Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

SOLUTIONStoChapter3ProblemsGAMMAVersion
Section 3.1. ;

SpectroscopyandtheCompositionofStarsandtheCosmos

Figure3.3showsthepartsofasimplespectrographandtheresultwhenthelightfroma
hydrogendischarge(hydrogenatom)lampentersandisdiffracted.Isthediagramand
diffractionconsistentwiththeinformationfromFigure3.1?Explainwhyorwhynot.
Answerto3.1:Thediagramshowsthattheredlightfromthedischargesourceisdiffracted
less(bentlessfarfromtheincominglightbeam)thantheblueandvioletlight.Thisiswhat
thelegendforFigure3.1saysisthecaseforthediffractionoflightbyaprism,sothe
diagramandfigureareconsistent.

3.1.

Drawadiagramofasimplespectrograph,modeledafterFigure3.3,thatusesa
transmissiondiffractiongrating,suchasshowninFigure3.2,insteadofaprismtodiffract
theincominglightbeam.Besurethediffractionresultsyoushowonthephotographicfilm
areconsistentwiththeinformationfromFigure2.2.
Answerto3.2:Asimplediagram,lookingatthespectrometerfromabove,is:

3.2.

Thediagramshowsthebluelightdiffractedless(bentlessfarfromtheincominglightbeam)
thantheredlight.ThisiswhatthelegendforFigure3.2saysisthecaseforthediffractionof
lightbyagrating,sothediagramandfigureareconsistent.
Aspectrometerwasusedtoanalyzeasourceoflightandthespectrumshowedaseries
ofemissionlines.Whatcanyouconcludeaboutthelightsource?Explain.
Answerto3.3:Sincethespectrumconsistedoflines(discretewavelengthsratherthana
continuum),thelightsourceforthisexperimentmusthavebeenanatomicemissionsource,
suchasadischargelamplikeyouusedinInvestigateThis3.4.

3.3.

Flametestscanoftenbeusedtoidentifythemetalionsina
compound.RobertW.Bunsen(Germanchemistand
spectroscopist,18111899)inventedthebunsenburnerinorderto
createaflamehotenoughtocauselightemissionfrommetalions
in
compoundsthatwereplacedintheflame.Twoexamplesare
shownhere:thegreenishflamefrombariumcompoundsandthe
scarletflamefromstrontiumcompounds.Howdotheemissions
fromatomsdiscussedinSection3.1explainwhyflametests
work?Explainclearly.
barium strontium
Answerto3.4:Themetalions,whicharejustatomsthathavelost
oneormoreelectrons,emitlightofonlycertainwavelengths,soonlythosecolorsoflight
reachoureyes.Weseedifferentcolorsfromdifferentionsbecauseeachemitsa
characteristicsetofwavelengths.Thisisjustalesssophisticateddetectionsystemthanusing

3.4.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

aspectrometertolookatthewavelengthsindividually.Bunsenactuallyinventedthebunsen
burnertoprovidetheseemissionsasalightsourceforaspectrometer,whichhealso
invented.
Morethan99%ofalltheatomicnucleiintheuniversearehydrogenandhelium.Arethe

3.5.

datainFigure3.7consistentwiththisstatement?Clearlyexplainwhyorwhynot.
Answerto3.5:Anyelementwhoseabundanceismorethanfourordersofmagnitude
(0.0001)lowerthanHewilladdnegligiblytotheatomcount,soweneglectanyelementwith
alog(abundance)below5.Convertthelog(abundance)toabundance[=10log(abundance)]forthe
valuesinFigure3.7.Theresultsaregiveninthistable,wheretheabundanceshavebeen
dividedby107,inordertomakethemeasiertocompare.
element

He

Ne

Mg

Si

Fe

Ar

abund

3200

250

2.5

1.3

0.40

0.32

0.13

0.10

0.079

0.040

0.013

ThesumoftheHandHeis325010 andthesumofalltheothersis4.8310 .Thus,asa

percentageofthetotal,HplusHeare99.8%[=(3250/3255)100%].Thevastmajorityof
atomsintheuniversearestillthoseproducedshortlyaftertheBigBang.
7

Asthepreviousproblemstates,almostallthenucleiintheuniversearehydrogenand
helium.Assumethatalmostallthemassoftheuniverseisalsohydrogenandhelium.About
whatpercentageofthemassoftheuniverseishelium?Clearlyexplainthereasoningyouuse
togetyouranswer.
Answerto3.6:Fromthesolutiontotheprecedingproblem,weseethatthereare250He
atoms(ornuclei)forevery3200Hatoms.The3200Hatomshaveamassofabout3200u
andthe250Heatoms(beingfourtimesmoremassive)haveamassofabout1000u.Heis
24%[=(1000/4200)100%]ofthetotalmassoftheHplusHeandis,therefore,about24%
ofthetotalmassoftheuniverse.

3.6.

Howdoesthemassofironintheuniversecomparetothemassofcarbon?Explainyour
reasoning.
Answerto3.7:Thereasoninghereisthesameasintheprecedingproblem.Weconvertthe
relativenumbersofatomstomassandcomparethemasses.Fromthetableinthesolutionto
Problem3.5,weseethatthereareabout79ironatomsforevery1300carbonatoms.
Multiplyingbytherelativeatomicmassesgives4400uFeand15600uofC,sothemassof
ironisabout28%themassofcarbonintheuniverse.

3.7.

Howdoesthemassofironintheuniversecomparetothemassofalltheotherfourth
periodtransitionmetals,scandiumthroughzinc,combined?
Answerto3.8:Samereasoningasinthepreviousproblem,exceptwehavetosumthe
massesoftheotherninetransitionmetalsandcomparethemtothemassofiron.Thistable
givesthedatayouneedtoshowthatironmakesup92%{=[(44106)/(48106)]100%}of
themassofallthefourthperiodtransitionelementsintheuniverse.

3.8.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

element

abundance

relatmass,u

Sc

32

45

1,400

Ti

2,500

48

120,000

320

51

16,000

Cr

20,000

52

1,040,000

Mn

10,000

55

550,000

Fe

790,000

56

44,000,000

Co

2,000

59

120,000

Ni

40,000

59

2,400,000

Cu

500

64

32,000

Zn

2,000

65

130,000

Section 3.2. ;

mass,u

TheNuclearAtom

3.9.

Whatdotheseions,S2,Cl,K+,andCa2+,haveincommon?

3.10.

Answerto3.9:Allhavethesamenumberofelectrons.

3.11.

Howdoesthemassofaprotoncomparetothemassofanelectron?

