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Review Course
ELECTRONICS
MAPUA
ECE REVIEW
Science dealing with the development and application of devices and system involving the
flow of electrons in a vacuum, in gaseous media, in plasma and/or in semiconductors.
Application of Electronics:
1. Communication Electronics
2. Electric Power
3. Digital Electronics
Basic Electrical Components:
1. Active devices that can be used for amplification, rectification or change energy from
one another.
a. semiconductor
b. electron tubes
c. visual display devices
2. Passive
a. Resistors limits the flow of current or divide the voltages in the circuit.
b. Capacitor concentrates the electric field of voltage applied to a dielectric
c. Inductor concentrates the magnetic field of electric current in the coil.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
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Atom the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element
BOHR MODEL
Figure 1-1. - The composition of a simple helium atom.
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Subatomic Particles:
MASS
Electrons
9.1 x 10-31kg
Protons
1.67 x 10-27kg
Neutrons
1.67 x 10-27 kg
N107 MIT, Muralla St., Intramuros, Manila
CHARGE
1.67 x 10-19 C
1.67 x 10-19 C
none
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Subshells
Capacity
s2
2 e-
s2, p6
8 e-
18 e-
32 e-
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor semiconductor in its pure (elemental) form.
a. Silicon
b. Germanium
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Hole vacancy left by the electron in the valence band or the absence of electron
Electron-Hole Pair for every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is
one hole left in the valence band
Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in
the valence band.
Electron Current movement of free electrons in a semiconductive materials.
Hole Current movement of holes in a semiconductive material
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor semiconductor with impurities
Doping The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor.
a. Pentavalent atoms atoms with 5 valence electrons.
1. Arsenic (As)
2. Phosphorus (P)
3. Bismuth (Bi)
4. Antimony (Sb)
b. Trivalent atoms atoms with 3 valence electrons
1. Aluminum (Al)
2. Boron (B)
3. Indium (In)
4. Galium (Ga)
a. N-Type Semiconductor doped with pentavalent atom
Figure 1-9. - Germanium crystal doped with arsenic.
PN JUNCTION
DEPLETION REGION
The area near a pn junction on both sides that has no majority carriers
Region that is depleted of carriers.
BARRIER POTENTIAL
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region
The amount of energy required to move electrons through the electric field
Typically equal to0.7V for Silicon and 0.3V for Germanium at 25oC
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REVERSE BIAS - is the condition that prevents current through the pn junction
Figure 1-15. - Reverse-biased PN junction.
A simple switch, FB is like a closed (on) switch, RB is like an open (off) switch
Barrier potential, forward dynamic resistance and the reverse current are all neglected
IF
VR
THE DIODE
A semiconductor device that allows the flow of current in one direction only.
A single pn junction device with conductive contacts and wire leads connected to each region
anode
cathode
VB
VF
IF
VR
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VB
VF
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The Complex Diode Model
Consist of the barrier potential, the small dynamic resistance (rd) and the large internal
reverse resistance (rR)
When FB acts like a closed switch in series with the barrier potential voltage and the small
forward dynamic resistance (rd).
When diode is reverse bias it acts like an open switch in parallel with the large internal
reverse resistance (rR).
IF
Slope due to low
forward
0.7
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1.
2.
3.
Small reverse
current due to high
4.
IR
5.
6.
7.
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c.
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a. 14
b. 10
c. 8
d. 6
15. Valence electrons are found at the
_____
a. innermost shell
b. outermost shell
c. outermost subshell
d. nucleus
16. A silicon atom has an atomic number of
14. Determine the number of its valence
electrons.
a. 1
b. 4
c. 6
d. 8
17. An atom is mechanically, chemically,
and electrically stale if the number of
valence electrons is 8. This is known as
a. Octet Rule
b. skin effect
c. Mongols Rule
d. none of the above
18. Which of the following atoms are
considered to be most stable?
a. atoms at Group I in the periodic
table of elements
b. atoms at Group IV in the periodic
table of elements
c. atoms at Group V in the periodic
table of elements
d. atoms at Group VIII in the periodic
table of elements
19. _____ are materials where atoms have
valence electrons equal to 4.
a. insulator
b. conductor
c. semiconductor
d. semi-insulator
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b. photoelectric emission
c. secondary emission
d. high field emission
26. The electrons emitted by a heated
conductor come from what source?
a. An external battery
b. An external ac source
c. Both 1 and 2 above
d. The conductor itself
27. What is another name for thermionic
emission?
a. The gap effect
b. The heat effect
c. The Edison effect
d. The Fleming effect
28. Electrons emitted by a hot filament are
able to cross the gap between the
filament and the plate. What force
enables them to do this?
a. Magnetic repulsion
b. Inductive reactance
c. Thermionic emission
d. Electrostatic attraction
29. Name the two series circuits that are
associated with a diode electron tube.
a. The plate and anode circuits
b. The plate and filament circuits
c. The battery and filament circuits
d. The filament and cathode circuits
30. When an ac voltage is applied across
the plate and filament of a diode, the
current measured will represent what
type of waveform?
a. Pulsating dc
b. Dc
c. Pulsating ac
d. Ac
31. A filament that uses a one-moleculethick
layer of barium and strontium is
classified as what type of filament?
a. Tungsten
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33.
34.
35.
36.
b. Oxide-coated
c. Tungsten-strontium
d. Thoriated-tungsten
Which of the following ac filament
voltages is most likely to be considered
a common voltage?
a. 1.5 volts
b. 3.0 volts
c. 6.3 volts ( 5.0, 12.6)
d. 9.0 volts
An ac directly heated filament has which
of the following advantages?
a. Even spacing relative to the plate
b. Even emission across the filament
c. Constant emission throughout the
ac cycle
d. Rapid heating effect
An indirectly heated cathode always
uses what material for its emitting
surface?
a. An oxide coating
b. A thorium coating
c. A tungsten coating
d. A graphite coating
What is the principal advantage of an
indirectly heated cathode over a directly
heated cathode?
a. It is larger
b. It is immune to ac heater current
variations
c. It reaches an operating
temperature more quickly
d. It has a lower operating
temperature
Electron tubes are identified by a
number preceded by which of the
following letter designations?
a. T
b. V
c. ET
d. VT
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37. The getter in an electron tube serves
what purpose?
a. It protects the plate from
overheating
b. It allows the cathode to emit more
electrons
c. It helps to produce a better vacuum
d. It anchors the tube elements in the
base
38. Most amplifier circuits are designed to
operate with the grid negative in relation
to the cathode. This is done to avoid
which of the following problems?
a. Excessive grid current
b. Excessive plate current
c. Distortion on small signals
d. Distortion on large negative signals
39. Overdriving can be considered a form of
distortion for which of the following
reasons?
a. The output is not in phase with the
input
b. The output does not have the same
polarity as the input
c. The output is not a faithful
reproduction of the input
d. The output does not have the same
amplitude as the input
40. The amplification factor for an electron
tube is identified by what electronic
symbol?
a. Ar
b. Vg
c. gm
d.
41. Transconductance is identified by what
electronic symbol?
a.
b. gm
c. rgk
d. tc
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plate and electrons are repelled
from the plate
47. Which terminal of the tetrode is nearest
to its anode?
a. Screen grid
b. Cathode
c. Suppressor grid
d. Control grid
48. What is the purpose of screen grid?
a. To reduce interelectrode
capacitance
b. To increase amplification factor
c. To decrease secondary emission
current
d. To turn off the vacuum tube
49. It was developed permanently to
eliminate the grid to plate capacitance of
a vacuum tube.
a. tetrode
b. diode
c. pentode
d. diode
50. It is usually connected to the cathode
thus having substantially negative
potential to overcome the effects of the
secondary emission.
a. suppressor
b. screen
c. control
d. plate
51. How do you call an eight element
vacuum tubes?
a. octode
b. pentode
c. hexode
d. heptode
52. How many grids do a heptode has?
a. 7
b. 3
c. 5
d. 6
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59. Semiconductor whose electron and hole
concentrations are equal.
a. doped semiconductor
b. extrinsic semiconductor
c. intrinsic semiconductor
d. equal semiconductor
60. Arsenic and phosphorus are examples
of
a. pentavalent impurity
b. trivalent impurity
c. free electrons
d. holes
61. Arsenic and phosphorus when added to
a semiconductor creates
a. bound electrons
b. valence electrons
c. free electrons
d. holes
62. Which is not a trivalent atom?
a. Al
b. Bi
c. In
d. B
63. Which of the following refers to an
electron in the conduction band?
