The Journal of Cotton Science 17:174183 (2013)

http://journal.cotton.org, The Cotton Foundation 2013

174

ENGINEERING AND GINNING

Changes in Cotton Gin Energy Consumption Apportioned by 10 Functions
Paul A. Funk*, Robert G. Hardin IV, S. Ed Hughs, and J. Clif Boykin
Abstract
The public is concerned about air quality and
sustainability. Cotton producers, gin owners, and
plant managers are concerned about rising energy
prices. Both have an interest in cotton gin energy
consumption trends. Changes in cotton gin energy
consumption during the past 50 yr, a period of
significant increase in labor productivity, were
estimated to determine if replacing man-hours
with machinery resulted in increased energy use.
Data from recent audits and monitoring studies
were combined to estimate energy consumption in
total and for each of 10 processing or materialshandling functions. These values were compared
to similar data published nearly 50 yr ago, by
region and across the U.S. Bale formation energy
consumption had increased because gins now
press bales to nearly twice the density compared
to the early 1960s. Other processing categories
decreased significantly. Most materials-handling
categories did not change much, but trash handling had decreased despite the increasing energy
burden of more stringent emissions regulations.
In total, electrical energy consumed per unit of
cotton processed decreased by 19% to 34% even
as gin processing rates increased three to six
fold and mechanization has made labor four to
six times more productive. This is welcome news
when consumers are concerned about the carbon
footprint of their apparel.

enerating electricity consumes nonrenewable

energy resources and results in air pollutant
emissions. The fossil fuel required and the mass of
each pollutant (proportional to the generation of a
kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity) varies by state
and region (Funk, 2010). Power plant emissions are

P.A. Funk* and S.E. Hughs, USDA-ARS-Southwestern

Cotton Ginning Research Laboratory, 300 East College Drive,
PO Box 578, Mesilla Park, NM 88047; R.G. Hardin IV and
J.C. Boykin, USDA-ARS-Cotton Ginning Research Unit, 111
Experiment Station Road, PO Box 256, Stoneville, MS 38776
*Corresponding author: Paul.Funk@ars.usda.gov

undesirable in all locations. Thus, it is not just cotton

producers, gin owners, and plant managers, who are
concerned about rising energy prices and interested
in cotton gin energy consumption trends. The general
public wants to reduce pollution and increase energy
security. Both are therefore interested in gin energy
consumption trends
Labor productivity in cotton gins has increased
steadily as technological innovations have been
adopted and processing rates have increased. Labor
has primarily been replaced by machines powered
by electric motors. This paper reports on the energy
consumption impact of rising labor productivity in
the cotton ginning industry.
By 1945 cotton gins had largely abandoned
steam power in favor of diesel, gas, and electric motors, which took less man power to operate (Bureau
of the Census, 1946). At that time machinery was
powered by flat belts connected to a main line shaft
turned by a single motor. In the 1950s and 1960s
gins added lint cleaning machinery to better clean a
crop that was becoming increasingly mechanically
harvested (Hughs et al., 2008). Cotton gins were
becoming bigger to take advantage of economy of
scale and were also becoming fewer in number as
gins consolidated and served a larger cotton growing
area. Between 1940 and 1960 the average connected
load more than doubled as individual gins increased
processing throughput capacity (Watson and Holder,
1964). At the same time that the cotton crop converted to mechanical harvest, newly constructed
gins were converting to individual electric motors
on each machine (Watson et al., 1964). Moving away
from single-motor main line shafts to individual
machine drives added flexibility and convenience
as individual machines could be shut off for maintenance or repair without stopping the entire gin plant
(Wilmot et al., 1967). This change not only reduced
maintenance labor requirements, it was safer. Due
to the difficulty of restarting equipment in a line
shaft gin, ginners tended to attempt to clear chokes
in equipment while the equipment was still running,
resulting in frequent, serious injuries.
In the late 1950s changes were made to saw-gin
stands that resulted in much higher ginning rates (cre-

FUNK ET AL.: COTTON GIN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

ating high-capacity gin stands). Gin stands were built

with larger diameter and/or larger numbers of saws
set closer together. Seed roll agitation was added.
These modifications doubled gin-stand processing
rates without changing their outside dimensions. The
use of high-capacity gin stands necessitated changes
in practically all complementary seed cotton cleaning, lint cleaning, and bale press equipment. Seed
cotton cleaning equipment was often replicated, as
it could take two parallel overhead systems to supply
an adequate quantity of seed cotton to high-capacity
gin stands (Wilmot and Watson, 1966).
By 1961 more than half the cotton crop was mechanically harvested (USDA, 1974) and gin plants
began to resemble those in use today. Each machine
had, and still has, an individual electric motor. The
configuration and type of machines used has hardly
changed with three exceptions. First, cotton harvesters now form modules or transfer raw seed cotton to
module builders instead of trailers. This has reduced
on-farm labor requirements. It has also decoupled
harvesting from ginning by circumventing the limiting availability of trailers for seed cotton storage and
transport. Gins have responded by replacing trailer
suction unloading systems with, or adding, module
feeders. Gins have benefited as this has reduced the
labor required to bring raw material into the gin, and
it has increased the intake rate. Second, automation
has been added in several places, such as seed cotton
drying and gin-stand feeding, which has contributed
to higher processing rates. Automation of the bale
strapping, handling, weighing, and bagging functions has reduced labor and increased the processing rate of the bale press system; this has followed
replacement of modified flat-bale presses with gin
universal-density bale presses. Third, increases in
processing rate have been realized elsewhere by
increasing the size, loading rate, and number of machines. For example, average high-capacity saw-gin
stand processing rates in the 1960s were about eight
bales per hour per stand. Twenty or more bales per
hour per stand were routinely accomplished in the
gins sampled in the 2010s (authors data). Similarly,
seed cotton cleaning formerly took place in inclined
cylinder cleaners that were 5 to 8 ft wide (Stedronsky, 1964). Current practice has two or more series
of cleaners in parallel, each from 8 to 12 ft wide
(Cherokee Fabrication, 2011; Lummus Corporation, 2004) and to operate them fully loaded, near
the manufacturers recommended 2.5 bale hr-1 ft-1
(Hardin et al., 2011).

175
As gin plant throughput has increased, the
number of workers required has remained constant
or decreased slightly. Current labor productivity is
higher compared to that of 50 yr ago. The average
man-hours required per unit processed has declined
significantly, to as little as 25% to 15% of that required in 1962, depending on region (Table 1).
Table 1. Average labor required to process a bale of cotton
in 1962 and 2010.
1962z (manh bale-1)

Region
Beltwidex

2010y (manh bale-1)

0.42

Southeast

0.53

Mid-South

1.83

0.39

Southwest

2.78

0.42

West

1.65

0.42

z From

a sample of 32 gins (Cable et al., 1965)

a sample of 126 gins (Valco et al. 2012)
x Weighted average based on bales processed.
y From

This analysis examined the change in cotton

gin energy consumption during the past 50 yr, a
period of significant increase in labor productivity.
The objective was to answer the questions: Has
replacing man-hours with machinery resulted in
increased energy use, and, Has cotton ginnings
carbon footprint changed?
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Audits and Monitoring Studies. An energy audit
is like a photograph in that it captures a situation at a
single moment in time. An energy monitoring study is
like a video in that it captures a succession of observations over a period of time. Because audits required
less effort (a typical gin energy audit required approximately 4 h) it was possible to compare more facilities,
gaining insight into the impact that design differences
had on energy consumption. Energy monitoring studies provided sequential information through an entire
season and made it possible to compare the impact
that operation differences had on energy consumption (Hardin and Funk, 2012). This paper combined
data collected during the past 3 yr from both energy
audits and energy monitoring studies to provide a
larger sample. Combined data acquired recently was
compared to data compiled in 1962 through 1964 to
determine changes in energy consumption over five
decades. Now, as 50 yr ago, the data available was
from a relatively small sample of the total number of

JOURNAL OF COTTON SCIENCE, Volume 17, Issue 2, 2013

176

gins in operation in the U.S. This comparison was

limited statistically to presenting energy consumption
trends. There were not enough gins sampled, then or
now, to assert that these numbers exactly represented
the industry as a whole.
Energy Audits. Energy audits were performed at
20 U.S. cotton gins in six states. Gins were selected
to represent a broad range of capacity and annual
throughput. A single measure was made of the current
drawn by one phase of each motor (multiple readings
were recorded for motors with fluctuating loads). Current measurements were made with a clamp-on Greenlee CM-600 ammeter (Rockford, IL; 2.5%). Hourly
energy consumption was calculated as the product
of current, voltage, power factor, and the square root
of three (because all motors were three phase). The
product was normalized to energy consumption per
bale by dividing by the processing rate at the time of
the audit. This typically was higher than the processing rate averaged over the season as it did not include
down time for cleaning and maintenance. Data from
1962 through 1964 also appeared to be based on audits.
Energy Monitoring Studies. Energy monitoring studies were performed at 7 U.S. cotton gins
in four states. Current drawn by one phase of each
motor (four gins), or each motor over 7.5 kW (10
hp) (three gins: but this captured 85% of the energy
consumed) was sensed continuously for one or two
seasons. The majority of motor loads were monitored using loop powered, 4-20mA output, selectable current range (0-30/60/120 amps) split-core
current transducers (Hawkeye 921, Veris Industries,
Portland, OR). Larger motors were monitored with
similar but single range transducers, sized to match
the load (Hawkeye 221, 321, or 421, Veris Industries,
Portland, OR). Mains were monitored to capture total
current, voltage, and power in cases where some of
the smallest motors were not monitored. Values corresponding to motor current were recorded using data
loggers (model 34970A with 34908A switch units,
Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA) or a modular data logging system (model CR1000, Campbell
Scientific, Logan, UT). Each value was recorded at
frequent intervals (from 2-6 sec).
More extensive monitoring system details are
available in Hardin and Funk (2012). Systems were
started at the beginning of the ginning season. Calibration was performed by stepping through each data
logger channel, comparing the displayed reading to
the value shown at that moment by a hand-held clampon ammeter. Procedures used during measurement

of live 480-volt circuits were published by Funk and

Hardin (2012). Calibration was repeated twice during
the season. Memory cards were swapped out after a
short interval (less than 1 wk) to verify operation of
each channel by comparing logged values to expected
values based on calibration and gin operating status.
The memory cards were left for longer intervals once
systems were confirmed to be fully operational. Figure
1 illustrates the design of the USDA-ARS data logger
used in the energy monitoring studies.

Figure 1. A USDA-ARS data logger (with the cover removed)

near a motor control center.

Data Analysis from Monitored Gins. Raw data

files were converted to spreadsheets. Where a gin had
more than one motor control center the spreadsheets
were combined to synchronize logged data. Macros
were used to: 1) remove bad values (occasionally an
out-of-range value coincided with a motor starting
event); 2) determine the completion of each bale
using press pump current maxima; 3) average all
data recorded during the interval since the previous
bale; 4) cull bales that were formed when the gin was
not running or that were significantly out of range
for the gins capacity; and 5) convert logged values
to motor currents and save the results as separate
spreadsheets. To minimize the influence of outliers,
the seasonal median current value for each motor was
used to calculate energy. First, motor power (kW)
was calculated by:
P (kw) = V * I * 3 * pf

(1)

Where V was the RMS line-line voltage (average

between phases 1-2, 23, and 3-1), I was the current
(amps) averaged during the measurement interval,
3 was the square root of three (for three-phase
motors), and pf was the power factor. Power factor
was recorded in real time at some gins. At others, it

FUNK ET AL.: COTTON GIN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

was measured once using a hand-held instrument

(model CW240, Yokogawa, Tokyo, Japan). In those
cases, the gins average power factor was used.
Energy consumption per bale was then estimated by
integrating power over the elapsed bale formation
time and normalizing to standard 217.7-kg (480
lb) bales, where bale weight data were available. A
constant bale weight was assumed based on seasonal
average. Upland bale weights averaged 219 kg
(482 lb) in 2010 and 226 kg (499 lb) in 2011. Pima
(roller gin) bale weights averaged 219 kg (484 lb)
in 2010 and 225 kg (495 lb) in 2011. It was deemed
unnecessary to hand enter more than 100,000 actual
bale weights because both bale weight and energy
consumption were aggregated over the season.
Previous Study. Research published nearly
50 yr ago divided gin processing into 10 functions
(Wilmot and Watson, 1966). These categories were
grouped as either processing or materials handling.
To facilitate comparison, the same categories were
used. From that publication, only high-capacity cotton gins were quotedgin facilities with equipment
similar to that used today (though present capacities
are much greater). The 10 categories were:
Processing or Value Added:
1. Seed cotton drying (adds value by improving
cleaning).
2. Seed cotton cleaning (included extractorfeeders, and vacuum droppers driven by
cylinder cleaner motors, if cleaners were so
constructed).
3. Ginning (included seed-roll agitator, hullerfront and air-blast fans in saw gins, and
cooling fans associated with high-speed
roller-gin stands).
4. Lint cleaning (included flow-through lint
cleaner booster fans if so constructed).
5. Packaging (included battery condenser,
moisture restoration systems, lint conveyor,
tramper, press, strapper, bagger, and baleincline and scale conveyors).
Materials Handling:
6. Seed cotton unloading (included the elevator
fan, unloading separator, steady-flow feed, and
steady-flow vacuum dropper; this study added
the entire module feeding system).
7. Seed cotton conveying and overflow (included
the conveyor-distributor, overflow hopper
feed and vacuum dropper, overflow fan and

177
overflow separator and vacuum dropper, and
any independently driven vacuum droppers
associated with seed cotton cleaners).
8. Lint conveying (battery condenser and lint
cleaner fans only).
9. Seed conveying (augers, belts, seed plug, and
positive-displacement blower).
10. Trash conveying (included trash, hulls, and
mote conveying, and mote cleaner and mote
press).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Seventeen high-capacity gins in three producing areas were surveyed by Wilmot and Watson
(1966); six in the Mississippi Delta (1962), and 11
in the Texas High Plains and the San Joaquin Valley
(completed in 1964). These study areas were not replicated exactly, but monitoring data were collected in
areas with similar production practices: Mississippi
and North Carolina (South and Southeast); Lubbock,
Texas (Southwest); and New Mexico and West Texas
(West). Energy audits were performed in Arkansas,
Missouri, and Mississippi (South and Southeast);
Texas (Southwest); and California and New Mexico
(West). Valid energy and/or connected power data
were available from 22 gins from 2009 through 2011.
These data are presented by region and, in the case
of saw gins, for the U.S. Data are tabulated first by
energy consumption per bale (Table 2), then by total
connected power (Tables 3a and 3b).
Energy Consumption. Wilmot and Watson
(1966) wrote, Opinions differ among ginning engineers as to the proper categorization of certain fans.
They added that dryer push-pull fans are more a part
of processing than materials handling. Machinery
would be stacked to allow for gravity flow throughout
the seed cotton system if drying was never necessary.
Drying seed cotton adds value because it increases
the effectiveness of seed cotton cleaning (Anthony
and Mayfield, 1994). To be consistent with the earlier
study for comparison purposes, the same classification
rules were followed. If an airstream could be heated,
all fans associated with it were placed in the seed
cotton drying category whether or not the burner was
on that moment or that season. Electrical energy consumption associated with moving seed cotton through
drying systems fell by half or more per processed bale
over the past half century. The trend has been to build
driers with more spacing between shelves and fewer
shelves, reducing total pressure drop.

JOURNAL OF COTTON SCIENCE, Volume 17, Issue 2, 2013

178

Table 2. Energy consumption (kWh bale-1) by gin function; by regions and total; 1960s and 2010s.
Westz

(kWh bale-1)

1960s

Southwestz

Present

1960s

South and Southeastz Saw Gins Roller Gins

Present

1960s

Present

Present

Present

1) Seed Cotton Drying

14.56

7.22

15.91

4.94

12.03

5.54

5.53

10.28

2) Seed Cotton Cleaning

2.52

3.38

4.79

3.01

2.69

2.36

2.60

4.17

3) Ginning

9.11

5.94

8.16

6.79

9.08

6.52

6.38

8.40

4) Lint Cleaning

4.68

2.79

4.58

2.22

4.26

2.20

2.21

2.02

5) Bale Press

1.34

4.26

1.41

3.68

1.56

4.16

3.98

6.59

Value Added

32.21

23.60

34.85

21.46

29.62

20.84

20.98

31.47

6) Seed Cotton Unloading

5.47

3.54

8.23

0.90

5.88

1.89

1.56

3.56

7) Seed Cotton Conveying

2.00

1.70

1.62

1.89

1.45

1.83

1.79

5.50

8) Lint Conveying

4.98

5.33

4.34

4.58

4.08

4.33

4.65

7.38

9) Seed Conveying

0.73

1.25

0.63

0.65

1.31

1.44

1.11

1.78

10) Trash Conveying

7.50

6.01

6.28

3.59

5.16

4.62

4.43

5.92

Materials Handling

20.68

17.79

21.10

11.61

17.88

14.10

13.53

24.15

52.89

41.37

55.95

33.07

47.50

34.94

34.50

55.61

8.8

26.7

8.3

50.6

7.2

39.1

44.2

25.1

15

Total (kWh bale -1)

Processing Rate (bale

h-1)

Sample Sizey
z 1960s

from Wilmot and Watson (1966).

gins were sampled between 1962 and 1964 but apportionment between the San Joaquin Valley and West Texas
was not published. Twenty-two gins were sampled between 2009 and 2011 but not all sampled gins had complete energy
consumption data.

y Seventeen

Table 3a. Connected power (kW) by gin function; by regions and total; 1960s and 2010s.
(kW)
1) Seed Cotton Drying

Westz

Southwestz

South and Southeastz Saw Gins Roller Gins

1960s

Present

1960s

Present

1960s

Present

Present

Present

190

313

210

384

122

263

337

384

2) Seed Cotton Cleaning

66

153

107

216

61

129

176

180

3) Ginning

155

201

145

510

116

309

394

268

4) Lint Cleaning

85

128

67

182

57

115

153

80

5) Bale Press

56

165

40

397

34

256

318

206

Value Added (kW)

552

960

568

1689

389

1072

1378

1117

6) Seed Cotton Unloading

72

104

98

91

60

107

94

112

7) Seed Cotton Conveying

27

89

25

145

22

102

120

164

8) Lint Conveying

57

177

48

277

34

219

259

214

9) Seed Conveying

17

40

18

51

19

66

60

57

10) Trash Conveying

95

210

83

287

54

204

251

166

Materials Handling

267

621

271

852

187

699

782

714

Total (kW)

819

1581

839

2541

576

1771

2160

1831

Processing Rate y (bale h-1)

8.82

25.84

8.3

48.53

7.22

39.04

44.24

26.72

15

Sample Sizex
z 1960s

from Wilmot and Watson (1966).

differences in processing rates in Table 2 and Table 3a for 2009-2011 were due to three audited gins being omitted due
to incomplete connected power data, and a different three gins being omitted due to incomplete energy consumption data.
x Seventeen gins were sampled between 1962 and 1964 but apportionment between the San Joaquin Valley and West
Texas was not published. Twenty-two gins were sampled between 2009 and 2011 but not all sampled gins had complete
connected power data.
y Small

FUNK ET AL.: COTTON GIN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

179

Table 3b. Connected power (hp) by gin function; by regions and total; 1960s and 2010s.
(hp)

Westz
1960s

Southwestz

Present

1960s

South and Southeastz Saw Gins Roller Gins

Present

1960s

Present

Present

Present

1) Seed Cotton Drying

255

420

281

515

163

353

452

515

2) Seed Cotton Cleaning

89

205

143

289

82

173

236

241

3) Ginning

208

270

194

684

155

415

529

359

4) Lint Cleaning

114

171

90

244

76

154

205

107

5) Bale Press

75

221

54

533

45

343

426

276

Value Added (hp)

740

1287

762

2265

521

1438

1848

1498

6) Seed Cotton Unloading

96

140

131

122

80

144

126

150

7) Seed Cotton Conveying

36

119

34

195

29

137

161

220

8) Lint Conveying

77

238

64

371

45

294

347

287

9) Seed Conveying

23

53

24

69

25

88

80

77

10) Trash Conveying

127

282

111

385

73

274

336

223

Materials Handling

358

833

364

1143

251

937

1049

957

Total (hp)

1098

2120

1125

3408

772

2375

2897

2455

Processing Rate y (bale h-1)

8.82

25.84

8.30

48.53

7.22

39.04

44.24

26.72

15

Sample Sizex
z 1960s

from Wilmot and Watson (1966).

differences in processing rates in Table 2 and Table 3b for 2009-2011 were due to three audited gins being omitted
due to incomplete connected power data, and a different three gins being omitted due to incomplete energy consumption
data.
x Seventeen gins were sampled between 1962 and 1964 but apportionment between the San Joaquin Valley and West
Texas was not published. Twenty-two gins were sampled between 2009 and 2011 but not all sampled gins had complete
connected power data.
y Small

Classifying the majority of fans in the drying

category resulted in some present-day gins having
relatively small unloading energy consumption.
Because current practice in some gins was to use
a hot-box pick up at the module feeder and two
stages of inclined hot-air cleaning, seed cotton was
transported by the drying system or gravity from
the module feeder to the conveyor distributer. The
other reason electrical energy consumed by seed
cotton unloading was reduced significantly was
through the use of module feeders. The majority
of seed cotton arrived at the gin in modules; some
facilities no longer accepted trailers at all. Average
module feeder energy consumption was less than 1
kWh bale-1. This was a significant savings over the
suction unloading elevator fan energy consumption of the early 1960s, which by itself was more
than 4 kWh bale-1 (Wilmot and Alberson, 1964).
Seed cotton cleaning energy consumption per
bale has remained fairly constant in most of the
cotton belt. However, it has decreased somewhat
in the stripper-harvested Southwest (Texas High
Plains and Oklahoma). Stripper harvesters with
effective field cleaners were tested in the late

1960s as they became commercially available

(Kirk et al., 1972). Modern field cleaners having
cleaning efficiencies of 50% to 60% result in less
trash being brought to the gin (Wanjura et al.,
2009). Stripper-harvested seed cotton processed
by Southwest gins now contains roughly 160 kg
bale-1 (350 lb bale-1) of trash compared to 320 kg
bale-1 (700 lb bale-1) typical of the early 1960s. Gin
energy consumption was displaced because there
was less total seed cotton material to handle in gins
processing field-cleaned stripper cotton compared
to 50 yr ago when stripper-harvested cotton was
not field cleaned; overall gin processing rate probably improved as well. Sherwood (1973) reported
a 13% increase in ginning rate with field-cleaned
cotton at one gin.
Without knowing transport distances, it is
difficult to estimate the net benefit of field cleaning (extraction) today in terms of total energy or
carbon footprint. However, relative changes to
subsystems are available based on a 1969 study
measuring the economic impact of field cleaning
on each component of harvesting and processing systems. Changing to harvesting with field

JOURNAL OF COTTON SCIENCE, Volume 17, Issue 2, 2013

180

cleaning resulted in a 15% increase in harvester

fuel consumption, but energy consumption transporting seed cotton to the gin decreased 25%, gin
energy consumption decreased 11.5%, and energy
requirements to haul and spread trash decreased
50% (Sherwood, 1973).
The data show gin-stand energy consumption per bale decreased by about 30%. Much of
the change was due to advances in technology
resulting in greater economies of scale and better
equipment utilization. Gin-stand capacities have
increased dramatically during the past 50 yr, from
about 8 bales h-1 to more than 20 bales h-1. Other
innovations, such as electronic gin-stand controls
and overflow automation, help the gin stands
run at full capacity a greater portion of the time.
Hardin and Funk (2012) reported that the operating efficiency of gin stands at four monitored
facilities was 91.65%, compared to an operating efficiency of 84.2% reported by Watson and
Holder (1964). A smaller contribution might come
from the cotton itself. Selective breeding during
the past half century has focused on increasing
lint percent, fiber length, and fiber strength. For
example, the average length of U.S. Upland cotton in 1961 and 1962 was 26.4 mm (33.3 staple)
(USDA, 1963). In 2010 and 2011 it was 28.2 mm
(35.5 staple) (Cotton Inc., 2012). Studies have
shown significant variation among cultivars for
gin-stand energy usage. Boykin (2007) observed
that cultivars with reduced gin-stand energy had
increased gin turnout (or lint percent), increased
strength, and reduced short fiber content; but no
trend was observed with fiber length. Boykin et al.
(2012) observed that cultivars with reduced ginstand energy had reduced fiber-seed attachment
force, reduced strength, and reduced length; but no
trend was observed with lint percent or short fiber
content. These findings support the notion that
selective breeding over time has affected ginning
energy, but there is no direct evidence. Ginning not
only separates fibers from seed, but also extracts
ginned fibers from the seed roll. Resistance to the
gin saw includes fiber-seed separation, fiber-fiber
friction, fiber breakage, and seed-roll friction. In
theory, increased fiber length reduces fiber-seed
separation force on a per mass basis, but there appears to also be an increase in fiber-fiber friction
with increased length.
The lint cleaning energy category included
flow-through lint cleaner (SuperJet) booster

fans found in some roller gins. Lint cleaning energy consumption has decreased during the past
50 yr as fewer unit lint-cleaner stages are used.
Where once two or three stages of lint cleaning
were common practice, only one or two were
used in the audited and monitored gins. This is
in response to research that has shown that gains
in leaf grade from additional lint cleaning are
offset by losses in fiber length and bale weight
(turnout). A second stage of lint cleaning might
decrease waste during spinning, but it does so at
the cost of additional card web neps and lower
yarn strength. For these reasons a second stage
of lint cleaning is reserved for late-season, more
trashy or Light Spotted cottons in both spindle
and stripper-harvested regions (Anthony and
Mayfield, 1994).
The only processing or value added category
that has seen an increase in energy consumption
per bale was packaging. The biggest change came
about in the 1970s as gin universal-density bale
presses replaced modified flat-bale presses. The
new gin universal-density bale presses formed a
finished bale that was about twice the density, 448
kg m-3 (28 lb ft-1), compared to bales formed by
modified flat-bale presses. This increased press
energy consumption by a factor of eight (Anthony
et al., 1980).
Though forming gin universal-density bales
required a significant capital investment and more
operating energy, the new bales were economical
because they did not require recompressing at the
warehouse to become compress universal-density
bales. Gin universal-density bales saved, at that
time, $3.00 in compression fees and $1.00 in bagging and ties (Shaw and Ghetti, 1977). Eliminating
a second stage of pressing by shifting the work
done at the compress to the cotton gin has possibly
reduced total energy consumption by the industry. Displacing warehouse-based steam-powered
pressing with gin-based electric/hydraulic pressing likely has greatly reduced the carbon footprint
of this operation. Unfortunately, energy consumption of compress operations were not published, so
quantification was difficult. The other benefit of
forming higher density bales at the gin occurred
at the transport level. Trucks transporting cotton
bales from the gin to the warehouse now need
make fewer trips. This has likely reduced motor
fuel consumption and air pollution, though again,
published data are lacking.

FUNK ET AL.: COTTON GIN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Comparing ginning energy consumption per bale

over the past half century, there was approximately
a 32% decrease in processing energy consumption.
Materials-handling energy consumption per bale also
decreased, about 22%, though most subcategories did
not change much in the past 50 yr. Seed cotton conveying and overflow, lint conveying, and seed conveying
energy consumptions did not change significantly.
Savings have come through decreases in trash conveying energy consumptiondespite including mote
cleaning and pressing in that category. The West
continues to have the greatest energy requirement for
trash handling, possibly due to more stringent emissions control regulations in that region (though small
sample size and the smaller size of sampled gins might
also influence this statistic). Comparing the present
study to results published from the 1960s, total energy
consumption per bale decreased approximately 34%
over the past 50 yra significant savings. These savings have been realized even as gin processing rates
have increased three to six fold, and as manual labor
has been replaced by mechanization.
Connected Power. This three- to six-fold
increase in processing rates has not meant a commensurate increase in connected power (Table 3a,
SI units, and Table 3b, English units). Connected
power has only increased two to three fold. The most
significant increase in processing power has been at
the bale press. The next largest processing increase
in connected power has been on gin stands, but the
increase in connected power has been less than the
increase in processing rate (as reflected in the decrease in unit energy consumption). With materials
handling the trend is similar. Materials-handling
connected power has increased, but this increase has
not approached the rate of increase in processing rate.
Table 4 compares the ratio between average power
actually consumed and connected power based on
the sum of motor nominal rated power. This was cal-

181
culated for value added, materials handling, and total,
by region, for the two time periods. Motor utilization
has improved, from about 60% in the 1960s to about
70% at present. Motor utilization usually is less than
100% because of the margin of safety required in
systems with fluctuating loads (to avoid overloading
components when a surge of excess material enters
the process stream). However, trimming that margin
helps gins reduce capital and operating costs, and
might slightly improve the facilitys power factor.
Roller Gins. Roller gins were not included in the
1962 through 1964 studies. Roller gins were typically
used only on Pima cotton, a small percentage of the U.S.
crop. Today better quality upland cottons are increasingly being processed with high-speed roller gins (Armijo
and Gillum, 2010). Roller gin statistics are presented
here for comparison with saw gins. The connected
power tends to be a bit less, but energy consumption per
bale processed is more. This might partly be due to the
lower processing rate and greater age of the roller gins
sampled in this study. Also, roller gins typically have
more gin stands, between 12 and 32, compared to saw
gins, which typically have two to six. Other differences
are not great enough to explain the disparity.
Study Limitations. Regional and nationwide
averages from 2009 through 2011 were weighted by
processing rate, not by total bales processed. This
skews the data to represent larger gins more heavily,
even if they did not process a large number of bales
in the year studied. Gins were selected for audits
and monitoring based on logistics considerations
(proximity to transportation or other facilities being
audited), not just based on how well they represented
the typical gin of a particular size or age. And as
mentioned above, audits are useful for apportioning
energy consumption between functions, but they underestimate total energy consumption per bale because
the audit is conducted while the gin is running; energy
that is used during cleaning and repairs is excluded.

Table 4. Ratio between actual power consumed and connected power.

Value Added

West

1960sz
0.544

Materials Handling

Present

1960sz

0.632

0.695

Total

Present

1960sz

Present

0.737

0.593

0.673

Southwest

0.528

0.606

0.653

0.670

0.568

0.628

South & Southeast

0.596

0.758

0.715

0.800

0.635

0.774

All Saw Gins

0.673

0.765

0.707

All Roller Gins

0.753

0.904

0.812

z 1960s

from Wilmot and Watson (1966).

JOURNAL OF COTTON SCIENCE, Volume 17, Issue 2, 2013

182

For these reasons the present study was compared to the results of a 2010 cost-of-ginning survey
(Table 5). This provided a means of comparing
these results to results from a larger sample of U.S.
gins from the same time period. The survey energy
consumption data are for the entire season and include down time for clean-up and in-season repairs
(something the 1960s audits did not include). Some
gins had seed house drying fans on the same power
meter as the gin, so survey results in a few cases
show more than just ginning energy consumption.
Because the 1960s data did not include everything,
and the survey data in some cases included more than
just ginning, this comparison might be considered
conservative.
Anonymous survey data provided by the USDA
Office of Cotton Technology Transfer were parsed
for missing values and seasonal average energy consumption per bale for each gin was weighted based on
total bales ginned by that facility. Survey data, which
included down time and in some cases seed drying,
indicated about 18% more energy per bale compared
to energy audits and monitoring data. Comparing
survey results to audit data from the 1960s, the cotton
ginning industry is using 81% the energy it once did,
while processing at 3.4 times the rate.

be replaced with centripetal fans with larger motors).

At the same time, the ginning industry has developed
new technology and adapted innovations from other
industries. The overall result has been a remarkable
increase in labor productivityfrom four to seven fold.
Even as machines have done an increasing proportion
of the workmaking gin employment safer as well as
better payingthere has been a decrease in electrical
energy consumed per unit of cotton processed. Comparing audit data from the 1960s to survey data from
2010 or to audit and monitoring data from the present
reveal the same trendelectrical energy consumption
has decreased by 19% to 34%. This is welcome news
when consumers are concerned about the carbon footprint of their natural fiber clothing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Partial funding for the monitoring studies was
provided by Cotton Incorporated under Project 11896: Monitoring Electrical Energy Consumption in
Commercial Cotton Gins.
DISCLAIMER
Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of
providing specific information and does not imply
recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.

CONCLUSION
The U.S. cotton ginning industry has experienced
many changes over the past half century. Bale compression density has approximately doubled, displacing
work from the warehouse compress to the gin. Harvest
methods have changed, shifting labor from the field
to the gin and, in the case of stripper-harvested cotton,
moving some energy consumption to the field. Environmental regulations governing dust emissions have
resulted in increased materials-handling energy requirements as well as capital expense (e.g., more stringent
regulations required adding cyclones to lint cleaner
exhausts, so vane-axial fans with small motors had to

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Table 5. Comparison between present study and 2010 survey data from 106 U.S. gins.
West

2010 Surveyz

kWh/bale
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Sample Size
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from Valco et al. (2012); weighted average results computed by authors.

Present Study 2010 Surveyz Present Study

FUNK ET AL.: COTTON GIN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

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