Levels – Fact! McIntyre and McKitrick versus Mann

(Fact or Fiction?)

www.realclimate.org
IPCC = Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (World
Meteorological Organization and United Nations
Environmental Program)

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Change in World’s use of Energy to Stabilize Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations

Stabilization Requirements:
•Large scale CO2 sequestration
•Requires H2 or clean alternatives
to be the distributed fuel based
energy carrier
•Stabilization at levels < 500ppm
for minimal impact

IPCC, 1996a

Scenarios for stabilizing CO2 emissions

Solid line = global emission measures started in 2000,
dashed start later

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 H2 Manufacture from Fossil Fuels (A Zero
Emissions Strategy For Fossil Fuels)

• Conventional Production Technology (syngas production)

– steam reforming of natural gas: CH4 + 2 H2O(g) ---> CO2 + 4H2

– oxygen -blown goal gasification: CH0.8O 0.08 + 0.46 O2 + H2O(g) ---> CO2 + 1.4 H2

• CO2 / H2 Separation (capital & energy intensive)

• Options for CO2 Disposal (disposal cost)

– depleted oil and natural gas fields
– deep saline aquifers
– deep ocean disposal
– deep beds of un-minable coal

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Hydrogen versus Hydrocarbons
 Hydrogen
 If a renewable source of electricity is used for electrolysis; then a zero emission
fuel cycle is achieved (may be the only practical zero emission fuel cycle)
 For large scale CO2 sequestration hydrogen appears to be the best fuel –based
energy carrier
 Higher efficiency fuel cell performance with hydrogen
Hydrocarbons
 Hydrogen is an inferior transportation fuel relative to liquid hydrocarbons
 Large change in distribution and end-user infrastructure required for hydrogen
 Local air quality good with clean hydrocarbon fuels
 For renewable power there is no compelling need for hydrogen to end user,
e.g., CO2 + 3H2 = CH3OH + H2O (part of Carnol Process)  other liquid fuels
Fischer Tropsch Synthesis, etc)

Community

Hydrogen
Power Grid Fuel Cell
Module
Storage Why not Other Sustainable
Wind Turbines
Fuel Economies:
Methane Economy?
Electrolyzer
Solar Panels Methanol Economy?
Hydro Electric
Ethanol Economy?
Power
Hydrogen Economy/Village
University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation
 Fuel Infrastructure and Fuel Cells

Increasing technical challenge for Fuel Cell

Infrastructure Fuels

existing Gasoline, Diesel, LPG, CNG, M85, E85

No Invest costs for a new Infrastructure

to be modified S-free Gasoline/Diesel, Methanol, Ethanol, DME

Moderate Invest costs for a new liquid fuel

Infrastructure

completely new Hydrogen (compressed + liquid), Hydrides, NaBH4

High Invest costs for a new H2-Infrastructure

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Future Primary Sustainable Fuels and Charge Carriers

Develop Renewables

Biomass Photovoltaic Tidal Wind Photovoltaic Geothermal Green hydro

Chemical Chemical Electricity

Nuclear
Hydrogen Hydrogen
Methanol Methanol Hydrogen
Ethanol Methane Redox Species
Methane Other?
University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation
 Vanadium Redox Battery (VRB)
An alternative charge carrier?

Key Advantages
• Fast kinetics
• High efficiency
• No precious metal
catalysts
• Simple, cheap system
• Long lifespan
• Closed system

Key Disadvantages
• Low energy density
• Reactant crossover
• Water crossover
Anode V 3  e   V 2 E0SHE=-0.255V
Cathode VO2  2 H   e   VO 2  H 2O E0SHE=1.0V • Regeneration
Overall VO2  V 2  2 H   VO 2  V 3  H 2O E0Cell=1.26V

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Energy Density of Different Fuels

Fuel Energy Density (kWh/litre) *

Redox (~ 2M VOSO4) 0.055

H2 gas (150 bar) 0.4
Formic Acid 1.8
Liquid H2 2.6
Methanol 4.6
Ethanol 6.1
Liquid CH4 7.2
Gasoline 9.7

* Values are theoretical assuming 100% efficiency and conversion to CO2 (g) + H2O (g)