a. Electrons driven by photons
b. Electrons that loses its charge easily
c. Those electrons with lower energy
than those in the valence band
d. Those electrons with higher energy
than those in the valence band
64. The valence electron of a copper atom
experiences what kind of attraction
toward the nucleus?
a. none
b. weak
c. strong
d. impossible to say
65. The valence electron of a conductor is
also called a
a. bound electron
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b. free electron
c. nucleus
d. proton
66. What happens to the resistance of the
copper wire when it is heated?
a. increases
b. remains the same
c. decreases
d. becomes zero
67. When the temperature of an extrinsic
semiconductor increases the
pronounced effect is on
a. majority carriers
b. minority carriers
c. junction capacitance
d. majority and minority carriers
68. A semiconductor has _____
temperature coefficient of resistance.
a. negative
b. positive
c. zero
d. either positive or negative
69. A pn junction is formed by
a. the recombination of electrons and
holes
b. ionization
c. the boundary of a p-type and an ntype material
d. the collision of a proton and a
neutron
70. The depletion region is created by
a. ionization
b. diffusion
c. recombination
d. all of the above
71. The arrow in the schematic symbol for a
diode points which way?
a. Towards the cathode
b. In the direction of current flow
c. Towards the anode
d. Towards the magnetic north
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72. As you increase the doping level of a
crystal diode its barrier potential _____.
a. destabilizes
b. decreases
c. increases
d. stabilizes
73. With the rise in temperature of a PN
junction, which of the following will
increase?
a. width of the depletion layer
b. junction barrier of the voltage
c. reverse leakage current
d. all of the above
74. What happens to the width of the
depletion region of a pn junction when
the doping level is increased?
a. increases
b. remains the same
c. decreases
d. vanishes
75. How many diodes will you use in
designing a half-wave rectifier power
supply?
a. two
b. one
c. four
d. three
76. _____ is the output of a half-wave
rectifier.
a. half-wave rectified signal
b. square wave signal
c. 100% AC signal
d. sinusoidal signal
77. A half-wave rectifier circuit utilizing onehalf of an ac input cycle have a
frequency in its output equivalent to
a. 60cps
b. 120cps
c. 110cps
d. 240cps
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a. 3117 F
b. 3207 F
c. 311.7 F
d. 320.7 F
85. Find the voltage regulation giving a dc
voltage of 67 V without load and with full
load current drawn the output voltage
drops to 42 V.
a. 59.5%
b. 62.7%
c. 15.9%
d. 32.5%
86. What is the voltage across a reverse
biased diode in series with a 10V DC
source and a 1k resistor?
a. 0V
b. 0.7V
c. 0.3V
d. 10V
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TRANSISTOR
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PNP Transistor
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Parts and Proper Bias
1) Collector- moderately doped (collector carrier)
-the doping is between that of the emitter and the base
- largest of the three regions
2) Base - Lightly doped (control)
- controls the flow of carriers from emitter and collector
-smallest
3) Emitter - Heavily doped
- 2nd largest
- emits carrier
PROPER BIAS OF TRANSISTOR
For proper operation of the circuit
1) Emitter base junction should be forward bias
2) Collector-base junction should be reversed bias
Transistor Operation
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BJT CONFIGURATIONS
Common Base
IC
IE
Forward
Current Gain
Common Collector
+1 =
IE
IB
Forward
Current Gain
= / ( + 1 )
Example No 1.
Determine DC, IE, and DC for a transistor where IB = 50A and IC = 3.65mA.
Current and Voltage Analysis
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Example 2.
Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit. The transistor has a DC = 150
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Examples.
Sketch an ideal family of collector curves for the circuit for IB = 5A to 25A in 5A increments. DC
= 100 and that VCE does not exceed breakdown.
RC
IC
RB
IB
. DC = 100
VCC
VBB
Example 4.
Determine whether or not the transistor is in saturation. Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V.
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Example 7)
a) For the transistor, what is VCE when VIN = 0V?
b) What minimum value of IB is required to saturate this transistor if DC is 200? Neglect VCE(sat).
c) Calculate the maximum value of RB when VIN = 5V.
Example 5) The transistor has the following maximum ratings: PD(max) =800mW, VCE(max) = 15V,
and IC(max) = 100mA. Determine the maximum value to whichh VCC can be adjusted without
exceeding a rating.
DC Operating point
+VCC
RC
C
Derating PDmax)
Example 6) A certain transistor has PD(max) of 1W at 25C. The derating factor is 5mw/C . What is
the PD(max) at a temperature of 70C ?
The Transistor as a switch
+VCC
R
RB
0
IB = 0
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a) Cutoff
+VCC
IC = 0
RC
R
C
E
+VCC
+VCC
RB
RC
IC(sat)
C
+VBB
IB
B) Saturation
DC Load Line
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Example 1) Determine the Q-point, and find the maximum peak value of base current for linear
operation. Assume DC = 200.
Linear Operation
BASE BIAS
Waveform Distortion
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Simplified Voltage-Divider
+VCC
RC
IIN
+
VIN
R
-
Example 2) The Base bias circuit is subjected to increase in temperature from 25C to 75C. If DC
= 100 at 25C and 150 at 75C, determine the percent in Q-point values (IC and VCE) over the
temperature range. Neglect any change in VBE and the effects of leakage current.
b) Loaded
RIN(base)
+VCC
a)Unloaded
R
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10k
R1
5.6k
R2
IE
RE
RIN(base) = DCRE
+
VBE -
RC
RE
1k
560
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REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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8.
In cutoff, VCE is
a. 0 V
b. minimum
c. maximum
d. equal to VCC
9. In saturation, VCE is
a. 0.7 V
b. equal to VCC
c. minimum
d. maximum
10. To saturate a BJT,
a. IB=IC
b. IB > IC(sat) / DC
c. VCC must be at least 10 V
d. The emitter must be grounded
11. Once in saturation, a further increase in
base current will
a. Cause the collector current to
increase
b. Not affect the collector current
c. Cause the collector current to
decrease
d. Turn the transistor off
12. If the base-emitter junction is open, the
collector voltage is
a. VCC
b. 0 V
c. floating
d. 0.2 V
13. The maximum value of collector current
in a biased transistor is
a. DCIB
b. IC(sat)
c. greater than IE
d. IE - IB
14. Ideally, a dc load line is a straight line
drawn on the collector characteristic
curves between
a. The Q-point and cutoff
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b. The Q-point and saturation
c. VCE(cutoff) and IC(sat)
d. IB = 0 and IB = IC / DC
15. The disadvantage of a base bias is that
a. It is very complex
b. It produces low gain
c. It is too beta dependent
d. It produces high leakage current
16. Emitter bias is
a. Essentially independent of DC
b. Very dependent on DC
c. Provides a stable bias point
d. Answers (a) and (c)
17. The input resistance at the base of a
biased transistor depends mainly on
a. DC
b. RB
c. RE
d. DC and RE
18. In a voltage-divider biased transistor
circuit RIn(base) can generally be
neglected in calculations when
a. RIN(base) > R2
b. R2 >10RIN(base)
c. R IN(base) > 10R2
d. R1 << R2
19. Biasing represents _____ condition.
a. AC
b. DC
c. AC and DC
d. neither AC nor DC
20. The following relationships between
alpha and beta are true except
a. beta= alpha/(1-alpha)
b. alpha = beta /(beta -1)
c. alpha = beta /(beta +1)
d. (1- alpha)= 1/(1+beta)
21. In a certain voltage-divider biased npn
transistor, VB is 2.95 V. The dc emitter
voltage is approximately
a. 2.25 V
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b. 2.95 V
c. 3.65 V
d. 0.7 V
22. Voltage-divider bias
a. Cannot be independent of DC
b. Can be essentially independent of
DC
c. Is not widely used
d. Requires fewer components than all
the other metods
23. In a voltage-divider biased npn
transistor, if the upper voltage-divider
resistor (the one connected to VCC)
opens,
a. The transistor goes into cutoff
b. The transistor goes into saturation
c. The transistor burns out
d. The supply voltage is too high
24. A small-signal amplifier
a. Uses only a small portion of its load
line
b. Always has an output signal in the
mV range
c. Goes into saturation once on each
input cycle
d. Is always a common-emitter
amplifier
25. If a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the
base of a biased npn transistor and the
resulting sinusoidal collector voltage is
clipped near zero volts, the transistor is
a. Being driven into saturation
b. Being driven into cutoff
c. Operating nonlinearly
d. Answers (a) and (c)
26. If the dc emitter current in a certain
transistor amplifier is 3 mA, the
approximate value of re is
a. 3 k
b. 3
c. 8.33
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d. 0.33
27. For a common-collector amplifier, RE =
100 , and ac = 150. The ac input
resistance at the base is
a. 1500
b. 15 k
c. 110
d. 16.5 k
28. For a common-emitter amplifier, RC = 1
k, RE = 390 , re = 15 , and ac = 75.
Assuming that RE is completely
bypassed at the operating frequency,
the voltage gain is
a. 66.7
b. 2.56
c. 2.47
d. 75
29. In the circuit of question no.28, if the
frequency is reduced to the point where
XC(bypass) = RE, the voltage gain is
a. Remains the same
b. is less
c. is greater
d. indeterminate
30. The circuit that provides the best
stabilization of operating point is
a. base bias
b. collector feedback bias
c. voltage divider bias
d. emitter feedback bias
31. In a darlington pair configuration, each
transistor has an ac beta of 125. If RE is
560 , the input resistance is
a. 560
b. 70 k
c. 8.75 M
d. 140 k
32. The input resistance of a common-base
amplifier is
a. very low
b. very high
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c. the same as a CE
d. the same as a CC
33. In a common-emitter amplifier with
voltage-divider bias, Rin(base) = 68 k, R1
= 33 k, and R2 = 15 k. The total input
resistance is
a. 68 k
b. 8.95 k
c. 22.2 k
d. 12.3 k
34. A CE amplifier is driving a 10 k load. If
RC = 2.2 k and re = 10 , the voltage
gain is approximately
a. 220
b. 1000
c. 10
d. 180
35. In a certain emitter feedback bias circuit,
the base resistance is 100 k and the
beta of the transistor is 99. What is the
resistance seen by the emitter circuit
looking to the base?
a. 99
b. 10 k
c. 1 k
d. 99 k
36. The circuit that provides the best
stabilization of operating point is
a. base bias
b. collector feedback bias
c. voltage divider bias
d. emitter feedback bias
37. Each stage of a four-stage amplifier has
a voltage gain of 15. The overall voltage
gain is
a. 60
b. 15
c. 50,625
d. 3078
38. The overall gain found in question 37
can be expressed in decibels as
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a. 94.1 dB
b. 47.0 dB
c. 35.6 dB
d. 69.8 dB
39. The overall gain of an amplifier in
cascade is
a. the sum
b. the average
c. the product
d. 100% of the sum
40. The decibel gain in cascaded amplifiers
equal the
a. sum of the voltage and the current
gains
b. product of the individual gains
c. difference of the individual gains
d. sum of the individual gains
41. A transistor in which n-type and p-type
materials are used is called
a. unijunction
b. bipolar
c. TTL
d. FET
42. In the PNP transistor _____ are the
majority carriers.
a. electrons
b. holes
c. donor atoms
d. acceptor atoms
43. In the Darlington pair configuration,
each transistor has a beta of 100. What
is the effective b of the pair?
a. 1,000
b. 100
c. 10,000
d. 1
44. A small signal amplifier
a. uses only a small portion of its
loadline
b. always has an output signal in the
millivolt range
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c.
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51. Which transistor configuration has the
highest input resistance?
a. common base
b. common emitter
c. common collector
d. common transistor
52. In CC amplifier, voltage gain
a. cannot exceed unity
b. depends on the output impedance
c. is dependent on the input signal
d. is always constant
53. Which of the following configurations
can be used as a buffer?
a. CE
b. CB
c. CC
d. CG
54. Which of the following combinations has
no phase inversion of the signal?
a. CB and CE
b. two CEs
c. CC and CE
d. any of these
55. The collector current flows for ____ in a
Class A amplifier.
a. less than the whole cycle
b. half cycle
c. less than the half cycle
d. the entire cycle
56. A class A circuit would not work well as
a. a stereo hi-fi amplifier
b. a TV transmitter PA
c. a low level microphone preamplifier
d. the first stage in a radio receiver
57. The Q-point will be located at _____ if
the base resistor is open.
a. the lower end of the loadline
b. the upper end of the loadline
c. the middle of the loadline
d. the loadline
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b.
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77. Method used in producing thick film
components.
a. Evaporation
b. Epitaxial
c. Screening
d. diffusion
78. Method(s) used in producing thin films.
a. Vacuum evaporation
b. Cathode sputtering
c. Screening
d. A and b
79. A method used to deposit thin film
components on a single substrate in a
highly evacuated chamber.
a. Diffusion
b. Epitaxial
c. Cathode sputtering
d. Vacuum evaporation
80. A ____ is an IC that is used to process
analog signals.
a. ROM
b. CMOS
c. Linear IC
d. VMOS
81. The most widely used digital logic family
a. DTL
b. TTL
c. ECL
d. RTL
82. ECL is high speed because
a. Operation is in the low noise
negative supply region
b. Construction in small geometries
c. The use of gallium arsenide
conductors
d. The operating transistors being
unsaturated
83. What is a CMOS IC?
a. A chip with only bipolar transistors
b. A chip with n-channel transistors
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c.
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PERFORMANCE FACTORS
V1 = h11 I1 + h12V2
Vi = h11 I i + h12Vo
I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2
I o = h21 I i + h22Vo
HYBRID MODEL
re =
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26mV
IE
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PERFORMANCE FACTORS
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JFET OPERATION
When VGS 0V (reverse bias):
- As the reverse bias voltage at the gate
increases, channel resistance increases
- Drain current is easily saturated
- When VGS = |VP|, drain current is zero
JFET OPERATION
DMOSFET OPERATION
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REVIEW QUESTIONS:
DMOSFET OPERATION
When VGS 0V (reverse bias voltage):
- As the reverse bias voltage at the gate
increases, channel resistance increases
- Drain current is easily saturated
- When VGS = |VP|, drain current is zero
When VGS 0V (forward bias voltage):
- As the forward bias voltage at the gate
increases, carriers are enhanced resulting
to increase in drain current
EMOSFET OPERATION
When VGS = 0V:
- ID is zero
When VGS < 0V:
- ID is zero
When VGS > 0V:
- Channel starts to build up
- When VGS equals VTH, carriers start to
flow form source to drain
43
1.
The term use to describe sudden
reverse conduction of an electronic
component cause by excess reverse
voltage across the device.
a. cut-off
b. saturation
c. avalanche
d. revertion
2.
What phenomenon in electronics
does an avalanche breakdown primarily
dependent?
a. doping
b. recombination
c. ionization
d. collision
3.
The primary use of zener diode in
electronic circuits.
a. resistance regulator
b. rectifier
c. voltage regulator
d. current regulator
4.
How do zener diodes widely used?
a. Current limiters
b. Power collectors
c. Variable resistors
d. Voltage regulators
5.
_______ is the type of bias
required by an LED to produce
luminescence.
a. Forward bias
b. Zero bias
c. Reverse bias
d. Inductive bias
6.
Which semiconductor material is
commonly used in the conduction of LED?
a. Silicon (Si)
b. Gallium Arsenide (Ga As)
c. Germanium (Ge)
d. Gallium (Ga)
44
7.
If an arrow next to an
optoelectronic device schematic symbol
points away from the symbol, the device is
considered to be
a. photoemissive
b. a p-type semiconductor
c. photosensitive
d. an n-type semiconductor
8.
_____ is a pn junction
semiconductor device that emits noncoherent optical radiation when biased in
the forward direction, as a result of a
recombination effect.
a. LASER
b. JFET
c. LED
d. MOS
9.
Find the normal operating voltage
and current of LED
a. 60V and 20mA
b. 5V and 50mA
c. 0.7V and 60mA
d. 1.7V and 20mA
10.
A photodiode is normally
a. forward-biased
b. reverse biased
c. neither forward nor reverse biased
d. emitting light
11.
The reverse current flowing through
a photodiode with no light input
a. Saturation current
b. Dark current
c. breakdown current
d. Light current
12.
The capacitance of the varactor
diode increases when the reverse voltage
across it
a. decreases
b. increases
c. breakdown
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d. storage charges
13.
The capacitance of a varactor
diode is in what general range?
a. pF
b. nF
c. mF
d. F
14.
Which is the wrong statement
regarding a Schottky diode?
a. it has no depletion layer
b. it has fast recovery time
c. it is a bipolar device
d. it is also called hot-carrier diode
15.
Another name for Esaki diode
a. Shockley diode
b. diac
c. hot-carrier diode
d. tunnel diode
16.
Refers to the special type of diode
which is capable of both amplification and
oscillation.
a. junction diode
b. tunnel diode
c. point contact diode
d. Zener diode
17.
What is the principal characteristic
of the tunnel diode?
a. a very high PIV
b. a high forward current rating
c. a high forward resistance
d. a negative resistance region
18.
Type of diode made of metal
whisker touching a very small
semiconductor die.
a. Junction diode
b. Varactor diode
c. Zener diode
d. Point contact diode
19.
It is a biomedical electronic
instrument used to measure and record
brain waves.
45
a.
b.
c.
d.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
oscilloscope
Electrocardiograph (ECG, EKG)
body-function monitor
20.
It is a biomedical electronic
instrument used to measure electrical
potentials generated by the heart.
a. Electroencephalograph (EEG)
b. oscilloscope
c. Electrocardiograph (ECG, EKG)
d. body-function monitor
21.
It is a biomedical electronic
instrument used for recording biological
conditions in critical patients.
a. Electroencephalograph (EEG)
b. oscilloscope
c. Electrocardiograph (ECG, EKG)
d. body-function monitor
22.
An ultrahigh frequency sound wave
used to see the internal within the body
using piezoelectricity
a. Mammograph
b. Ultrasound or sonograph
c. Thermograph
d. Thermometer
23.
It is an X-ray technique used to
diagnose and locate abnormalities within
the female breasts
a. Mammography
b. Ultrasound or sonograph
c. Thermography
d. Thermometer
24.
A medical technique that makes
use of the infrared radiation from the
human skin to detect an area of elevated
skin temperature that could be associated
with an underlying cancer.
a. Mammography
b. Ultrasound or sonograph
c. Thermography
d. Thermometer
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25.
____ is a unipolar semiconductor
device whose current is carried by the
majority carriers only.
a. Field Effect Transistor
b. Point-contact Transistor
c. Zener diode
d. Bipolar Junction Transistor
26.
The terminals of a field effect
transistor (whether MOS or junction type,
enhancement or depletion type),
corresponding respectively to the emitter,
base and collector of bipolar transistor are
a. anode, gate and cathode
b. source, gate and drain
c. input, power supply and output
d. drain, channel and source
27.
What is the current-carrying part of
a field effect transistor?
a. source
b. gate
c. channel
d. drain
28.
What is the majority carrier in an Nchannel?
a. Holes
b. Neutrons
c. Electrons
d. Protons
29.
The JFET is
a. a unipolar device
b. current control device
c. a voltage control device
d. a and c
30.
The minimum value of VGS that will
cause the drain current to drop to zero.
a. Pinch-off voltage
b. Thermal voltage
c. 26mV
d. gate-to-source cutoff voltage
31.
For VGS=0V, the drain current
becomes constant when VDS exceeds
46
a.
b.
c.
d.
cut-off
VDD
VP
0V
32.
The constant-current region of an
FET lies between
a. cut-off and saturation
b. cut-off and pinch-off
c. 0 and IDSS
d. pinch-off and breakdown
33.
What is the controlling parameter
for JFET?
a. VGS
b. IDSS
c. IB
d. IG
34.
FET is a unipolar device because
a. It needs only one supply
b. There is only one current direction
c. It has only one main terminal
d. Its conduction is due only to one
type of charged carrier
35.
An FET can act as an excellent
buffer amplifier because
a. it has low input impedance and high
output impedance
b. it has a high input impedance and a
low output impedance
c. it has a very high voltage gain and a
low noise level
d. smaller size, longer life, and lower
efficiency
36.
This semiconductor device is
widely used in digital IC fabrication
a. BJT
b. diode
c. JFET
d. MOSFET
37.
Which is not true regarding
MOSFET?
a. Also called IGFET
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b. It is a special kind of JFET
c. Drain current can be greater than
IDSS
d. Gate current is always zero
38.
What type of insulator is used in a
MOSFET?
a. SiO2
b. CO2
c. H2O
d. mica insulator
39.
Which of the following transistors
may require special handling precautions
due to the possibility of static charge
breakdown?
a. P-channel JFETs
b. NPN audio transistors
c. PNP audio transistors
d. N-channel MOSFETs
40.
Which of the following transistors
can be expected to have the highest input
impedance?
a. NPN bipolar transistor
b. PNP bipolar transistor
c. N-channel JFET
d. N-channel MOSFET
41.
Type of MOSFET that needs
enhancement between the two channels.
a. enhancement
b. depletion type
c. shy type
d. JFET
42.
Which type of FET has no channel
when VGS is 0 V.
a. MISFET
b. MOSFET enhancement
c. MOSFET depletion
d. JFET
43.
For enhancement only N-channel
MOSFET, polarity of VGS is
a. Negative
b. positive
47
c. zero
d. dependent on the application of the
device
44.
The main factor which differentiate
a DE-MOSFET from an E-only MOSFET is
the absence of
a. insulated gate
b. electrons
c. channel
d. PN junction
45.
A JFET can operate in
a. depletion and enhancement
b. depletion mode only
c. enhancement mode only
d. neither enhancement nor depletion
mode
46.
An N-channel DE-MOSFET with a
positive VGS is operating in
a. depletion mode
b. enhancement mode
c. cut-off
d. saturation
47.
The name of the Field Effect
Transistor designated to work as a power
amplifier
a. JFET
b. VMOS
c. MOSFET
d. MESFET
48.
Negative feedback is employed in
a. oscillators
b. amplifiers
c. rectifiers
d. multipliers
49.
When negative feedback is applied
to an amplifier its gain
a. is increased
b. is reduced
c. remains the same
d. becomes zero
Review Course
50.
If the gain of an amplifier without
feedback is 10 and with negative feedback
is 8, then the feedback fraction is
a. 0.025
b. 0.9
c. 0.8
d. 0.225
51.
If the output of the amplifier is 10 V
and 100 mV from the output is feedback to
the input, the feedback fraction is
a. 10
b. 0.01
c. 0.1
d. 0.15
52.
The feedback fraction is 0.01, then
the gain with negative feedback is
approximately
a. 10
b. 1000
c. 100
d. 500
53.
Type of feedback employed to
increase bandwidth and decrease voltage
gain.
a. Positive feedback
b. Negative feedback
c. Neutral feedback
d. Latch feedback
54.
An amplifier has a bandwidth of 20
kHz and a midband gain of 50 without
feedback, if 1% negative feedback is
applied. The bandwidth with feedback is
a. 13.3 kHz
b. 30 kHz
c. 10 kHz
d. 40 kHz
55.
An amplifier without feedback has a
distortion of 15% and a gain of 40. When
10% negative feedback is applied, the
distortion will become ____ %.
a. 50
48
b. 45
c. 3
d. 5
56.
What happens to the input
resistance of an amplifier employing
voltage-series feedback?
a. Increased
b. Remains the same
c. Decreased
d. Equals infinity
57.
What happens to the output
resistance of an amplifier employing
voltage-series feedback?
a. Increased
b. Remains the same
c. Decreased
d. Equals infinity
58.
What happens to the output
resistance of an amplifier employing
current-series feedback?
a. Increased
b. Remains the same
c. Decreased
d. Equals infinity
59.
What happens to the input
resistance of an amplifier employing
current-shunt feedback?
a. Increased
b. Remains the same
c. Decreased
d. Equals infinity
60.
A rotation around a vertical axis
running from top to bottom through the
wrist in robots.
a. yaw
b. pitch
c. grasp
d. roll
61.
A rotation around a horizontal axis
running from left to right through the wrist
in robots.
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a.
b.
c.
d.
yaw
pitch
grasp
roll
62.
A rotation around a horizontal axis
running from back to front through the wrist
in robots.
a. yaw
b. pitch
c. grasp
d. roll
63.