Answer3.1.
Answerto3.10:Themassoftheprotonis1.837X103greaterthanthemass
oftheelectron.
massproton

masselectron
3.12. Whatisanisotope?
Answerto3.11:Formsofthesameelementwithidenticalatomicnumber,butdifferentmass
numbers.
3.13. Whyareelectronsnotincludedwhencalculatingthemassnumberofanisotope?
Answerto3.12:Asseeninproblem3.10,themassofelectronsissosmallthatitcanbe
ignored.
3.14. Ifanisotopeofanelementhas30protons,35neutrons,28electrons:
(a) Whatistheelement?
(b) Isthisaanionoracation?Explain.
Answerto3.13:(a)Zn(b)Cationhastwomoreprotonsthanelectrons.
3.15. Whatwouldbethemass,ingrams,of25protons?
Answerto3.14:4.18X1023g
Writetheatomicsymbolsforthefollowingisotopes:
Z=19;A=40
(d) Z=13;A=28
Z=79;A=197
(e) Z=53;A=118
Z=54;A=118
(f) Z=83;A=189
40
197
118
28
118
189
Answerto3.15:(a) 19 K (b) 79 Au (c) 54 Xe (d) 15 Al (e) 53 I (f) 83 Bi

3.16.
(a)
(b)
(c)

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

3.17. Howmanyprotons,neutrons,andelectronsdothefollowingionscontain?
(a) 58Ni+
(d) 37Cl
(b) 32S2
(e) 55Mn7+
65
2+
(c) Zn
(f) 56Fe2+
Answer3.2.
Answerto3.16:Letp=protons;n=neutrons;e=electrons
(a) 28p;30n;27e
(b) 16p;16n;18e
(c) 30p;35n;28e
(d) 17p;20n;18e
(e) 25p;30n;18e
(f) 26p;30n;24e
3.18.

Completethefollowingtable.Someofthesubstancesareionsandsomeareatoms.
#of
protons

#of
neutrons

#of
electrons

Atomic
number

Mass
number

Nuclear
Symbol

45

55

45

45

100

26

34

23

26

60

88

137

88

88

225

225
88

16

22

18

16

38

38
16

100

148

100

100

248

248
100

100
45
60
26

Answerto3.17:Seeabovetable
Section 3.3. ;

EvolutionoftheUniverse:Stars

3.19. Thefollowingquestionsdealwiththekelvintemperaturescale.
(a) Is3K,thepresentbackgroundtemperatureoftheuniverse,hotorcold?Explain.
(b) TheEarthisthoughttohaveformedatatemperaturejustbelow1000K.Wouldthe
Earth,atthattemperature,havehadliquidwateronitssurface?Explain.
(c) Iftheaveragedaytimehightemperatureforacityis85F,whatisthetemperaturein
kelvin?Hint:Atemperatureof32Fis273K.Adegreeonthekelvinscaleis1.8timesthe
sizeofadegreeonthefahrenheit(F)scale.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

Rh

Fe 3+
Ra

S2

Fm

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

Answerto3.18:
(a)3Kisverycold(270oC).
(b)1000K=727oCwhichisfarabovethenormalboilingpointofwater.
(c)85oFisapproximately29oCwhichwouldbe302K.
3.20. AccordingtotheBigBangtheorystars,andeventuallyplanets,formedwhenmatter
condenseduponcoolingastheuniverseexpanded.Givesomeexamplesofanalogous
phenomenashowingcondensation.
Answerto3.19:Examplesofpossiblestudentanswersmightbe:
Cloudformation,dewdeposition,frost,fatsolidifyingaftercooking,anyfreezingprocess.
3.21. Putthesereactionsinorderfromtheonethattakesplaceatthelowesttemperaturetothe
onethatrequiresthehighesttemperature.Explainthereasoningforeachofyourchoices.
(a) 22Ne10++22Ne10+43K19++1H+
(b) 13C3++e13C2+
(c) 12C6++18O8+26Mg12++4He2+
(d) 12C6++3He2+13N7++2H+
Answerto3.20:Reaction(b)isthecombinationofacationandanelectron;thereactants
attractoneanother,sothereactiontakesplaceatarelativelylowtemperature,<104K.At
somewhathighertemperaturesatomslosealltheirelectrons.Theotherthreereactionsare
nuclearfusions(requiringtemperaturesaboveabout107K)withthelossofalighterparticle
toformtheproduct.Tobringthenucleitogetherinthefirstplacetheyhavetohaveenough
energytoovercometherepulsionbetweentheirpositivecharges.Thelargerthechargesthat
havetobebroughttogether,thehigherthetemperaturerequiredtogetthenucleimovingfast
enough.Thuswecanseethatincreasingtemperatureisrequiredgoingfrom(d),6+and2+,
to(c),6+and8+,to(a),10+and10+.Theorderofincreasingtemperatureis:(b)<<(d)<(c)
<(a).
3.22. Whatkelvintemperatureisnecessaryfornucleitohavesufficientkineticenergyto
sustainnuclearfusion?
Answerto3.21:Atemperatureofapproximately107Kiswhatevidencesuggesttobe
necessarytosustainnuclearfusion.
3.23. Wherearetheelementsformed?Giveexamplesoftheprocessesbywhichelementscan
beformed.
Answerto3.22:AllelementsexceptHandHeareformedinthecenterofstarsbyfusion
reactions.HecanalsobeformedinstarsbutalargepartwasformedjustaftertheBigBang
beforestarswereformed.
Section 3.4. ;

NuclearReactions

3.24. Completethefollowingnuclearreactions(nuclearchargeshavebeenomitted):
(a) 14N+____17O+p
(d) 20Ne+____24Mg+
(b) 13C+neutron____+
(e) 20Ne+4He____+16O
(c) 1H+1H2H+____
(f) 27Al+2H____+28Al
Answerto3.23:
GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

Answer3.3.
Answer3.4.
Answer3.5.
Answer3.6.

14
7+

(a) 7 N
13 6+

(b) 6 C

1 +



(c) 1 H
20
10 +

(d) 10 Ne

20
10 +

Answer3.7.
(e) 10 Ne
27
13+

(f) 13 Al

3.25. Completethefollowingnuclearreactions(nuclearchargeshavebeenomitted):
(a) 97Tc97Ru+____
(d) 1H+14N____+4He
(b) ____+4He243Bk+n
(e) n+235U____+94Sr+2n
(c) 249Cf+____263Sg+4n
(f) 228Ra____+228Ac
Answerto3.24:
97
43+

Answer3.8. (a) 43Tc
Answer3.9.

(b)

Answer3.10. (c)

240
95

249
98

Am 95+

Cf 98+ +188 O8+

1 +

Answer3.11. (d) 1 H
1
235 92 +

Answer3.12. (e) 0 n + 92 U

(f)

228
88

Ra 88 +

3.26. Writethebalancednuclearequationforthebetadecayof24Na.Includebothmassand
atomicnumbers.
24
11+

Answerto3.25: 11 Na
3.27. Thepnreactionisacommonnuclearreaction.Inapnreaction,aprotonreactswitha
nucleustoproduceanewnucleusandaneutronasproducts.
(a) Theamericium241usedinsmokedetectors,InvestigateThis3.30,andConsiderThis
3.31,isextractedfromspentnuclearreactorfuelrods.Itisproducedintherodsbyapn
reactionofplutonium.Whatisotopeofplutoniumisrequired?Writethebalancednuclear
reactionthatproducesamericium241.
(b) Acarbonisotopeisproducedbyapnreactionofnitrogen14intheatmosphere.
Cosmicrays(radiationandparticlesfromtheSun)arethesourceoftheprotons.What
isotopeofcarbonisproduced?Writethebalancednuclearreactionforitsproduction.
Answerto3.26:
(a)Pu241isrequiredandtheeasywaytogetthisansweristowritethebalancedequation
witheverythingknownexceptthemassnumberofthePu.Sincepandnhavethesamemass
number,thereactantandproductnucleimusthavethesamemassnumber.
(b)Thisisthesameaspart(a),exceptitistheproductofunknownmassnumberthatis
desired.Thesereactionswerechosenbecausetheymakeconnectionsbacktothechapter,
ratherthanbeingbluesky.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

11

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

3.28. When14Ncapturesaneutron,itdecaysto3Handanotherproduct.Writethebalanced
nuclearequationforthisreaction.
14
7+
1


Answerto3.27: 7 N + 0 n
3.29. Writeequationstodescribehowthefusionoftwo12C6+canleadtotheformationof:
(a) 23Na11+
(c) 20Ne10+
23
12+
(b) Mg
(d) 16O8+
Answerto3.28:
12 6+
12 6+

(a) 6 C + 6 C
12 6+
12 6+

(b) 6 C + 6 C
12 6+
12 6+

(c) 6 C + 6 C
12
6

C 6+ +126 C6+

(d)

3.30. Writeequationstodescribehowthefusionoftwo16O8+canleadtotheformationof:
(a) 32S16+
(c) 28Si14+
(b) 31P15+
(d) 24Mg12+
Answerto3.29:
16 8+
16 8+

Answer3.13.
(a) 8 O + 8 O
16 8+
16 8+


(b) 8 O + 8 O

16 8+
16 8+

(c) 8 O + 8 O
16 8+
16 8+

(d) 8 O + 8 O

3.31. WriteequationstoshowhowthethreeisotopesofMg(24Mg12+,26Mg12+,and27Mg12+)are
producedfromthefusionof12C6+and16O8+.
Answerto3.30:
12 6+
16 8+

Answer3.14.
(a) 6 C + 8 O
12 6+
16 8+

(b) 6 C + 8 O

12 6+
16 8+

(c) 6 C + 8 O

3.32. Xenon143decaysbyaseriesofsixsuccessivebetaparticleemissionstoastable
isotope.Writetheseriesofdecaysandidentifythestableisotope.
Answerto3.31:
143
Xe54+143Cs55++0e
Cs55+143Ba56++0e

143

Ba56+143La57++0e

143

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

13

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms
La57+143Hf58++0e

143

Hf58+143Pr59++0e

143

143Pr59+143Nd60++0e
3.33. In1996,theskeletonofanancienthunterwasfoundinthemudunderthewaternearthe
shoreoftheColumbiariverinKennewick,Washington.Atinysamplefromtheskeleton
(collageninthebone)wasanalyzedforcarbon14andfoundtocontain0.362asmuchofthis
isotopeasispresentinlivingorganisms.WhendidtheKennewickMandie?
Answerto3.32:ThisisastraightforwardC14halflifeproblem.
numberhalflives=ln(0.361)/(0.693)=1.47halflives
ageofsample=(1.47halflives)(5730yrhalflife1)=8420yrs
KennewickMandiedabout6420BC(or8420yearsB.P.beforepresent)
3.34. At8:15a.m.,aPETscanpatientwasinjectedwithacompoundcontainingfluorine18.
Assumingthatnoneofthecompoundisexcreted,whatfractionoftheF18remainsinthe
patientsbodyatnoon?Explainhowyousolvetheproblem.Hint:SeeTable3.3.
Answerto3.33:WewanttoknowwhatfractionoftheF18isotoperemainsundecayedafter
225minutes(3hoursand45minutesfrom8:15a.m.tonoon).Table3.3showsusthatthe
halflifeofF18is110minutes,sotheelapsedtimeisequivalentto2.05halflives=n[=
(225min)/(110minhalflife1)].
Weknowthatln(fn)=0.693n=(0.693)(2.05)=1.42
fn=fractionF18remaining=0.242
3.35. Tinyquantitiesofiodineareessentialfortheproperfunctioningofourthyroidgland.A
commontreatmentforpatientswithenlargedthyroidglands(hyperthyroidism)isingestionof
acompound,suchasNaI,containingiodine131.Theiodineconcentratesinthethyroidand
betaparticlesproducedbyitsdecaykillthethyroidcellswhereithasaccumulated.
(a) Whyareonlythyroidglandcellskilledbythebetaemission?Hint:SeeConsiderThis
3.31.
(b) AssumingthatnoneoftheI131isexcreted,howlongwillittakefortheradioactivityto
decayto10%ofitsinitiallevel?Hint:SeeTable3.3.
Answerto3.34:
(a) Betaemission,electrons,doesnotpenetratematerialsveryfar.Anyelectronsproduced
inInvestigateThis3.30wereessentiallycompletelyblockedbyasheetofaluminumfoil,as
youlearnedinConsiderThis3.31.Thus,theelectronsemittedbythedecayofI131are
absorbedbythecellsveryclosetothesourceoftheemissionandthisiswithinthethyroid
gland,soitisthyroidglandcellsthatarekilled.
(b) Weknowthatthefractionofradioactiveisotoperemainingisafunctionofthenumber
ofhalflivesthathaveelapsed.Wecanwritethenumberofhalflivesfordecayto0.10ofthe
initialamountas:n=ln(fn)/(0.693)=ln(0.10)/(0.693)=3.32halflives.Table3.3shows
thatthehalflifeforI131is8days.Thus,theI131willdecayto10%ofitsinitiallevelin
about27days.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

15

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

3.36. Rubidium87decaysbybetaemissionwithahalflifeof4.91010years.
(a) WritethebalancednuclearreactionequationforthedecayofRb87.
(b) ArocksamplefromGreenlandwasfoundtohaveaSr87/Rb87massratioof0.056.
Howoldistherocksample?Explainhowyoufindtheageandclearlystatetheassumptions
youmake.
Answerto3.35:
(a)87Rb37+87Sr38++e
(b) AssumethatthesamplecontainedonlyRb87whenitwasformed,sothatalltheSr87
isaresultofthesubsequentRb87decay.AssumethatalltheRb87nucleiinitiallypresent
arestillpresentaseitherRb87orSr87nuclei.LettheinitialmassofRb87bem.Ifa
fractionxoftheRb87nucleiremainsunreacted,thenthemassofRb87remainingisxm
andthemassofSr87formedis(1x)m.TheSr87/Rb87massratiois[(1x)m]/[xm]=
(1x)/x.Thus,foroursampleofGreenlandrock:
(1x)/x=0.056
x=1/1.056=0.95
numberofhalflives=ln(0.95)/(0.693)=0.074halflives
ageofsample=(0.074halflives)(4.91010yrhalflife1)=3.6109yrs
Section 3.5. ;

NuclearReactionEnergies

3.37. Whatisbindingenergy?
Answerto3.36:Theenergyrequiredtobreakapartanucleiintoindividualprotonsand
neutrons.
3.38. Whatisthedifferencebetweenfusionandfission?Howmightyoupredictwhethera
nucleuswouldundergofissionorfusion?
Answerto3.37:Fusioniswhentwoormorenucleisticktogethertoformsomething
larger,fissioniswhenaheavyelementbreaksupintosmallernuclei.Lightelementstendto
undergofusion,heavyelementstendtoundergofission.Eachwillbecomemorestableand
acquireahighernuclearbindingenergy.
3.39. Calculatethebindingenergypernucleonfor:
(a) 20Ne10+(nuclearmass=33.189131024g)
(b) 28Si14+(nuclearmass=46.456811024g)
(c) Whichnucleusismorestable?Explainyouranswer.
Answerto3.38:
Answer3.15.
Masslosspernucleus=(massofprotons+massofneutrons)massof
nucleus.
For:
20
10

10 +

Ne

= [10

1.5552
Tocalculatethebindingenergypernucleon,usetheformula,E=mc2.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

17

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

E = 1.552

28

14 +

For 14 Si

,thebindingenergyiscalculatedinasimilarmanner.Theansweris

7.4276

3.40. Fortheelementalnuclei,6Li3+(nuclearmass=9.98561x1024g)and56Fe26+(nuclear
mass=92.8585x1024g),calculatethebindingenergyinkilojoules
(a) pernucleus
(b) permole
(c) pernucleon
Answerto3.39:
Masslosspernucleus=(massp=massn)massnucleus
ForLi6=(3(1.672623x1024)+3(1.674929x1024))(9.98850x1024)
=0.0541x1024g
(a)Bindingenergypernucleus=E=mc2
=0.0541x1024gx1000g/kgx(3.00x108m/s)2
=4.88x1012J(kg.m2s2)
(b)Bindingenergypermole=4.88x1012J/nucleusx6.022x1023nuclei/mol
2.94x1012J/mol
(c)Bindingenergypernucleon=(2.94x1012J/mol)/6
4.9x1011J/mol.nuc
ThesamecalculationforFe56using26protonsand30neutrons
Masslosspernucleus=0.85261024g
(a) Bindingenergypernucleus=7.67x1011J
(b) Bindingenergypermole=4.62x1013J/mol
(c) Bindingenergypernucleon=8.25x1011J/mol.nuc
ThebindingenergyforFe56islargerthanthatofLijustasyouwouldexpectsinceFeisthe
moststableelement.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

19

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

3.41.WEB
WEBChap3,Sect3.5.14.
(a) Drawapictureoftwonucleithatwouldundergonuclearfusion,forexampleC12and
He4.Besuretoindicatethecomponentsofthenucleusasprotons,neutrons,orelectrons.
Drawtheresultingnucleus,afterthenucleihaveundergonefusion.
(b) Whywouldthistypeoffusionoccur?Explainclearly.
(c) Whywouldthesenucleinotundergofission?Explainclearly.
Answerto3.40:
(a) Apictureoftwonuclei,C12andHe4,undergoingfusiontogiveO16isshownhere
withprotonsdenotedbydarkcirclesandneutronsbylightergraycircles(noelectronsare
involved):

(b) Thisfusioncanoccurbecause,asFigure3.18shows,theresultantnucleus,O16,hasa
greaterbindingenergypernucleon(77107kJmol1)thaneitherofthestartingnuclei,C12
(74107kJmol1)andHe4(68107kJmol1).Theoverallenergychangeforthereaction
is:
16(77107kJmol1)[12(74107kJmol1)+4(68107kJmol1)]
=72107kJmol1
ThisistheresultrepresentedinFigure3.19anddiffersslightlyfromthevaluesobtainedin
CheckThis3.50duetoroundingoffofthebindingenergyvalues.
(c) Fissionofthesenucleiwouldleadtoproductswithlessbindingenergypernucleonand
henceanoverallpositiveenergychange,thatis,ahighlyendothermicreaction.Forexample,
ifC12weretosplitintotwoLi6nuclei,theenergychangewouldbeapproximately:
26(54107kJmol1)12(74107kJmol1)=240107kJmol1
Thisenormouspositiveenergyisapproximate,becausethebindingenergiesinFigure
3.18areforthemostabundantisotopeofeachelementandLi7isthemostabundant
isotopeoflithium.Differentisotopesofthesameelementdonotusuallydifferagreat
dealinbindingenergypernucleon,soasmalldifferencewillnotaffectthe
conclusionthatthisisaveryunfavorablereactionenergetically.
3.42. (a)
ThemassofaXe142nucleusis235.630751024g.Whatisitsbinding
energyinkJmol1?
(b) Useyourresultfrompart(a)andthedatainFigure3.20tocalculatetheenergyreleased
inthisfissionreaction:
U92++1n090Sr38++142Xe54++41n0
(c) Howdoesyourresultinpart(b)comparetotheenergyforthefissionreactioninFigure
3.20?WhatmightyouconcludeabouttheenergiesreleasedinthefissionreactionsofU235?
Explain.
Answerto3.41:
(a) TheXe142bindingenergyistheenergychangeforthisimaginedreaction:
54p+88n142Xe
m=235.630751027kg[54(1.672621027kg)+88(1.674931027kg)]
235

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

21

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

=2.08461027kg
E(mole)=(2.08461027kg)(3.00108cms)2(6.0221023nucleimol1)
=1.1301011kJmol1=11300107kJmol1
(b) ThenucleiinthefissionreactioninthisproblemarethesameasinFigure3.20,except
forXe142hereinplaceofXe143inthefigure.Thus,thebindingenergiesarethesamefor
theothernucleiandtheenergychangeforthereactionhereis:
E=[(7560107kJmol1)+(11300107kJmol1)](17250107kJmol1)
=1610107kJmol1
(c) Withintheroundoffuncertaintiesofthetwovalues,theonehereandtheoneinFigure
3.20arethesame.Withtheselimiteddata,wemightconcludethatthefissionofaU235
nucleusalwaysproducesaboutthesameamountofenergy,regardlessofthewaythenucleus
splits.Thenextproblemprovidessomefurtherdata.
3.43. Theenergychange(inkJmol1)foroneofthecollisioninducednuclearfission
reactionsinFigure3.21isshowninFigure3.20.ThebindingenergiespernucleonforKr92,
Rb89,Cs144,andBa141are,respectively,82.3,83.7,79.4,and80.5107kJmol1.
(a) WhataretheenergychangesfortheothernuclearfissionreactionsinFigure3.21?
(b) WhatmightyouconcludeabouttheenergiesreleasedinthefissionreactionsofU235?
Explain.
Answerto3.42:
(a) WesolvethisproblemexactlyasisillustratedinFigure3.20forfissiontoyieldSr90
andXe143.(Foreaseinwriting,wewillomitthe107factoraswellastheunitsandinclude
themonlyinthefinalresult.)
ForKr92+Ba141:E=[92(82.3)+141(80.5)]235(73.4)
=1670107kJmol1
ForRb89+Cs144:E=[89(83.7)+144(79.4)]235(73.4)
=1630107kJmol1
(b) Again,justasinthepreviousproblem,wefindthattheenergyreleasedinthefissionof
onemoleofU235isintherange1600to1700107kJmol1,andtheconclusionwereached,
thatthefissionofU235producesaboutthesameamountofenergy,nomatterwhatthe
productnuclei,isstrengthened.
3.44. WEBChap3,Sect3.4.3.
WEB
(a) Drawanucleusofacarbon12atom.Clearlylabelthecomponentsofthenucleusas
protons,neutrons,orelectrons.
(b) Drawapictureofwhatthisnucleuswouldlooklikeifitseparatelyunderwenteachof
themaintypesofradioactivedecay:alpha,beta,gammaandpositronemission.Identifywhat
theresultingelementalnucleuswouldbeineachcase.
(c) WhichtypeofradiationdoyouthinkC12wouldbelikelikelytoemit(ifany).Givean
exampleofanelementalnucleusthatwouldbemorelikelythanC12toundergoeachtype
ofradioactivedecay.
Answerto3.43:

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

23

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

(a)and(b)TheC12nucleusisshownineachofthefourreactionsaskedforinpart(b).In
thesediagrams,theprotonisrepresentedbyadarkcircleandtheneutronbyalightergray
circle.
alphaemission:

betaemission:

positronemission:

gammaemission:
(c) Carbon12isastableisotope,thatis,itdoesnotemitanyformofradioactivity.From
Figure3.18,youcanseethatemissionofanyofthethreeparticlesaboveleadstoproducts
thatareofhigherenergythancarbon12,sothisexplainsitsstability.Positron(orelectron
capture)andbetaemissionwouldbemorelikelyfromsomeisotopeofBorN,where,in
eachcase,amorestableelementalnucleusisformed.Positronemission(orelectroncapture)
tendtotakeplacefromisotopesthathavefewerthanthenormal(stable)numberofneutrons
N13,forexample.Betaemissiontendstooccurfromisotopesthathavemorethanthe
normalnumberofprotonsC14,forexample.Alphaparticleemissionisgenerallya
propertyoftheheavierelements(beyondFe)wheretheresultingnuclei(includingtheHe4)
aremorestablelowerenergythantheparent.Gammaemissionmayaccompanyanyof
theotheremissionsorbetheonlyemission,asinelectroncaptureormetastablenuclei
decays.
3.45. ThemassofaHe3nucleusis5.006421024g.Isthisreactionendothermicor
exothermic?
3
3
4
1
2 He 2++ 2 He 2+ 2 He 2++21 H +
HowmuchenergyisrequiredorreleasedpergramofHe3thatreacts?
Answerto3.44:FromWorkedExample3.41wegetthemassofa4He2+nucleus,
6.644661024g,andfromTable3.1,themassofanH1nucleus,1.672621024g.Thus,the
masslossandenergychangeinthisreactionare:
m=[2(1.672621027kg)+6.644661027kg]2(5.006421027kg)
=0.022941027kg
27
E=(0.0229410 kg)(3.00108cms)2=2.06461012J
Thisenergychangeisfor10.01024gofHe3reacting.Onegramis1023timesthisamount
ofreactant,sotheenergychangeforonegramofreactantis2.061011J=20.6107kJ.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

25

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

3.46. InMarch2002,scientistsfromOakRidgeNationalLaboratoryreportedthattheyhad
subjectedasampleofacetone,CH3C(O)CH3,inwhichallthehydrogenshadbeenreplaced
withdeuterium,2H,tointensecavitation(formationandcollapseofbubbles),andhad
detectedtheformationofneutronsandtritium,3H,inthesample.Atentativeexplanationfor
thisobservationwasthatfusionofdeuteriumnuclei,whichcanoccurintwoequally
probableways,wastakingplaceatthehightemperaturesandpressuresinthecollapsing
bubbles:
2
H+2H3H+p
(i)
2
H+2H3He+n
(ii)
(a) Whataretheenergychangesforreactions(i)and(ii)?ThemassesofH2,H3,andHe3
nucleiare,respectively,3.343571024g,5.007361024g,and5.006421024g.
(b) Whichsetofproductsismorestable?Explainthereasoningforyouranswer.
Answerto3.45:
(a)
(i)m=(5.007361027kg+1.672621027kg)2(3.343591027kg)
=0.007201027kg
E=(0.007201027kg)(3.00108cms)2=6.481013J
=4.04MeV{1.01MeVH3+3.02MeVp=4.03MeV}
(ii)m=(5.006421027kg+1.674931027kg)2(3.343591027kg)
=0.005831027kg
E=(0.005831027kg)(3.00108cms)2=5.251013J
=3.28MeV{0.82MeVHe3+2.45MeVn=3.27MeV}
(b) Theproductsofreaction(i),tritium(H3)andaproton,aremorestable,sincemore
energyisreleasedinthisreaction.Thereactantsarethesameinbothreactions,sotherelease
ofmoreenergymeanstheproductsofreaction(i)arelowerenergy(morestable)thanthe
productsofreaction(ii).NotethatthemassofaH3andaHe3nucleusareverysimilar
(differby0.000921027kg),buttheneutronisagooddealheavierthantheproton(by
0.002311027kg),somoreofthemassofthereactantsisconvertedtoenergyinreaction(i).
Section 3.6. ;

CosmicElementalAbundanceandNuclearStability

3.47. (a)
Thenuclearmassesofhelium4andberyllium8are6.6446551024gand
13.289491024g.WhatarethemandE(inkJmol1)forthisreaction:
4
He2++4He2+8Be4+
(b) Beryllium8decaysbysplittingintotwoalphaparticlewithahalflifeofabout71017s.
Doesyourresultinpart(a)helpyouunderstandthisveryshortlifetime?Explainwhyorwhy
not.
(c) WhatisE(inkJmol1)forthisreaction:
4
He2++8Be4+12C6+
(d) Thesumofthetworeactionsinthisproblemisreactionequation(3.7)inthetext.What
isEforreaction(3.7)?Explainhowyougetyourresult.
(e) Thetextthataccompaniesreactionequation(3.7)saysthefusioninvolvesalmost
simultaneouscollisionofthreehelium4nuclei.Howistheinformationinthisproblem

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

27

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

relatedtothisstatement?Doyourresultsinthisproblemhelptoexplaintherelative
abundanceofberylliumintheuniverse?Explainyourresponses.
Answerto3.46:
(a) m=(13.289491027kg)2(6.6446551027kg)=0.000181027kg
E=(0.000181027kg)(3.00108cms)2(6.0221023nucleimol1)
=9.8109Jmol1=0.98107kJmol1
(b) ThereactionoftwoHe4toformaBe8isendothermic,whichisunfavorable.The
reversereactionisfavoredandhelpstoexplainwhytheBe8nucleusfallsapartsorapidly.
(c) ThemassoftheC12nucleus,19.921011024g,isgiveninCheckThis3.42,sowe
have:
m=(19.921011027kg)[(6.6446551027kg)+(13.289491027kg)]
=0.013141027kg
E=(0.013141027kg)(3.00108cms)2(6.0221023nucleimol1)
=7.1191011Jmol1=71.19107kJmol1
(d) WhenwesumthetworeactionstogettheoverallreactionofthreeHe4toyieldC12,
wecanalsosumtheenergychangesforeachreactiontogettheoverallenergychange:
overallE=(0.98107kJmol1)+(71.19107kJmol1)
=70.21107kJmol1
ThisistheresultrepresentedinFigure3.19andobtainedaswell,withinroundoff
uncertaintyinCheckThis3.50
(e) ThehalflifeoftheBe8nucleusissoshortthatthecollisionofthethirdHe4hasto
occurwithinabout1016secondsoftheBe8formation,oritwillhavefallenapart.Thisis
whatismeantbyalmostsimultaneouscollision.Theformationofberylliumnucleibythis
pathwayisimpossible,sostableisotopeshavetobeformedinotherreactionsofless
abundantnuclei,whichmakestheabundanceofberylliumintheuniversequitelow,asyou
seeinFigure3.7.Thelowberylliumabundanceis,ultimately,aresultofthelowbinding
energyofitsnucleus.
3.48.

Anuclearreactionsequencethatoccursinsomestarsis:

C6+13N7+13C6+14N7+15O8+15N7+(12C6++4He2+)
(a) Writethebalancednuclearreactionsforeachstepofthesequence.Hint:Consider
fusionsinvolvingprotons,1H,andelectroncapturedecays,asinCheckThis3.39.Compare
yourreactionstothoseyouproposedinCheckThis3.56(b).
(b) Showthatthenetresultoftheseriesofreactionsyouwroteinpart(a)isequivalentto
nuclearreactionequation(3.6).
(c) Theseriesofreactionsyouwroteinpart(a)isusuallyreferredtoastheCNO(carbon
nitrogenoxygen)cycleandcarbon12issaidtocatalyzetheformationofheliumfrom
hydrogen.Explainwhycarbonisassignedthisrole.Hint:Acatalystfacilitatesareaction,but
isnotitselfconsumedinthenetreaction.
Answerto3.47:
(a) Thesequenceofreactionsis:
12 6+
C +1H+13N7+
13 7+
N +0e13C6+
13 6+
C +1H+14N7+
12

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

29

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

N7++1H+15O8+
15 8+
O +0e15N7+
15 7+
N +1H+12C6++4He2+
ThefirstthreeofthesereactionsareoneswewroteinCheckThis356(b)toshowhowodd
atomicnumbernucleimightbeformedinstars.
(b) Theproductofeachreactionisthereactantinthenextreaction,sotheyallgetusedup
inthesequence.AC12isrequiredtostartthesequence,butanotherisformedinthelast
step,sothereisnonetlossorgainofC12.Thenetchangeinthereactionisobtainedby
addingallthereactionsandcancelingspeciesthatappearonbothsidesofthesums.The
resultis:
41H++20e4He2+
Thisequationisbalancedinmassnumber,atomicnumber,andcharge.Thisequationis
formallyequivalenttoreactionequation(3.6),because,ifyouaddtwopositronstoeach
sideoftheequationhere,theelectronsandpositronsannihilateoneanotheronthereactant
side,givingreactionequation(3.6).
(c) Aswesaidinpart(b),C12isrequiredtostartthesequencebutisthenregeneratedat
theend,soitdoesnotappearinthenetreactionequation.Thisisexactlyhowacatalyst
works.Ittakespartinareactiontofacilitateit,asitherefacilitatestheformationofhelium
fromhydrogen,butisnotusedup.Ofcourseanyoftheintermediateproductscantakepart
inotherreactionsandbelosttothecycle,aswesuggestedinCheckThis3.56(b)whenwe
consideredtheformationofN14asawaytobeginsynthesisofoddatomicnumbernuclei.
Still,inmassivestarswithnucleiathighdensity,thiscycleisalargecomponentofthe
fusionreactionsproducingmoreHe4fromH1.
14

Section 3.7. ;

FormationofPlanets:TheEarth

3.49. (a)
Since70%ofthemassofyourbodyiswater,wemightsaythatyouare
mostlywater,andthedatainFigure3.27confirmthathydrogenandoxygenatomsarethe
mostabundantinthehumanbody.Istheratiooftheseatomsconsistentwiththecomposition
ofwater?Explainwhyorwhynot.
(b) SomemightsaythatthecrustoftheEarthismostlysand,silicondioxide,SiO2.Dothe
datainFigure3.27confirmthissuggestion?Explainwhyorwhynot.
Answerto3.48:
(a) ConvertingthelogarithmicdatainFigure3.27tonumbersofatomsofhydrogenand
oxygen(permilliontotal),weget6.3105atomsofHand2.5105atomsofO(whichis88%
ofalltheatomsinthebody).SincewaterhastwoatomsofHperatomofO,werequireat
leastthis2:1ratioforthedatatobeconsistentwiththecompositionofwater.Weseethatthe
ratioisactually2.5:1,reflectingthecompositionofothermoleculesthatarealsopresent,but
confirmingthattheabundanceisconsistentwiththepresenceofalotofwater.
(b) Usingthesamelogicasinpart(a),welookatthenumberofatomsofOandSifromthe
datafortheEarthscrustinFigure3.27.Thereare6.3105atomsofOand2.0105atomsof
Si(whichis83%ofalltheatomsinthecrust).TheratioofOatomstoSiatomsinthecrust
isalittleover3:1.Theratioinsand,silicondioxide,is2:1,sothecompositionisconsistent

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

31

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

withtheideathatthecrustislargelysilicondioxide(withotheroxidesandsilicateminerals,
whichcontainoxygenandsiliconinvarioushigherratios).
3.50. Duringtheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury,chemistsspentagooddealofeffort
determiningaccuratevaluesforrelativeatomicmasses.Whenleadwasstudied,themetal
fromdifferentoreshaddifferentatomicmasses.Fromoresthatalsocontaineduranium,the
relativeatomicmasswascloseto206u,butfromotherores,thevaluewascloseto208u.
(a) Whatwouldyousuggestasthereasonforthedifferenceintheleadindifferentores?Is
yourexplanationconsistentwiththeinformationinthisproblemandthischapter?Explain
youranswersclearly.
(b) Therelativeatomicmassofleadshownintheperiodictableontheendpapersofthe
bookis207.2u.Clearlyexplainhowyouaccountforthisvalue.
Answerto3.49:
(a) Wehaveseen,equation(3.27),thatU238decaysbyaseriesofalphaandbeta
emissionstogivePb206andwehaveseenthattheratioofleadtouraniumisusedasa
methodofdatingrocksthatcontainuranium.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,tofindthatores
containinguraniumwouldalsocontainlead206.Otherstableisotopesofleadarealso
formedbynucleosynthsisinsupernovae,sotheEarthcontainstheseaswellandapparently
oresthatdonothaveuranium,butcontainlead(suchasgalena,animportantleadore)
containaheavierleadisotope,Pb208.
(b) Therelativeatomicmassesinourperiodictablesareaveragesthataccountforthe
relativeamountsofthevariousstableisotopesofanelement.Leadhasfourstableisotopes,
Pb204(veryminor),Pb206,Pb207,andPb208.IftheamountsofPb206andPb208
werethesame,wewouldexpecttheaverageatomicmassofasampletobe207u.Sincethe
experimentalvalueislargerthan207u,wecanconcludethat,onaverage,thereismore
Pb208thanPb206onEarth.Therelativefractionsofthefourisotopesare,respectively,
0.014,0.241,0.221,and0.524.
Section 3.9. ;

EXTENSIONIsotopes:AgeoftheUniverseandaTasteofHoney

3.51. Figure3.29showsaschematicdiagramofaninstrumentcalledamassspectrometer,
whichisnamedbyanalogywiththelightspectrograph(orspectrometer)representedin
Figure3.3.Alightspectrometerusesaprismordiffractiongratingtodisperselightintoits
componentwavelengths.Whatdoesthemassspectrometerdisperse?Whatisthepartofthe
massspectrometerthatisresponsibleforthedispersion?Explain.
Answerto3.50:Byanalogywiththelightspectrometerthatdisperseslight,themass
spectrometerdispersesmass.Notethatthediagramshowsthatlowandhighmassionsare
separatedinspacewhentheyreactthedetector.Thedispersingelementinthisformofmass
spectrometeristhemagnet.Thepathwaysofionsmovinginamagneticfieldarecurvedor
bentbythefield.Themoremassiveionsareharderforthefieldtodeflect,sotheirpathway
islesscurved,asshownonthediagram.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

33

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

3.52. SincethetemperatureoftheoceansurfacehassuchalargeimpactontheEarths
climate,thisisoneofthevariableswhosehistoryscientistswishtodetermineasthey
developclimatemodels.Mostoftheapproachestodiscoveringthishistorymakeuseof
differencesinstableisotoperatios.FossilcatfishfromtheshoresofPeruwerethefocusof
onesuchstudy.Thesecatfishdepositcalciumcarbonateasotoliths,earstones,whichgrow
throughoutthelifeofthefishinlayers(liketheringsofatree),soannualvariationscanbe
determined.Thestudyexaminedthe18Oinotolithsfromcontemporaryfishandfrom6000
6500yearoldfossilfishfromasiteonthenortherncoastofPeruandonefromfurthersouth.
Thedataareshowninthisfigure.

(a) DuringanElNioyear,theseasurfacetemperature(SST)oftheeasternPacificOcean
offthecoastofSouthAmericagetswarmerthanusual.Howdoes18Ovarywithtemperature
inthesecalciumcarbonateotoliths?Clearlyexplainthereasoningforyouranswer.
(b) Theauthorsconcludethatthemostplausibleexplanationforthearchaeological18Ootolith
valuesiswarmersummerSSTsat[siteX]andnearlytropicalconditionsnear[siteY]inthe
earlymidHolocene[thelast11000years].Whichofthesitesrepresentedinthefigureis
siteXandwhichsiteY?Clearlyexplainthereasoningforyourchoices.
(c) Dotheconditionsatthesitesyouidentifiedinpart(b)makesenseintermsoftheir
geographiclocations?Explain.
Answer3.51:
(a) SincetheSSTishigher(warmerseas)duringanElNioyearandthe18Oislowerin
theseyears(thearrowsonthecontemporarydataplot),thecorrelationislower18Owhenthe
SSTishigher.
(b) Nearlytropicalconditionsmeansahighertemperatureallyearroundandweseethat,
atthenorthernsite,the18Ovaluesareallquitelow,indicatingarelativelyhighSSTallyear
round.Thus,thenorthernsiteistheonewiththenearlytropicalconditionsabout6000years
ago.Themoresouthernsiteshowsmuchgreaterseasonalvariationin18O,andhenceinSST,
butmostofthesummervaluesareatleastaslowasforamodernElNioyearwiththe
wintervaluesmorelikethemodernnonElNioyears.Thus,thesummerSSTsatthemore
southernsite6000yearsagowerewarmerthanthemodernaverage,buttheseasonalswings
weremuchlarger.
(c) SincePeruisinthesouthernhemisphere,themorenorthernsitethatwasstudiedis
nearertheequator,about4southlatitude,anditmakessensethatthissiteshouldhavemore
tropicalconditions.Thesouthernsiteisatabout9southlatitude.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

35

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

3.53. Potassiumisrelativelyabundant,Figures3.7and3.25,sogeologistsmakeextensiveuse
ofargonpotassiumdating.Potassium40isradioactiveanddecaysbytwopathways:beta
emissionandelectroncapture.10.7%ofthedecayoccursbytheelectroncapturepathway.
Argon40formedintheelectroncapturereactionisagasandcanescapefrommoltenrock,
butistrappedinthecrystallattice,ifitisformedaftertherocksolidifies.Thus,Ar40/K40
datingindicatestheageofthesamplesinceitsolidified.
(a) WritebalancednuclearreactionsforthetwomodesofK40decay.Hint:SeeCheck
This3.39.
(b) Assumethatexactly100micrograms(g)ofK40arepresentinasamplewhenit
solidifies.AfteroneK40halflife,1.25109years,howmanymicrogramsofAr40willhave
beenformed?WhatistheAr40/K40massratioatthistime?Hint:10.7%oftheK40that
reactedhasbecomeAr40.
(c) CalculatetheAr40/K40massratioaftertwohalfliveshaveelapsed.Hint:TheAr40
formedduringthesecondhalflifeaddstothatformedduringthefirst.
(d) TheAr40/K40massratioasafunctionof
1.6
theageoftherock(timesinceitsolidified)is
1.4
showninthisplot.Doyourresultsfromparts
1.2
(b)and(c)fallonthecurve?Explainwhyor
1.0
whynot?
0.8
(e) Arocksamplereturnedfromthesurfaceof
0.6
ourmoonhadanAr40/K40massratioof
0.4
1.05.Whatistheageofthesample?Whatdoes
0.2
thisresultsuggestabouttheageofthemoon?
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Explain.
age,billionsofyears
Answer3.52:
(a) Thenuclearequationsare(referenceto
CheckThis3.39isareminderabouthowtowriteelectroncapturereactions):
40 19+
K +e40Ar18+(electroncapture)
40 19+ 40
K Ca20++e(betaemission)
(b) Afteronehalflife,50gofK40areleftand5.35g(=0.10750g)ofAr40havebeen
formedbythe50gofK40thatdecayed.TheAr40/K40massratiois0.107
(=5.35g/50g).
(c) Afterasecondhalflifehaselapsed,25gofK40areleftand2.675g(=0.10725g)of
Ar40havebeenformedbythe25gofK40thatdecayed.ThetotalamountofAr40that
hasaccumulatedis8.025g(5.35g+2.675g),sotheAr40/K40massratiois0.321
(=8.025g/25g).
(d) OnehalflifeforK40is125109yearsandweseefromtheplotthatthemassratiois
justover0.10atthisage,whichiswhatwecalculatedinpart(b).Twohalflivesare2.50109
yearsandweseefromtheplotthatthemassratioissomewhatover0.30atthisage,whichis
whatwecalculatedinpart(c).Theresultscalculatedforoneandtwohalflivesfallonthe
curve,soyoucanhaveconfidencethatthecurvedoesrepresenttheAr40/K40massratioas
afunctionofageofthesample.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

37

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

(e) AsamplewithanAr40/K40massratioof1.05isabout4.6109yearsold.Weknow
thatthemoonisheavilymarkedwithcratersformedbyimpactsfromsolarsystemdebris.
Theseimpactsliquefiedtherockattheimpactareaandthesplashingoftheliquidformed
thecraters.Liquefactionreleasesanyargon(andothergasesintherock),sotheageofthe
sampleprobablyrepresentstheagesincesomeimpactoccurred.Thus,themoonisprobably
morethan4.6billionyearsold.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

39

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

3.54.WEB
WEBChap3,Sect3.59.
Theplotofactivityasafunctionoftimefortheradioactivedecay
of
time,min
activity,
indium113monpages7,8,and9ofthissectionoftheWeb
counts
Companionislowresolutionanddifficulttoread.Anothersimilar
per30s
setofdataforthisdecayaregivenhere.
0
68372
(a) Plotthesedata,asintheWebCompanion,anduseyourplot
to
30
54852
determinethehalflifeforthedecay.Howdoesyourvalue
60
45457
comparewiththeonefromtheCompanion?Hint:Oneapproach,
90
36901
whichrequiressomemathematicalmanipulation,istousea
120
29964
graphingcalculatororcomputerplottingprogramtoplotthedata,
150
24570
findtheequationoftheexponentialcurvethroughthedata,and
185
18936
usetheequationofthiscurvetofindthehalflife.
229
15020
(b) Applyequation(3.28)tothesedata(withuraniumreplacedby
240
12790
indium)andplotthedatatogivealinearplot.Usetheequationof
thelinetofindthehalflifeandcompareyourvaluewiththeone
fromtheWebCompanion.
Answer3.53:
Inpreparationforthevariousapproachestothisproblem,thedataandsomemanipulationsof
thedataaregiveninthistable:
time,min

activity,countsper30s

fractionremaining

ln(fraction)

68372

1.0000

0.0000

30

54852

0.8023

0.2203

60

45457

0.6648

0.4082

90

36901

0.5397

0.6167

120

29964

0.4382

0.8250

150

24570

0.3594

1.0234

185

18936

0.2770

1.2839

229

15020

0.2197

1.5156

240

12790

0.1871

1.6763

(a) Whenthedataareplotted,asintheWebCompanion,theplothereisobtained.Attime
zerotheactivityis68000counts.Whentheactivityhasdroppedto34000counts,thetimeis
justover100minutes,whichisconsistentwiththe102minutesintheWebCompanion.If
welookatthetimerequiredtodropfrom50000to25000counts,wegofromabout45
minutestojustbefore150minutes.Againthehalflifeisalittleover100minutes.Youmay
havetriedotherpossibilities.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

41

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms
70000
activity=68,011*exp(0.006813*t)

60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0

50

100

150

time,min

200

250

Theanalyseswedidinthetextchapterwerebasedonthefractionoftheradioactiveisotope
remainingandwecanplotthis,ifwetaketheratioofeachmeasuredactivitytotheinitial
activity.Thesearethedatainthethirdcolumnofourtableandplottedonthisgraph.
1.00

fraction=0.995*exp(0.006813*t)

0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

50

100

150

time,min

200

250

Howcanweinterprettheequationofthecurve(givenwiththeplot)throughthepoints.
Equation(3.17)gavethefraction,fn,asafunctionofnumberofhalflives,n:
fn=(0.5)n
Letsdoalittlemathematicalmanipulationontherighthandterm.Firstwetakeitslogarithm
andget:nln(0.5)=0.695n.Thenwetaketheantilogarithmofthisresulttoundothe
logarithmandgetusbacktowherewestarted.Theresultise0.695n,soweendupwithanew
expressionforfn:
fn=e0.695n
Ifweexpressthenumberofhalflivesastheratioofthetimethathaspassed,t,tothehalf
life,,wehave:n=t/.Substitutethisintotheexpressionforfntoget:
fn=e(0.695/)t=exp[(0.693/)t](anotherwaythe
exponentialisoftenwritten)
GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

43

Chapter3

OriginofAtoms

Thisequationsaysthatthefractionofisotoperemainingisanexponentialfunctionofthe
time.Thecoefficientontheexponentialshouldbeunityandthedecayconstant(unitsof
time1tocanceltheunitsoft)intheexponentialshouldbe0.693/.Theexponentialequation
forthepointsonthegraphhasacoefficientof0.995,whichisalmostunity,andthedecay
constantis0.006813min1(sincetisinminutes)whichgives=102min[=0.693/(
0.006813min1)].Notethatthedecaycurveinthefirstgraph(activityvs.time)hasexactly
thesameexponentialdependenceontime,sotherawdatacanalsobeusedtogetthehalf
lifebythismethod.
(b) Thesuggestedequation(3.28)isonethatgivesthelogarithmofthefractionofisotope
remainingasafunctionoftime:ln(fn)=(0.693/)t(whichisexactlywhatyougetbytaking
thelogarithmofbothsidesinthefinalequationinpart(a)).Theadvantageofthisapproach
isthattheplotshouldbeastraightlinewithaninterceptofzeroandaslopeequaltothe
decayconstant,0.693/.Thefourthcolumninthetablegivesthedataforthisplot.
0.0

ln(fraction)=0.006813*t0.00528

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8

50

100

150

time,min

200

250

Theequationofthestraightlinedoeshaveaninterceptthatisnearlyzeroandthe
decayconstant,notsurprisingly,isidenticaltotheonewegotfromtheexponential
plot.Allourapproachesgivethesamevalueforthehalflife,102min,justasyou
findintheWebCompanion.

GammaVersion

ACSChemistry

45