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Poor Performance of Liquid Electrochemical Fuels compared to Hydrogen
(Ambient Conditions, O2 for Fuel Cells,VO2+ for VRB)

1.8 600

VRB
1.6 •excellent kinetics
•low energy density
500

1.4

DMFC
1.2 400

)
DEFC

-2
Power Density (mWcm
H2 PEMFC
Cell Voltage (V)

1 VRB
Power Density DMFC 300
Power Density DEFC
0.8
Power Density H2PEMFC

Hydrogen Power Density VRB

0.6 200

DMFC
0.4
100

0.2
DEFC

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Current Density (mAcm-2)

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

Challenging Fuel Cell Reactions for the Future Energy Economy
Fuel Cell Reactions
• Direct Methanol Fuel Cell: CH3OH + H2O  CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-
• Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell: C2H5OH  2CO2 + 12H+ + 12e-
• Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cell: HCOOH  CO2 + 2H+ + 2e-
• Direct Methane Fuel Cell: CH4 +4O2-  CO2 +2H2O + 8e-
• Improved Oxygen Reduction; O2 + 4H+ + 4e-  2H2O

Regenerative Fuel Cell Reactions

• Photochemical and Electrolysis Water Splitting:
2H+ + 2e-  H2
 2H2O  O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
•Photochemical and Electrochemical Reduction of CO2:
CO2 + 8H+ + 8e-  CH4 + 2H20
CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-  CH3OH + H2O
CO2 + 2H+ + 2e-  HCOOH
University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation
 Some Thoughts on Fuel Cells and Fuels

• Timescale to Competitive Viability of Fuel Cells

– fuel cell applications today at field trial / early commercialization level
– first commercial mass markets for handheld electronic devices (few mW to few hundred mW) by 2010.
– transportation applications most challenging, last to be commercialized (another 15 to 25 years ?)

• Potential Obstacles to Fuel Cell Technology

– energy technologies typically take longer for market penetration
– fuel cells are a replacement technology not a new consumer application technology.
– consumers do not want to pay for long-term or societal benefits unless incentives provided
– limited government incentives today even though major societal benefits
– today fuel cell system has to compete directly on an economic / consumer basis with established
incumbent technologies
– limited infrastructure for hydrogen, poor performance for direct liquid fuels (better infrastructure)

• Scientific and Technological Challenges

– closure of significant fuel cell technology gaps that exist today in the areas of performance, reliability,
durability, operational flexibility and cost reduction
• fundamental advances in design, materials and electro-catalysis required
– simplification of the overall fuel cell system and energy pathway
– increase application of the fuel cell with respect to a clean and sustainable energy economy (higher
efficiency required for electrochemical fuels)
– improve lifecycle and fuel infrastructure for fuel cell based systems

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Some Thoughts on Fuel Cells and Fuels, Continued

• Potential Impacts of Fuel Cells on Global Energy Future

– fuel cells have fundamental advantages over incumbent technologies (thermodynamics,
electrochemical versus mechanical, etc) ; significant long-term advantages
– fuel cells will accommodate a large range of fuel sources and operating conditions and hence support
regional fuel supply strengths
– will lead to a highly distributed energy base, e.g., an “energy internet”
– fuel cells can reduce CO2 (and other green house gases) emissions through higher efficiency and
regenerative fuel cell reactions

• Research and Resource Approach

– develop approaches and materials for an intermediate temperature fuel cell (100 to 400oC range) to
improve all fuel cell reactions without significant loss of thermodynamic efficiency
– significantly improve performance of direct liquid electrochemical fuels and regenerative fuel cell
reactions
– improve performance of oxygen reduction reaction
– identify new charge carriers with higher energy density
– improve hydrogen storage and infrastructure

• Roles for Cross-Disciplinary Research

- multiple disciplines (applied and fundamental)
- integrated involvement of academia, government and industry
- broad balanced portfolio (short to long-term, low risk to high risk, etc)
- national and international collaboration, cluster development

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation

 Thank You!
Questions?

“We have not inherited this world from our parents, but
we have it on loan from our children”
- Native Haida Quote

University of British Columbia – NRC Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation