13 Special Diodes

VALILA, MARY GRACE CATHERINE I.
BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
ENGR. SEVILLA TAUZON
13 SPECIAL DIODES
1. ZENER DIODE
A. OVERVIEW
The zener diode is a silicon pn junction devices that differs from rectifier diodes
because it is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown region. The breakdown
voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the level during manufacture. The
basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across its terminals within
given limits of line or load change. Typically it is used for providing a stable reference
voltage for use in power supplies and other equipment.
A zener diode is much like a normal diode. The exception being is that it is placed in the
circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse breakdown. This typical characteristic curve
illustrates the operating range for a zener. Note that its forward characteristics are just like
a normal diode.
Zener breakdown effect: Zener breakdown effect is the one from which the diode
gains its popular name. It is the quantum mechanical effect tunnelling effect, but when
applied to the voltage reference diode, it retains the Zener name after the man who
discovered it.
TYPE:
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
INVENTOR:
PASSIVE
ZENER BREAKDOWN
CLARENCE MELVIN ZENER
B. CONSRTRUCTION DIAGRAM
C. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
D. I-V CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the reverse breakdown voltage. This causes a
very thin depletion layer. As a result, a zener diode has a sharp reverse breakdown voltage
VZ. This is clear from the reverse characteristic of zener diode shown in Fig. 7.1. Note that
the reverse characteristic drops in an almost vertical manner at reverse voltage VZ. As the
curve reveals, two things happen when VZ is reached :
(i) The diode current increases rapidly.
(ii) The reverse voltage VZ across the diode remains almost constant.
In other words, the zener diode operated in this region will have a relatively constant
voltage across it, regardless of the value of current through the device. This permits the zener
diode to be used as a voltage regulator.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

The reverse conduction effects, in common with many other aspects of semiconductor
technology are subject to temperature variations. It is found that the impact ionisation and
Zener effects have temperature coefficient in opposite directions. The Zener effect which
predominates below 5.5 volts exhibits a negative temperature coefficient. However the
avalanche effect which is the major effect above 5.5 volts has a positive temperature
coefficient.
A positive Temperature Coefficient means that the zener voltage increases with an
increase in temperature or decreases with a decrease in temperature.
A negative Temperature Coefficient means that the zener voltage decreases with an
increase in temperature or increases with adecrease in temperature.
As a result Zener diodes or voltage reference diodes with reverse voltages of around 5.5
volts where the two effects occur almost equally have the most stable overall temperature
coefficient as they tend to balance each other out for the optimum performance.
F. APPLICATION
Zener diodes find numerous applications in transistor circuitry. Some of their common
uses are :
As voltage regulators
As a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison purposes and
for calibrating voltmeters.
As peak clippers or voltage limiter.
For metre protection against damage from accidental application of excessive
voltage.
For reshaping waveform.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A. OVERVIEW
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible light when forward biased.
Light-emitting diodes are not made from silicon or germanium but are made by using
elements like gallium, phosphorus and arsenic. By varying the quantities of these elements,
it is possible to produce light of different wavelengths with colours that include red, green,
yellow and blue. For example, when a LED is manufactured using gallium arsenide, it will
produce a red light. If the LED is made with gallium phosphide, it will produce a green light.
The forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1V to 3V and forward current ratings
range from 20 mA to 100 mA. In order that current through the LED does not exceed the
safe value, a resistor RS is connected in series with it. The input voltage is VS and the
voltage across LED is VD.
General light output versus forward

current.
TYPE:
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
INVENTOR:
PASSIVE, OPTOELECTRONIC
ELECTROLUMINESCENCE
OLEG LOSEV (1927), JAMES BIARD (1961)

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
D. IV CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type
material and recombine with holes in the p-type material. These free electrons are in the
conduction band and at a higher energy than the holes in the valence band. The difference
in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to the energy of visible light.
When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form
of photons. The emitted light tends to be monochromatic (one color) that depends on the
band gap (and other factors). A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconductive material permits the photons to be emitted as visible light. This process is called
electroluminescence.
F. APPLICATION
A. As an indicator or sign
The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of LEDs has led
to uses as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations.
Large-area LED displays are used as stadium displays and as dynamic decorative displays.
Thin, lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as
destination displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries.
B. LIGHTING
LEDs are used as street lights and in other architectural lighting where color
changing is used. The mechanical robustness and long lifetime is used in automotive
lighting on cars, motorcycles, and bicycle lights.LEDs are used for infrared illumination in
night vision uses including security cameras. A ring of LEDs around a video camera,
aimed forward into a retroreflective background, allows chroma keying in video
productions. LEDs are used in mining operations, as cap lamps to provide light for
miners. Research has been done to improve LEDs for mining, to reduce glare and to
increase illumination, reducing risk of injury for the miners.
C. DATA COMMUNICATION
Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals. For example, lighting
white LEDs can be used in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while
searching necessary rooms or objects.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
3. PHOTO DIDOE
A. OVERVIEW
A photo-diode is a reverse-biased silicon or germanium pn junction in which reverse
current increases when the junction is exposed to light. The reverse current in a photo-diode
is directly proportional to the intensity of light falling on its pn junction. This means that
greater the intensity of light falling on the pn junction of photo-diode, the greater will be the
reverse current.
When a rectifier diode is reverse biased, it has a very small reverse leakage current. The
same is true for a photo-diode. The reverse current is produced by thermally generated
electron hole pairs which are swept across the junction by the electric field created by the
reverse voltage. In a rectifier diode, the reverse current increases with temperature due to
an increase in the number of electron-hole pairs. A photo-diode differs from a rectifier diode
in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with the
increase in light intensity and vice-versa. This is explained as follows. When light (photons)
falls on the pn junction, the energy is imparted by the photons to the atoms in the junction.
This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional free electrons will
increase the reverse current. As the intensity of light incident on the pn junction increases,
the reverse current also increases. In other words, as the incident light intensity increases,
the resistance of the device (photo-diode) decreases.
MATERIAL
Silicon
Germanium
Indium gallium arsenide
Lead (II) sulfide
Mercury cadmium telluride
TYPE:
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
PIN CONFIGURATION:
ELECTROMAGNECTIC SPECTRUM
WAVELENGTH RANGE (nm)
190-1100
400-1700
800-2600
<1000 3500
400-14000
PASSIVE
CONVERTS LIGHT INTO CURRENT
ANODE AND CATHODE

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015

The figure shows the basic photo-diode circuit. The circuit has reversebiased photodiode, resistor R and d.c. supply. The operation of the photodiode is as under :
(i) When no light is incident on the pn junction of photo-diode, the reverse current Ir is
extremely small. This is called dark current.
The resistance of photo-diode with no incident light is called dark
resistance (RR).
(ii) When light is incident on the pn junction of the photo-diode, there is a transfer of
energy from the incident light (photons) to the atoms in the junction. This will create more
free electrons (and more holes). These additional free electrons will increase the reverse
current.
(iii) As the intensity of light increases, the reverse current IR goes on increasing till it
becomes maximum. This is called saturation current.

SEPTEMBER 7, 2015 BS ECE 3B
F. APPLICATION
There are a large number of applications of photodiodes. However, we shall give two
applications of photodiodes by way of illustration.
(A) Alarm circuit using photo-diode. The figure shows the use of photo-diode in an
alarm system. Light from a light source is allowed to fall on a photo-diode fitted in the
doorway. The reverse current IR will continue to flow so long as the light beam is not
broken. If a person passes through the door, light beam is broken and the reverse current
drops to the dark current level. As a result, an alarm is sounded.
(B) Counter circuit using photo-diode. A photodiode may be used to count items on a
conveyor belt. The figure shows a photo-diode circuit used in a system that counts objects as
they pass by on a conveyor. In this circuit, a source of light sends a concentrated beam of
light across a conveyor to a photo-diode. As the object passes, the light beam is broken, IR
drops to the dark current level and the current is increased by one.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
4. TUNNEL DIODE
A. OVERVIEW
A tunnel diode is a pn junction that exhibits negative resistance between two values of
forward voltage (i.e., between peak-point voltage and valley-point voltage).
A conventional diode exhibits positive resistance when it is forward biased or reverse
biased. However, if a semiconductor junction diode is heavily doped with impurities, it
exhibits negative resistance (i.e. current decreases as the voltage is increased) in certain
regions in the forward direction. Such a diode is called tunnel diode.
Theory: The tunnel diode is basically a pn junction with heavy doping of p-type and n-type
semiconductor materials. In fact, a tunnel diode is doped approximately 1000 times as
heavily as a conventional diode. This heavy doping results in a large number of majority
carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, most are not used during the initial
recombination that produces the depletion layer. As a result, the depletion layer is very
narrow. In comparison with conventional diode, the depletion layer of a tunnel diode is 100
times narrower. The operation of a tunnel diode depends upon the tunneling effect.
Tunneling effect: The heavy doping provides a large number of majority carriers. Because of
the large number of carriers, there is much drift activity in p and n sections. This causes
many valence electrons to have their energy levels raised closer to the conduction region.
The movement of valence electrons from the valence energy band to the conduction band
with little or no applied forward voltage is called tunneling. Valence electrons seem to
tunnel through the forbidden energy band.
As the forward voltage is first increased, the diode current rises rapidly due to tunneling
effect. Soon the tunneling effect is reduced and current flow starts to decrease as the
forward voltage across the diode is increased. The tunnel diode is said to have entered the
negative resistance region. As the voltage is further increased, the tunneling effect plays less
and less part until a valley-point is reached. From now onwards, the tunnel diode behaves
as ordinary diode i.e., diode current increases with the
increase in forward voltage.
TYPE:
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
PASSIVE, OPTOELECTRONIC
ELECTROLUMINESCENCE
INVENTOR:
OLEG LOSEV (1927), JAMES BIARD (1961), B

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
(i) As the forward voltage across the tunnel diode is increased from zero, electrons from
the nregion tunnel through the potential barrier to the p-region. As the forward voltage
increases, the diode current also increases until the peak-point P is reached. The diode
current has now reached peak current IP (= 2.2 mA) at about peak-point voltage VP
(= 0.07V).
(ii) As the voltage is increased beyond VP, the tunneling action starts decreasing and
the diode current decreases as the forward voltage is increased until valley-point V is
reached at valley-point voltage VV (= 0.7V). In the region between peak-point and valleypoint, the diode exhibits negative resistance i.e., as the forward bias is increased, the current
decreases. This suggests that tunnel diode, when operated in the negative resistance region,
can be used as an oscillator or a switch.
(iii) When forward bias is increased beyond valley-point voltage VV (= 0.7 V), the
tunnel diode behaves as a normal diode. In other words, from point V onwards, the diode
current increases with the increase in forward voltage, the diode exhibits positive resistance
once again

Forward bias operation - Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to
increase, electrons at first tunnel through the very narrow pn junction barrier, filled
electron states in the conduction band on the n-side become aligned with empty valence
band hole states on the p-side of the p-n junction. As voltage increases further these states
become more misaligned and the current drops. This is called negative resistance because
current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases yet further, the diode begins
to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction across the pn junction,
and no longer by tunneling through the pn junction barrier. The most important operating
region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region.
Reverse bias operation - When used in the reverse direction, tunnel diodes are called
back diodes (or backward diodes) and can act as fast rectifiers with zero offset voltage and
extreme linearity for power signals (they have an accurate square law characteristic in the
reverse direction). Under reverse bias, filled states on the p-side become increasingly
aligned with empty states on the n-side and electrons now tunnel through the pn junction
barrier in reverse direction.
BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
F. APPLICATION
Tunnel diode is a type of sc diode which is capable of very fast and in microwave
frequency range. It was the quantum mechanical effect which is known as tunneling. It is
ideal for fast oscillators and receivers for its negative slope characteristics. But it cannot be
used in large integrated circuits thats why its an applications are limited.
When the voltage is first applied current stars flowing through it. The current increases
with the increase of voltage. Once the voltage rises high enough suddenly the current again
starts increasing and tunnel diode stars behaving like a normal diode. Because of this
unusual behavior, it can be used in number of special applications started below.
Oscillator circuits :Tunnel diodes can be used as high frequency oscillators as
the transition between the high electrical conductivity is very rapid. They can be used to
create oscillation as high as 5Gz. Even they are capable of creativity oscillation up to
100 GHz in a appropriate digital circuits.
Used in microwave circuits: Normal diode transistors do not perform well in
microwave operation. So, for microwave generators and amplifiers tunnel diode are. In
microwave waves and satellite communication equipments they were used widely, but
now a days their uses is decreasing rapidly as transistor for working in wave frequency
area available in market.
Resistant to nuclear radiation :Tunnel diodes are resistant to the effects of
magnetic fields, high temperature and radioactivity. Thats why these can be used in
modern military equipment. These are used in nuclear magnetic resource machine also.
But the most important field of its use satellite communication equipments.
Tunnel Diode Oscillator: Tunnel diode can make a very stable oscillator circuit
when they are coupled to a tuned circuit or cavity, biased at the centre point of negative
resistance region. Here is an example of tunnel diode oscillatory circuit.
The tunnel diode is losing coupled to a tunable cavity. By using a short, antenna
feed probe placed in the cavity off centre loose coupling is achieved. To increase the
stability of oscillation and achieve o/p power over wider bandwidth loose coupling is
used. The range of the output power produced is few hundred micro-watts. This is
useful for many microwave application. The physical position of the tuner determining
the frequency of operation. If the frequency of operation is changed by this method,
that is called mechanical tuning. Tunnel diode oscillators can be tuned electronically
also.
Tunnel diode oscillators which are meant to be operated at microwave
frequencies, generally used some form of transmission lines as tunnel circuit. These
oscillators are useful in application that requires a few millwatts of power, examplelocal oscillators for microwave super electrodyne receiver.
BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
5. VARACTOR DIODE
A. OVERVIEW
A tuning diode, also known as a varactor diode, variable capacitance diode, varicap
diode or variable reactance diode, is a diode that has a variable capacitance which is a
function of the voltage that is impressed on its terminals. Tuning / varactor diodes are
operated reverse-biased, and therefore no current flows. However, since the thickness of the
depletion zone varies with the applied bias voltage, the capacitance of the diode can be
made to vary. Usually, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the depletion region
thickness and the depletion region thickness is proportional to the square root of the
applied voltage. Therefore, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the square root of
the voltage applied to the diode.
TYPE:
PIN CONFIGURATION:
PASSIVE
ANODE AND CATHODE

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015

Varactors are operated in a reverse-biased state. No current
flows, but since the thickness of the depletion zone varies with
the applied bias voltage, the capacitance of the diode can be
made to vary. Generally, the depletion region thickness is
proportional to the square root of the applied voltage;
capacitance is inversely proportional to the depletion region
thickness. Thus, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the
square root of applied voltage.
All diodes exhibit this phenomenon to some degree, but
varactor diodes are manufactured specifically to exploit this
effect and increase the capacitance (and thus the range of
variability), whereas most ordinary diode fabrication strives to
minimize the capacitance.
The figure shows an example of a cross section of a varactor
with the depletion layer formed of a PN junction. This depletion
layer can also be made of a MOS or a Schottky diode. This is
very important in CMOS and MMIC technology.
F. APPLICATION
Tuning circuits
Generally the use of a varicap diode in a circuit requires connecting it to a tuned circuit,
usually in parallel with any existing capacitance or inductance. Because a DC voltage must
be applied reverse bias across the varicap to alter its capacitance, this must be blocked from
entering the tuned circuit. This is accomplished by placing a DC blocking capacitor with a
capacitance about 100 times greater than the maximum capacitance of the varicap diode in
series with it and applying the DC from a high impedance source to the node between the
varicap cathode and the blocking capacitor
Switching
Special types of varicap diode exhibiting an abrupt change in capacitance can often be
found in consumer equipment such as television tuners, which are used to switch radio
frequency signal paths. When in the high capacitance state, usually with low or no bias, they
present a low impedance path to RF, whereas when reverse biased their capacitance abruptly
decreases and their RF impedance increases. Although they are still slightly conductive to the
RF path, the attenuation they introduce decreases the unwanted signal to an acceptably low
level. They are often used in pairs to switch between two different RF sources such as the VHF
and UHF bands in a television tuner by supplying them with complementary bias voltages. The
fourth device from the left in the picture at the head of this page is one such device.

BS ECE 3B
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6. SCHOTTKY DIODE
A. OVERVIEW
A Schottky diode, also known as hot carrier diode, is a metal-to-semiconductor contact
diode that is used primarily in high frequency and fast-switching applications. It has a low
forward voltage drop (typically around 0.3 V) because there is no depletion region as in a pn
junction diode.
TYPE:
PIN:
INVENTOR:
PASSIVE
ANODE AND CATHODE
WALTER H. SCHOTTKY

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015

Schottky barrier diode is an extension of the oldest semiconductor device that is the
point contact diode.Here,the metal-semiconductor interface is a surface ,Schottky barrier
rather than a point contact.The Schottky doide is formed when a metal ,such as
Aluminium ,is brought into contact with a moderately doped N-type semiconductor as
shown on fig..It is a unipolar device because it has electrons as majority carriers on both
sides of the junction.Hence ,there is no depletion layer formed near the junction.It shares
the advantage of point contact diode in that there is no significant current from the metal to
the semiconductor with reverse bias.Thus ,the delay present in the junction diodes due to
hole-electron recombination time is absent here.hence,because of the large contact area
between the metal and semiconductor than in the point contact diode,the forward
resistance is lower and so is noise.
F. APPLICATION
Voltage clamping
While standard silicon diodes have a forward voltage drop of about 0.6 V and
germanium diodes 0.2 V, Schottky diodes voltage drop at forward biases of around 1
mA is in the range of 0.15 V to 0.46 V (see the 1N5817[5] and 1N5711[6] datasheets
found online at manufacturer's websites), which makes them useful in voltage clamping
applications and prevention of transistor saturation. This is due to the higher current
density in the Schottky diode.
Reverse current and discharge protection
Because of a Schottky diode's low forward voltage drop, less energy is wasted as
heat making them the most efficient choice for applications sensitive to efficiency. For
instance, they are used in stand-alone ("off-grid") photovoltaic (PV) systems to prevent
batteries from discharging through the solar panels at night, called "blocking diodes".
They are also used in grid-connected systems with multiple strings connected in
parallel, in order to prevent reverse current flowing from adjacent strings through
shaded strings if the "bypass diodes" have failed.
Switched-mode power supplies
Schottky diode are also used as rectifiers in switched-mode power supplies. The
low forward voltage and fast recovery time leads to increased efficiency.
They can also be used in power supply "OR"ing circuits in products that have
both an internal battery and a mains adapter input, or similar. However, the high
reverse leakage current presents a problem in this case, as any high-impedance voltage
sensing circuit (e.g., monitoring the battery voltage or detecting whether a mains
adapter is present) will see the voltage from the other power source through the diode
leakage.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
7. PIN DIODE
A. OVERVIEW
A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, undoped intrinsic semiconductor region between a
p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and n-type regions
are typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts.
The wide intrinsic region is in contrast to an ordinary PN diode. The wide intrinsic
region makes the PIN diode an inferior rectifier (one typical function of a diode), but it
makes the PIN diode suitable for attenuators, fast switches, photodetectors, and high
voltage power electronics applications.

BS ECE 3B
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A PIN diode operates under what is known as high-level injection. In other words, the
intrinsic "i" region is flooded with charge carriers from the "p" and "n" regions. Its function
can be likened to filling up a water bucket with a hole on the side. Once the water reaches
the hole's level it will begin to pour out. Similarly, the diode will conduct current once the
flooded electrons and holes reach an equilibrium point, where the number of electrons is
equal to the number of holes in the intrinsic region. When the diode is forward biased, the
injected carrier concentration is typically several orders of magnitude higher than the
intrinsic level carrier concentration. Due to this high level injection, which in turn is due to
the depletion process, the electric field extends deeply (almost the entire length) into the
region. This electric field helps in speeding up of the transport of charge carriers from P to N
region, which results in faster operation of the diode, making it a suitable device for high
frequency operations.
F. APPLICATION
RF and microwave switches
Under zero or reverse bias, a PIN diode has a low capacitance. The low
capacitance will not pass much of an RF signal. Under a forward bias of 1 mA, a typical
PIN diode will have an RF resistance of about 1 ohm, making it a good RF conductor.
Consequently, the PIN diode makes a good RF switch.
Although RF relays can be used as switches, they switch very slowly (on the
order of 10 milliseconds). A PIN diode switch can switch much more quickly (e.g., 1
microsecond).
RF and microwave variable attenuators
By changing the bias current through a PIN diode, it is possible to quickly
change the RF resistance.
At high frequencies, the PIN diode appears as a resistor whose resistance is an
inverse function of its forward current. Consequently, PIN diode can be used in some
variable attenuator designs as amplitude modulators or output leveling circuits.
Limiters
PIN diodes are sometimes used as input protection devices for high frequency
test probes. If the input signal is within range, the PIN diode has little impact as a small
capacitance. If the signal is large, then the PIN diode starts to conduct and becomes a
resistor that shunts most of the signal to ground.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
8. SHOCKLEY DIODE
A. OVERVIEW
The Shockley diode is a four layer semiconductor diode which was one of the first
semiconductor devices invented. It was a "pnpn" diode. It is equivalent to a thyristor with a
disconnected gate.
Small signal Shockley diodes are no longer manufactured, but the unidirectional
thyristor breakover diode, also known as the dynistor, is a functionally equivalent power
device.
INVENTOR:
WALTER SHOCKLEY

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015

Each shockley diode has what is called an inhererent trigger voltage. When the diode
receives a voltage across its terminal below the trigger voltage, the device is in its "off state"
and the diode exhibits a very high resistance. But when the applied voltage exceeds the
trigger value, the shockley diode will be switched on and the resistance will drop to an
extremely low value. Typically, the on resistance of a diode is just a few ohms. This is
significantly lower than the forward-biased resistance of most ordinary diodes.
The trigger voltage may be identified by any of several alternate names in various
technical manuals and specification and datasheets. It may be also called the threshold
voltage, firing voltage, avalanche voltage, or breakover voltage. All of these are the same and
is the voltage which is needed to turn the switch the diode from off to on.
F. APPLICATION
One common application of the Shockley diode is as a trigger switch for an SCR. The
circuit is shown in figure. When the circuit is energized, the capacitor will start getting
charged and eventually, the voltage across the capacitor will be sufficiently high to first
turn-on Shockley diode and then the SCR.Another application of this diode is as a relaxation
oscillator.

BS ECE 3B
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9. IMPATT DIODE
A. OVERVIEW
An IMPATT diode (IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time diode) is a form of highpower semiconductor diode used in high-frequency microwave electronics devices. They
have negative resistance and are used as oscillators to generate microwaves as well as
amplifiers. They operate at frequencies between about 3 and 100 GHz or more. A main
advantage is their high-power capability. These diodes are used in a variety of applications
from low-power radar systems to proximity alarms. A major drawback of using IMPATT
diodes is the high level of phase noise they generate. This results from the statistical nature
of the avalanche process.

BS ECE 3B
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If a free electron with sufficient energy strikes a silicon atom, it can break the covalent
bond of silicon and liberate an electron from the covalent bond. If the electron liberated
gains energy by being in an electric field and liberates other electrons from other covalent
bonds then this process can cascade very quickly into a chain reaction producing a large
number of electrons and a large current flow. This phenomenon is called impact avalanche.
At breakdown, the n region is punched through and forms the avalanche region of the
diode. The high resistivity region is the drift zone through which the avalanche generated
electrons move toward the anode.
F. APPLICATION
IMPATT diodes are ideal where small cost effective microwave radio sources are
needed. The main drawback of generators using IMPATT diodes is the high level of phase
noise they generate. This results from the statistical nature of the avalanche process that is key
to their operation. Nevertheless these diodes make excellent signal sources for many RF
microwave applications.
Typically the device is used in a number of applications including:
Alarms
Radar
Detectors using RF technology

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10. CONSTANT CURRENT DIODE

A. OVERVIEW
Constant-current diode is an electronic device that limits current to a maximum
specified value for the device. It is known as current-limiting diode (CLD), currentregulating diode (CRD).
These diodes consists of a n-channel JFET-transistor with the gate shorted to the
source, which functions like a two-terminal current limiter or current source (analogous to a
voltage-limiting Zener diode). They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value,
and then level off at a specific value. Unlike Zener diodes, these diodes keep the current
constant instead of the voltage constant. These devices keep the current flowing through
them unchanged when the voltage changes. An example is the 1N5312. Note the negative
VGS is required, as an example on the n-type junction-gate field-effect transistor 2N5457.

BS ECE 3B
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These diodes consists of a n-channel JFET-transistor with the gate shorted to
the source, which functions like a two-terminal current limiter or current source (analogous
to a voltage-limiting Zener diode). They allow a current through them to rise to a certain
value, and then level off at a specific value. Unlike Zener diodes, these diodes keep the
current constant instead of the voltage constant. These devices keep the current flowing
through them unchanged when the voltage changes. An example is the 1N5312. Note the
negative VGS is required, as an example on the n-type junction-gate field-effect transistor
2N5457.
F. APPLICATION
Current limiting diodes offer high performance and simplicity characteristics compared
with bipolar transistors. They offer versatility in several circuit applications and superior
performance regarding dynamic and impedance temperature drift. Some examples of devices
using current limiting diodes are waveform generator circuits, timing circuits and battery
chargers. Current limiting diodes can also be found as a constant current source for driving
LEDs and can be used in order to replace holding coils in telephone connection devices.

BS ECE 3B
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11. STEP RECOVERY DIODE

A. OVERVIEW
The step recovery diode or SRD is a form of semiconductor diode that can be used as a
charge controlled switch and it has the ability to generate very sharp pulses. In view of its
method of operation, it is also called the "Snap-off" diode, "charge storage" diode or
"memory varactor".
The device finds a number of applications in microwave radio frequency electronics as
pulse generator or parametric amplifier. It finds uses in a number of different roles
including very short pulse generation, ultra-fast waveform generation, comb generation,
and high order frequency multiplication. The diode is also capable of working at moderate
power levels, and this gives it a distinct advantage over some other radio frequency
technologies that are available.
The SRD is not as common as many other forms of semiconductor diode, but it can be
very useful in many microwave radio frequency applications.
D. V CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015

The step recovery diode is used as what is termed a charge controlled switch. When the
diode is forward biased and charge enters, it appears as a normal diode and it behaves in
much the same way. When diodes switch from forward conduction to reverse cut-off, a
reverse current flows briefly as stored charge is removed. When all the charge is removed it
suddenly turns off or snaps off. It is the abruptness with which the reverse current ceases
that enables the SRD to be used for the generation of microwave pulses and also for
waveform shaping.
To explain this in more detail, under normal forward bias conditions the diode will
conduct normally. Then if it is quickly reverse biased it will initially appear as a low
impedance, typically less than an ohm. Once the charge that is stored in the device is
depleted, the impedance will very abruptly increase to its normal reverse impedance which
will be very high. This transition occurs very quickly, typically well under a nanosecond.
This property allows the step recovery diode to be used in pulse shaping (sharpening) and in
pulse generator circuits. The high harmonic content of the signal produced by any repetitive
waveforms enables them to be used as comb generators where a comb of harmonically
related frequencies are generated.
F. APPLICATION
The step recovery diode, SRD finds a number of applications in circuits including
harmonic generation or harmonic multipliers and also for pulse shaping.
Although not widely used these days, the SRD can still be used in a number of
applications where other approaches may not be as suitable.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
12. LASER DIODE

A. OVERVIEW
A laser diode, or LD, is an electrically pumped semiconductor laser in which the active
laser medium is formed by a p-n junction of a semiconductor diode similar to that found in
a light-emitting diode.
The laser diode is the most common type of laser produced with a wide range of uses
that include fiber optic communications, barcode readers, laser pointers, CD/DVD/Blu-ray
Disc reading and recording, laser printing, laser scanning and increasingly directional
lighting sources.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015

A laser diode is electrically a P-i-n diode. The active region of the laser diode is in the
intrinsic (I) region, and the carriers (electrons and holes) are pumped into that region from
the N and P regions respectively. While initial diode laser research was conducted on simple
P-N diodes, all modern lasers use the double-heterostructure implementation, where the
carriers and the photons are confined in order to maximize their chances for recombination
and light generation. Unlike a regular diode, the goal for a laser diode is to recombine all
carriers in the I region, and produce light. Thus, laser diodes are fabricated using direct
bandgap semiconductors. The laser diode epitaxial structure is grown using one of the
crystal growth techniques, usually starting from an N doped substrate, and growing the I
doped active layer, followed by the P doped cladding, and a contact layer. The active layer
most often consists of quantum wells, which provide lower threshold current and higher
efficiency.
F. APPLICATION
Laser diodes find wide use in telecommunication as easily modulated and easily
coupled light sources for fiber optics communication. They are used in various measuring
instruments, such as rangefinders. Another common use is in barcode readers. Visible
lasers, typically red but later also green, are common as laser pointers. Both low and highpower diodes are used extensively in the printing industry both as light sources for scanning
(input) of images and for very high-speed and high-resolution printing plate (output)
manufacturing. Infrared and red laser diodes are common in CD players, CD-ROMs and
DVD technology. Violet lasers are used in HD DVD and Blu-ray technology.
Uses of laser diodes can be categorized in various ways. Most applications could be
served by larger solid-state lasers or optical parametric oscillators, but the low cost of massproduced diode lasers makes them essential for mass-market applications. Diode lasers can
be used in a great many fields; since light has many different properties (power, wavelength,
spectral and beam quality, polarization, etc.) it is useful to classify applications by these
basic properties.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015
13. GUNN DIODE

A. OVERVIEW
A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron device (TED), is a form of diode, a
two-terminal passive semiconductor electronic component, with negative resistance, used in
high-frequency electronics. Its largest use is in electronic oscillators to generate
microwaves, in applications such as radar speed guns and microwave relay data link
transmitters.
Its internal construction is unlike other diodes in that it consists only of N-doped
semiconductor material, whereas most diodes consist of both P and N-doped regions. It
therefore does not conduct in only one direction and cannot rectify alternating current like
other diodes, which is why some sources do not use the term diode but prefer TED. In the
Gunn diode, three regions exist: two of those are heavily N-doped on each terminal, with a
thin layer of lightly n-doped material between. When a voltage is applied to the device, the
electrical gradient will be largest across the thin middle layer. If the voltage is increased, the
current through the layer will first increase, but eventually, at higher field values, the
conductive properties of the middle layer are altered, increasing its resistivity, and causing
he current to fall. This means a Gunn diode has a region of negative differential resistance in
its current-voltage characteristic curve, in which an increase of applied voltage, causes a

decrease in current. This property allows it to amplify, functioning as a radio frequency
amplifier, or to become unstable and oscillate when it is biased with a DC voltage.

BS ECE 3B
SEPTEMBER 7, 2015

The electronic band structure of some semiconductor materials, including gallium
arsenide (GaAs), have another energy band or sub-band in addition to the valence and
conduction bands which are usually used in semiconductor devices. This third band is at a
higher energy than the normal conduction band and is empty until energy is supplied to
promote electrons to it. The energy stems from the kinetic energy of ballistic electrons. That
is, electrons in the conduction band but moving with sufficient kinetic energy can reach the
third band.
These electrons either start out below the Fermi level and are given a sufficiently long
mean free path to acquire the needed energy by applying a strong electric field, or they are
injected by a cathode with the right energy. With forward voltage applied, the Fermi level in
the cathode moves into the third band, and reflections of ballistic electrons starting around
the Fermi level are minimized by matching the density of states and using the additional
interface layers to let the reflected waves interfere destructively.
F. APPLICATION
Sensors and measuring instruments
Gunn diode oscillators are used to generate microwave power for: airborne
collision avoidance radar, anti-lock brakes, sensors for monitoring the flow of traffic,
car radar detectors, pedestrian safety systems, "distance traveled" recorders, motion
detectors, "slow-speed" sensors (to detect pedestrian and traffic movement up to 50
m.p.h), traffic signal controllers, automatic door openers, automatic traffic gates,
process control equipment to monitor throughput, burglar alarms and equipment to
detect trespassers, sensors to avoid derailment of trains, remote vibration detectors,
rotational speed tachometers, moisture content monitors.
Radio amateur use
By virtue of their low voltage operation, Gunn diodes can serve as microwave
frequency generators for very low powered (few-milliwatt) microwave transceivers
called Gunnplexers. They were first used by British radio amateurs in the late 1970s,
and many Gunnplexer designs have been published in journals. They typically consist
of an approximately 3 inch waveguide into which the diode is mounted. A low voltage
(less than 12 volt) direct current power supply, that can be modulated appropriately, is
used to drive the diode. The waveguide is blocked at one end to form a resonant cavity
and the other end usually feeds a horn antenna. An additional "mixer diode" is inserted
into the waveguide, and it is often connected to a modified FM broadcast receiver to
enable listening of other amateur stations. Gunnplexers are most commonly used in the
10 GHz and 24 GHz ham bands.
Radio astronomy
Gunn oscillators are used as local oscillators for millimeter-wave and
submillimeter-wave radio astronomy receivers. The Gunn diode is mounted in a cavity
tuned to resonate at twice the fundamental frequency of the diode. The cavity length is
changed by a micrometer adjustment. Gunn oscillators capable of generating over 50
mW over a 50% tuning range (one waveguide band) are available.
The Gunn oscillator frequency is multiplied by a diode frequency multiplier for
submillimeter-wave applications

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VALILA, MARY GRACE CATHERINE I.

D. I-V CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

General light output versus forward

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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OLEG LOSEV (1927), JAMES BIARD (1961), B

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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10. CONSTANT CURRENT DIODE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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11. STEP RECOVERY DIODE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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12. LASER DIODE

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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13. GUNN DIODE

its current-voltage characteristic curve, in which an increase of applied voltage, causes a

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E. OPERATION OF THE DEVICE

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