The science of physical
phenomena at very low temperatures
approaching absolute zero.
a. Cryptanalysis
b. Cryogenics
c. Cybernetics
d. Thermometry
64.
Process of converting intercepted
encrypted text into plain text without initial
knowledge of the key used.
a. Cryptanalysis
b. Cryogenics
c. Cybernetics
d. Thermometry
65.
The transferring back and forth of
energy in the tuned circuit is known as the
____ effect
a. Colpitts
b. Hartley
c. Piezoelectric
d. Flywheel
66.
Which of the following formulas is
used to calculate the oscillating frequency
of an LC oscillator?
a. f=0.4/(2RC)
b. f=1/(2RXC)
c. f=1/(2RC)
d. f=1/(2[LC])
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67.
The frequency of oscillation of an
elementary LC oscillatory circuit depends
on
a. coil resistance
b. coil inductance
c. capacitance
d. both (b) and (c)
68.
For sustaining oscillations in an
oscillator
a. Loop gain should be unity
b. Phase shift should be 0
c. Feedback should be negative
d. Both (a) and (b)
69.
If Barkhausen criterion is not
fulfilled by an oscillator circuit, it will
a. Stop oscillating
b. Produce damped wave
continuously
c. Become an amplifier
d. Produce high frequency whistles
70.
Which of the LC oscillators makes
use of a tuned transformer?
a. Hartley
b. Colpitts
c. Armstrong
d. Clapp
71.
The ___ will produce an output
sine-wave frequency that is determined by
the values of an inductor in parallel with
two series connected capacitors.
a. Hartley
b. Armstrong
c. Colpitts
d. Clapp
72.
What is the most widely used
oscillator?
a. Hartley
b. Colpitts
c. Armstrong
d. Clapp
Review Course
73.
Which of the LC oscillators makes
use of a tapped inductor in the tuned
circuit?
a. Hartley
b. Armstrong
c. Colpitts
d. Clapp
74.
The piezoelectric effect in a crystal
is
a. a voltage developed because of
mechanical stress
b. a change in resistance because of
temperature
c. a change of frequency because of
temperature
d. a change of voltage because of light
75.
Crystal have a very
a. low Q
b. high Q
c. small inductance
d. large inductance
76.
The Q of the crystal is in order of
a. 100
b. 1,000
c. 50
d. more than 10,000
77.
The application where one would
most likely find a crystal oscillator is
a. radio transmitter
b. radio receiver
c. AF generator
d. None of the above
78.
Which of the following oscillator
employs crystal?
a. Colpitts
b. Hartley
c. Armstrong
d. Pierce
79.
Material that has the piezoelectric
effect
a. Quartz
50
b. Rochelle salts
c. Tourmaline
d. all of the above
80.
Exhibits the best piezoelectric
activity
a. Quartz
b. Rochelle salt
c. Tourmaline
d. Table salt
81.
Which of the following is the
toughest?
a. Quartz
b. Rochelle salt
c. Tourmaline
d. Table salt
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ADVANCED ELECTRONICS
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT FABRICATION
Epitaxial growth.
where
c.
After oxidations the structure has 3 layers, i.e. the substrate, the epitaxial layer, and the
oxide layer.
Oxidation. Here an oxide layer is grown over the epitaxial layer. The SiO2 layer formed by
oxidation prevents diffusion of almost all impurities. Oxidation is accomplished by placing
the silicon vertically into a quartz boat in a quartz tube, which is slowly passed through a
resistance-heated furnace, in a presence of oxygen operating at about 1000oC.
Epitaxial Growth. Epi in Greek means upon and teinon in Greek means arranged.
In reality, epitaxy is simply a process to grow a single-crystal layer on a single-crystal
substrate.
Types: homoepitaxy- single-crystal layer on a single-crystal are of exactly the same material
; heteroepitaxy- single-crystal layer on a single-crystal are different in any aspect material
Applied to all kinds of thin-film depositions as long as they arranged in order ; employed to
Oxidation.
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d.
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Photolithography. The purpose of this step is to remove portions of the SiO2 layer so
diffusion can occur in selected areas.
Functional Components of Lithography
Energycause (photo)chemical reactions that modify resist dissolution rate
MaskPattern (or direct) energy to create an aerial image of mask in resist
AlignerAlign mask to previous patterns on wafer (to a tolerance level)
ResistTransfer image from mask to wafer, after development Positive resist reproduces
the mask pattern, Negative resist reproduces inverse mask pattern
SubstrateHas previous mask patterns
The photolithography process involves many steps which are described in detail below.
The first step is to make a photoresist layer above the oxide layer.
The second step is to make masks, the locations of which are determined by the final
structure. The masks will protect the photoresist layer from the ultraviolet light applied in step
three.
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Types:
Wet Etching: the wafers are immersed in a chemical solution at a predetermined
temperature. In this process, the material to be etched is removed equally in all directions.
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Dry (Plasma) Etching: the wafers are immersed in gaseous plasma created by a radio
frequency electric field applied to a gas such as argon.
e.
The structure is dipped into a solution of hydrofluoric acid in the fourth step. The masks and the
non-polymerized portions of the photoresist layer will dissolve in the hydrofluoric acid solution.
Diffusion. Diffusion is the process by which the N- type or P-type impurity silicon atoms
can be diffused into the epitaxial layer, through the holes in the oxide layer.
Diffusion.
Diffusion process occur in two steps:
Predeposition Step: a high concentration of dopant atoms are introduced at the silicon
surface by a vapor that contains the dopant at a temperature of about 1000oC.
Predeposition tends to produce, near the silicon surface, a shallow but heavily doped
layer.
Drive-in: Used to drive the impurity atoms deeper into the surface, without adding any
more impurities, thus reducing the surface concentration of the dopant.
f.
Ion Implantation. In this process, an alternative to diffusion, the epitaxial layer can be
implanted with impurity ions.
g.
Isolation. Since a number of different circuits are manufactured in a single planar process,
it becomes essential to differentiate the circuits. This process checks whether any short
circuit is present between different circuits and, if so, the corresponding part is identified as
unusable.
h.
Metallization. This process provides electrical metal contacts to the different diffused
areas, where the terminals of the devices should be taken. Wherever the terminals should
be short-circuited always, the metal contacts will be short-circuited and a single lead terminal
will be taken out.
The sixth and final step is to remove the polymerized photoresist. At the end of this step, the
oxide layer will be exposed.
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Federal Standard 209 - This standard was first published in 1963 in the USA and titled "Cleanroom
and Work Station Requirements, Controlled Environments". It was revised in 1966 (209A), 1973
(209B), 1987 (C), 1988 (D) and 1992 (E).
Federal Standard 209D Class Limits
MEASURED PARTICLE SIZE (MICROMETERS)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
5.0
1
35
7.5
3
1
NA
10
350
75
30
10
NA
100
NA
750
300
100
NA
1,000
NA
NA
NA
1,000
7
10,000
NA
NA
NA
10,000
70
100,000
NA
NA
NA
100,000
700
CLASS
Metallization.
i.
Packaging. The circuits manufactured in a single process will be scribed and cut down into
separate structures. Each structure will be packed as a separate IC. The packaging will be
used to give output leads to users.
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The effects of input variations are quantified in terms of the Noise Sensitivities. The high and low
noise sensitivities are defined as the difference between the input and midpoint voltage for VIN at VOH
and VOL, respectively.
The quantity Noise Immunity is the ability of a gate to reject noise.
In order that the high and low voltage levels always be distinguishable, must always have
VOH > VIH and VOL > VIL
Where:
VOHThe nominal, or minimum, logic-1 state output voltage.
VOLThe nominal, or maximum, logic-0 state output voltage.
ViLThe nominal, or maximum, input voltage required for logic-0 input.
ViHThe nominal, or minimum, logic-1 input voltage.
The term fan-in is used to describe the number of inputs to the gate. Similarly, the term fan-out is
used to describe the number of outputs of a gate. The maximum fan-out of a digital circuit is
restricted by its input and output currents.
The maximum fan-out possible during the driving gates logical 1 output gate is
Nhigh = IOUT(high) / IIN (high)
The maximum fan-out possible during the driving gates logical 0 output gate is
Nlow = IOUT(low) / IIN (low)
Midpoint Voltage VM, sometimes referred as threshold voltage Vth , is defined as the point on VTC
where VIN=VOUT and ideally appears at the center of the transition region.
Logic Swing magnitude of voltage difference between the output high and output voltage levels.
Transition Width amount of voltage change that is required of the output voltage from the high to
the low level (or vice versa)
Noise Margins terminology used to describe fluctuations/variations in the high and logic low levels.
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Transient Characteristics
Power Dissipation
Propagation delay - symbolized tpd, is the average time required for a digital signal to travel from the
input(s) of a logic gate to the output.
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Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
This is an improved version of the DL family. The fan-out parameter of DTL is higher than that of DL
because of the inclusion of an active component, the transistor, in the logic. The basic gates of this
family are NAND and NOR.
Power-Delay Product - a practical figure of merit used for digital logic gates is the product of the
average power dissipation P(avg) and the average propagation delay tp. This is sometimes referred
to as the speed-power product.
HTL is the same as DTL except (i) a higher supply voltage is given, (ii) a zener diode is used instead
of an ordinary diode, and (iii) large values of resistance are used.
Intregrated Injection Logic (IIL)
LOGIC FAMILIES
Logic gates are grouped into "families" and "systems" based on similarities in manufacturing process.
Examples of logic families are:
This is also called I2L and its most noble feature is its compact structure and high circuit density.
It uses a PNP transistor and a multi-emitter NPN transistor. The basic gates are AND, NAND, and
NOT.
Operations are performed by resistors, capacitors, and transistors. The switching speed of RCTL is
slower than the switching speed of RTL.
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Generally, the N-channel MOSFET is used in this family. Hence the logic is named NMOS logic. The
basic gate used is a NOT gate.
CMOS Logic
CMOS Fabrication
Here, N-channel and P-channel MOSFETs are used. This increases the systems complexity and
chip area compared to NMOS logic. The great advantage of CMOS logic is that the power
consumption in a steady state is almost zero. Power consumption occurs only when there is a
switching action from one state to another. The basic gates used are NOT and NAND.
CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor) fabrication needs an Nchannel MOSFET and P-channel MOSFET which are connected together as shown below
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RESONANCE
Resonance - condition wherein the inductive reactance (XL) of a coil equals the capacitive reactance
(XC) of a capacitor in a circuit.
The resonant frequency fr can be computed from the condition above. Since,
XL = 2 fr L
and
XC = 1/2 fr C
then,
fr =
2LC
where:
fr = resonant freq. in Hz
L = inductance in Henry
C = capacitance in Farad
E
I
Z
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We can write the series impedance in rectangular form as:
Z = R + j (XL XC)
Taking the magnitude of the equation:
lZl = R2 + (XL XC)2
We can calculate the current I in the series:
I=
E=
E
R2 + (XL XC)2
lZl
Review Course
then
Pa=
I2Xin
LSa
I2 R
Quality factor Q
figure of merit or factor of merit in sharpness of resonance.
- ratio of the reactive power (energy stored) to the true power developed in the circuit
(energy dissipated per cycle).
Q=
Q=
Imax
0.707 Imax
f1
XLS
P = 0.5 Pmax
2LC
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I = 0.707 Imax
XL = 2pifr L
fr =
fr f2
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Z = Yac + Ybc
RL2 L/C
2 LC
RC2 L/C
Basic Variations:
(a) RC is negligible
far =
Parallel Resonant Circuit(Antiresonant Ckt.):
a
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(b) RL is negligible
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1 1
2 LC
RL2C
L
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Theoretical antiresonant circuit:
far =
2 LC
1 (RC2C/L)
1
2 LC
far =
Q-factor:
2 LC
Circuit conditions:
1. total susceptance is zero
2. inductive susceptance is equal to the capacitive susceptance of the circuit
3. impedance is maximum
4. total current through the circuit is minimum
5. power factor is unity
Q=
P=Q
Q=
P
R
E2/XL
E2/R
XL
Resonant rise of the current:
IL = IT
G + j BC
G + j (BC - BL)
since BL = BC
IL = IT
G + j BC
G + j (BC - BL)
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Bandwidth:
BW =
far
Q
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- The above graph shows the variation in the current through the parallel RLC circuit. Notice that
the current is a minimum at the resonant frequency. This is an example of a band-stop circuit
response.
- The shape of the band-stop response of a parallel RLC circuit depends on the value of R and L/C
as shown in the next graphs. Note that the band-stop characteristic becomes narrower as the value
of R increases.
can be used to block frequencies near the resonant frequency, while allowing others to pass.
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3. Band-pass Filter - a filter that rejects or attenuates frequencies not within the two cut-off
frequency.
FILTERS
FILTERS - a network that possesses the ability to discriminate undesired frequency and allows the
passage of desired frequency.
Generally, inductors and capacitors are used for filtering, because of their opposite frequency
characteristics.
A filter is usually a combination of capacitors, coils and resistors.
Passband band of frequencies that the filter does not attenuate.
Stopband band of frequencies that the filter attenuates.
4. Band-reject Filter - a filter that attenuates or rejects frequencies within the two cut-off
frequencies.
PB
PB
fc
fc2
fc1
fc1
SB
SB
PB
fc2
2. High-pass Filter (HPF) filter that rejects or attenuates the frequencies below the cut-off
frequency and passes frequencies above the cut-off.
Simple RC Low-pass Filter:
R
C
VS
SB
PB
fc
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80
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A=
Review Course
1
1 + (RC)2
fc =
1
2RC
A=
fc =
1 + (1/RC)
1
2RC
RS
VS
A=
RL
R + RL
fc =
1
2RC
A=
R//RL
RS+R//RL
R1
C
R
VO
81
fc =
RL
1
2RC
VS
C1
VS
LPF
C2
R2
VO
HPF
82
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R2 > 10R1
at frequencies below the passband, the circuit behaves like a HPF. For frequencies above the
passband, the circuit behaves like a LPF. Therefore,
fc2 =
1
2R1C
fc1 =
Z1
1
2R2C
R1
VO
Z2
At passband,
R1/2
R1
VS
R2
Z1
AV = R2 / (R1 + R2)
Band-stop Filter (or Notch Filter):
R1
VS
VO
Wien-Bridge Circuit:
Z2
R1/2
fc1
83
84
fo
fc2
Electronics Engineering
Electronics Engineering
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High-pass:
Z3
Z4
Z2
1
then fO =
and A =
2RC
fC =
RC (1/RC)
9 + [RC (1/RC)]2
1
2 LC (1 + 2 )
Constant K-filter:
BASIC LC FILTERS
Low pass:
L
C
If we consider an L-type as a basic example, the values of inductance and capacitance can be
designed to make the product of XL and XC constant at all frequencies. The purpose is to have the
filter present a constant impedance at the input and output terminals.
RK = characteristic image impedance of the filter network
Z1Z2 = RK2 = L/C (or nominal impedance)
For a T-network:
Z1/2
Z1/2
Z2
fC =
1
2
1+2
LC
ZOT = RK
Z1
+1
4Z2
85
86
Electronics Engineering
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Substitute (2) and (3) in (1):
For a pi-network:
Z1
2Z2
2Z2
- RK2
Z22 =
RK
ZO
1+
Z12 = - 4RK2
Z1
Z12
= -1
4RK2
RK2
=
4Z22
Z1
=
4Z2
Z2 = j
RK
2
Z1 = j 2RK
4Z2
LPF
HPF
ZO
Z1/2
ZO
Z1/2
Z2
ZOT
ZOT
L1/2
L1/2
C
at cut-off, ZOT = 0 ; ZO = pi
for ZOT to be zero, let
Z1
= -1
4Z2
Z1
= j
4Z2
(1)
since RK = Z1 Z2
Z1 =
RK
Z2
(2) Z2 =
RK
L1 =
Z1
(3)
L1
2
RK2
fC
fC =
87
88
Z2 =
C2 =
L1C2
j C2
1
RK fC
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Formulas:
3. Band Pass
1. Low Pass
T-section
T-section
L1/2
Z1/2
Z1/2
L1/2
Z2
2C1
2C1
L2
C2
L1/2
L1/2
C2
-section
Z1
L1
2Z2
2Z2
C2/2
C2/2
-section
L1
RK2
fC
L1 =
fC =
C2 =
1
L1C2
1
RK fC
2L2
RK = L1/C2
2C1
-section
2C1
L2 =
fC =
89
RK
4fC
1
4 L1C2
C2/2
RK
(f2 f1)
L2 =
RK (f2 f1)
4f1 f2
C1 =
(f2 f1)
4 RK f1 f2
C2 =
1
RK (f2 f1)
C1
2L2
L2
2L2
C2/2
L1 =
2. High Pass
T-section
C1
C1 =
2L2
1
4RK fC
RK = L2/C1
RK = L1/C1 = L2/C2
fO = f1f2
f2 =
1
2
1
L1C2+
1
+
L1C2
1
L1C1
f1 =
1
2
1
+
L1C2
1
+
L1C2
1
L1C1
90
Electronics Engineering
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4. Band Stop
Review Course
The m-derived Filter:
T-section
L1/2
L1/2
This is the modified form of the constant k-filter. The design is based on the ratio of the filter cut-off
frequency to the frequency of infinite attenuation. This ratio determines the m-factor. The m-derived
filter also can be high pass or low pass. The advantage is very sharp cut-off.
m =almost zero
L2
m = 0.2
m = 0.6
m=1
C2
-section
L1
ZO
2L2
C1
2L2
C2/2
m-derived
C2/2
ZOT
RK = L1/C1 = L2/C2
L1 =
RK (f2 f1)
f1 f2
C1 =
(f2 f1)
RK f1 f2
91
L2 =
C2 =
RK
4(f2 f1)
1
4RK (f2 f1)
92
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m-derived Equivalent Circuits:
m = 1 (f fc)
Low-Pass Filter
mL1/2
Review Course
fc > f
mL1/2
2
1m
4m
L1
m C2
m = 1 (fc f )
fc < f
fc
High-Pass Filter
2C1/ m
2C1/ m
L2/m
4m
C1
2
1m
93
94
fc
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DC CIRCUITS
Atom - the smallest particle of an element
that still retains the properties of the element.
Components of the Atom:
Proton - a positively charged particle of 1.6 x
10 C and has a mass of 1.672x10 E-27.
Electron -a negatively charged particle of 1.6
x 10 C and has a mass of 9.107x10E-32.
Neutron - A neutral particle with a mass of
1.672 x 10E-27 C.
Valence electrons electrons in the
outermost orbit of an atom.
Electric charge exists if a body is deficient
or has an excess number of electrons than its
normal values due to sharing.
Coulomb(C) is the unit of electric charge
which was named after the French Physicist ,
Charles A. Coulomb. 1 Coulomb of Charge is
equivalent to 6.25 x 10 E18 electrons or
protons.
Ampere(A) - the unit of electric current. One
ampere is equivalent to once coulomb of
charge passing a particular point in one
second. The unit was named after the French
Physicist Andre M. Ampere.
Resistance(R) The property of a material
that limits the current flow when subjected to
a potential difference.
95
96
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Temperature coefficient of resistance ( t)
the change in resistance per degree C at a
particular temperature t.
1 watt = 1
Figure
Figure
Q = mCT
where:
Q heat
m mass
C specific heat
T change in temperature
1 kcal is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1-kg of water by
10C.
CURRENT:
98
Joule
sec
HEAT:
Energy in transit
W
= VI
t
where:
P the power in watts
W the energy in joules
t the time in seconds
Figure
Figure
97
I=
where:
Review Course
Joule
kg - C o
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where:
BTU
lb - F o
kcal
Rectangular Conductor:
kg - C o
RESISTANCE:
The opposition to the flow of current.
L2
L
V
R=
=
= 2
V
A
A
Figure
Cylindrical Conductor:
Review Course
Resistivity of Some
Common Materials
Resistivity
Material
-m
-CM/ft
2.8310-8
Aluminum
17.02
1.72410-8
Copper
10.371
2.4410-8
Gold
14.676
9810-8
Iron
589.4
1.62910-8
Silver
9.805
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTORS:
where:
R the resistance in ohms,
the resistivity or specific resistance of
the conductor
L the length of the conductor
A the area of the conductor
V the volume of the conductor
R2
R1
Figure
Length L
-m
-cm
-CM/ft
m
cm
ft
(CM)
R1
where:
sq.m
sq.cm
CM
T + t1
99
1
R
Material
Aluminum
Annealed Copper
Hard-Drawn Copper
Iron
Silver
T (oC)
228
234.5
241.5
180
243
INSULATION RESISTANCE OF
HIGH-VOLTAGE CABLES:
Cable
Insulator
R2
r1
T + t2
CM = circular-mils
R=
R2 = R1 [1 + 1 (t2 - t1)]
CONDUCTANCE:
G=
r2
Area
A
R2 resistance at temperature t2
R1 resistance at temperature t1
T inferred absolute zero temperature
1- temperature coefficient of resistance at
temperature t1
t2
if d is expressed in mils
Area = d
Resistivity
t1
where:
ln 2
2 l r1
where:
1 =
100
1
T + t1
Electronics Engineering
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COLOR CODING:
Tolerance
Multiplier
First Digit
Second Digit
Figure
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White
Gold
Silver
None
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-
where:
I current in amperes
V voltage in volts
R resistance in ohms,
G conductance in Siemens
Tolerance
Number
Multiplier
Band1,
Band4
Color
Band3
Band2
%
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
10-1
10-2
-
1
2
0.5
0.25
0.1
0.05
5
10
20
I=
101
V
R
I2
I3
node
I1
RT = R1 + R2 + .. Rn
I4
Convention:
a
V
Current entering a node: + sign
Current leaving a node: - sign
b
Figure
1
1
1
1
=
+
+..
G T G1 G 2
Gn
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL:
RESISTANCES IN SERIES:
RT =
I1 I2 I3 + I4 = 0
IT
V1
V2
Vn
R1
R2
Rn
Vr
b
I1 =
I=
102
I1
Rn
R2
R1
I2
In
I = VG
V = V1 + V2 + Vn
Convention:
OHMS LAW:
Review Course
V1
R1
V2
R2
Vn
Rn
V
V
V
; I2 =
; In =
R1
R2
Rn
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Electronics Engineering
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The same voltage V exists across each
resistor.
IT = I1 + I2 + .. In
The total current IT is the sum of individual
current passing through each resistor.
GT = G1 + G2 + .. Gn
PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT:
Review Course
R1
RT =
P = I R (watts)
R2
CURRENT DIVIDER:
RTH the equivalent resistance with all
P=
R2
R1
I1
(watts)
I [ R2 ]
I1 = T
R1 + R 2
R R
RT = 1 2
R1 + R 2
a
Circuit
Network
b
IL
RL
RT
IL
VT
RL
b
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
RL load resistance.
IL load current.
I T [ R1 ]
R1 + R 2
VOLTAGE DIVIDER:
RT
R1
V
R2
R3
V2 =
V [ R2 ]
R1 + R 2
IL
VTH
V2
IL =
R R
RT = R1 + 1 2
R1 + R 2
THEVENINS THEOREM:
I2 =
103
V2
R
I2
R1
R2
(watts)
removed.
1
1
1
1
GT =
=
+
+
R T R1 R2
Rn
R2
R3
R1[ R 2 + R 3 ]
R1 + R 2 + R 3
IT
R1
where:
ELECTRICAL POWER:
RL
VTH
R TH + R L
Figure
Maximum Power:
Pmax =
104
VTH 2 R L
[ 2R TH ]2
VTH 2
4R TH
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SOURCE TRANSFORMATION:
NORTONS THEOREM:
a
RT
IL
Circuit
Network
b
Vb
VTH
IL
ISC
Rb
Va Vb
V Vb
+ 2
R2
R3
RL
where:
ISC the short-circuit current passing
through terminals a and b with RL
removed and terminals a and b shortcircuited.
RTH the equivalent resistance with all
voltage sources shorted and all current
sources opened, across terminals a
and b with RL removed.
RL load resistance.
IL load current.
R2
MILLMANS THEOREM:
RT
NODAL ANALYSIS:
In this method, a solution is possible with
n-1 equations, where n represents the
number of nodes.
Node
Node
R3
I2
I1
V1
R2
Ia
Ra
RB
R1
R1
R2
V1
V2
VL
RL
V1 V2
V
+
+ .... n
R1 R 2
Rn
VL=
1
1
1
1
+
+ ....
+
R1 R 2
Rn RL
RA
RA =
R 2R 3
R1 + R 2 + R 3
RB =
R 3 R1
R1 + R 2 + R 3
RC =
R 1R 2
R1 + R 2 + R 3
WYE-DELTA TRANSFORMATION:
1
RC
I3
Ib
Rb
V2
zero potential
At node a(Common
:
Node)
I1 = Ia + I2
V1 Va
V
= a +
R1
Ra
R3
I SC R TH
R TH + R L
R1
ISC
105
IL =
DELTA-WYE TRANSFORMATION:
At node b:
Ib = I2 + I3
RT
Review Course
where:
V1, V2, ..Vn Voltages of the individual
voltage sources.
R1, R2,..Rn internal resistances of the
individual voltage sources.
VL load voltage
RL load resistor
RB
RA
3
1
R1
R2
Va Vb
2
R2
106
R3
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R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
R A R B + R B R C + R CR A
RA
R A R B + R B R C + R CR A
RB
R A R B + R B R C + R CR A
RC
ELECTROSTATICS/CAPACITANCE
LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS:
Like charges repel each other, unlike
charges attract each other.
The force exerted between two charges
is directly proportional to the product of
their strengths and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between the two charges.
COULOMBS LAW:
The force between two charged bodies
k=
1
4 o r
9 x 109
where:
Review Course
where:
where:
F force in Newton
Q1, Q2 respective charges on the particles
in Coulombs
o - absolute permittivity
o = 8.85410-12 Farad/meter
r - relative permittivity or dielectric
constant
r = 1 - free space
d distance between the charged particles
in meters
POTENTIAL AT A POINT: V
In CGS:
F force in Dyne
Q1, Q2 respective charges on the particles
in Statcoulomb
d - distance between the charged particles
in centimeters
ELECTRIC INTENSITY: E
or (Field Intensity)
E
+Q
d
V = 9 109
where:
V potential at a point in volts
Q charge in Coulombs
d distance in meters
E = 9109 Q2
d
where:
E electric field outside an isolated sphere
in free space in volts/meter
Q the total charge in Coulombs
d the distance from the center of an
isolated sphere located in free space in
meters.
Figure
Q1 Q 2
d2
9 10 9
Q1 Q 2
d2
E = 9 109
D =
CAPACITANCE: C
is the property of the capacitor which
delays any change of voltage across it.
C=
Q
V
where:
C capacitance in Farad
Q charge in Coulombs
V voltage in Volts
ELASTANCE: S
the reciprocal of capacitance
Figure
F=k
Q
r d
S=
V
Q
where:
S elastance in Daraf
Q charge in Coulombs
V voltage in Volts
CAPACITANCE OF TWO PARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR:
Q
r d 2
D = o r E
Figure
107
108
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C=
o r A
d
C=
where:
C capacitance in Farad
A area of each plate sq. meters
d thickness of the dielectric material in
meters
CAPACITANCE OF n PARALLEL
PLATES CAPACITOR with the same
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL
and thickness of INSULATION:
r r
Figure
C = (n 1)
o r A
d
where:
C capacitance in Farad
n the number of plates
CAPACITANCE of several PARALLEL
PLATES CAPACITOR with DIFFERENT
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL and THICKNESS
of INSULATION:
r1 r2 r3
d1
d2
d3
o A
d1 d 2 d 3
+
+
r1 r2 r3
Review Course
CAPACITANCE OF AN
ISOLATED SPHERE:
r +
+
PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS
INSULATING (DIELECTRIC)
MATERIALS
Vacuum
1
Air
1.0006
Asbestos
2
Bakelite
5
Cellulose film
5.8
Marble
7
Mica
6
Paper (Dry)
2.2
Paper (Treated)
3.2
Glass
6
Porcelain
5.7
Pressboard
6.2
Quartz, fused
3.5
Rubber
2.6
Silica, fused
3.6
Water
70
Wax, paraffin
2.2
+Q
r
+
+
+
Figure
Figure
C = 4 o r r
CAPACITANCE OF A SPHERICAL
CAPACITOR:
-
r
-
r2
C = 4or
C=
o r
D
ln +
2r
D
2r
(F/m)
CAPACITORS IN SERIES:
+Q
+ r1
+
+
-
Figure
VT
V1
V2
C1
C2
Vn
Cn
IT
Figure
r1 r2
r2 r1
r
r
Figure
C=
Figure
109
CAPACITANCE BETWEEN
TWO-PARALLEL WIRE:
110
2 o r
(Farad/meter)
r
ln 2
r1
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For a number of capacitors in series,
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
CT C1 C2
Cn
VT = V1 = V2 = Vn
Review Course
W = CV2 =
C1 C2
C1 + C2
C1
IT
C2
I1
C2
I2
1.
Cn
Figure
In
CT =
Figure
2.
C1 [ C 2 + C 3 ]
C1 + C 2 + C 3
PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT:
IT = I1 + I2 + In
C2
C1
The total charge QT is the sum of all charges
in each capacitor.
C3
4.
Figure
CT = C1 +
C2 C3
C2 + C3
112
3.
C3
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Qn
ohm-sq.-m
ohm-cm
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL:
VT
Q2
= VQ
C
where:
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
C1
c.
d.
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Review Course
b.
c.
d.
results in reduced
power loss
draws less current
makes the operation of
the
appliances
independent from each
other
Review Course
b.
c.
d.
greater
than
the
smallest resistance
between the smallest
and
greatest
resistance
none of the above
d.
ohm/volt
Electronics Engineering
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Review Course
c.
d.
8A
18A
b.
c.
d.
Review Course
2
4
5
a.
b.
c.
d.
d.
all of these
b.
c.
electronic circuits
junctions in a network
d.
electric circuits
39. Kirchoffs
Voltage
Law
concerned with
a.
IR drops
b.
battery emfs
c.
junction voltages
d.
a and b
116
is
Electronics Engineering
c.
d.
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Review Course
both a and b
none of these
54. Delta/Star
or
Star/delta
transformation technique is applied
to
a.
one terminal
b.
two terminal
c.
three terminal
d.
none of these
118
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Review Course
b.
c.
d.
90.4%
87.6%
78.5%
Review Course
AC CIRCUITS
all
120
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Resonance the condition existing in a
circuit containing at least one resistor, an
inductor and a capacitor wherein the current
behaves as if it is purely resistive.
Resonance characteristics:
- total current is in phase with the
impressed voltage
- power factor of the circuit is unity.
- total reactive power is zero.
- imaginary component of the total
impedance ( or admittance ) in
complex form is zero.
2
wt
T =1 / f
Figure
where:
Arms = A m
The Average Value of Different
Waveforms:
Am
Vmcos(wt+) = Vmsin(wt++90 )
One Cycle
Am
A rms
One Cycle
The PHASOR:
A complex number that carries both the
amplitude and phase angle information of
any given sinusoidal function.
A ave = 0
Arms = Am
Am
Half- Cycle
Aave
Am
TIME DOMAIN:
v( t ) = Vm cos ( wt )
Aave =
Half- Cycle
Arms
Polar Form:
w = 2f
v( t ) = Vm cos ( wt + )
v( t ) = Vm sin ( wt + )
Am
Aave
Vmsin(wt+) = Vmcos(wt+-90 )
Vm
where:
SINUSOIDAL SOURCE:
Review Course
Am
Arms = Am
Am
Aave
V = Vm / o
0
Rectangular Form:
Am
Full-Wave Rectifier
V = a jb
Aave =
Full-Wave Rectifier
A rms
Am
Arms = Am
2
121
122
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V = RI
Am
Arms
Review Course
In time-domain:
II. INDUCTOR:
In time-domain:
I. RESISTOR:
i = C dv
dt
v = L dtdi
if
i = Imcos( wt + i )
then
v = wLImcos (wt + i + 900)
Figure
VR
VL
Figure
~ V
v
i
Arms = Am
In time-domain:
III. CAPACITOR:
VL
if
900
v = Vmcos (wt + v )
VR
then
i = wCVm cos (wt + v + 900)
Figure
In phasor-domain:
Z = R 2 + XL2
XC
I
if
In phasor-domain:
i = Imcos (wt + i )
V = -j w1C I = XC I
V = jwLI = XLI
V
Figure
XC = -j 1 = -j
wC
XL = jwL = j2fL
Z = R + jXL
then
123
where:
XL = inductive reactance in
L = inductance in Henry
V = VR2 + VL2
1
2 fC
where:
XC = capacitive reactance in
C = capacitance in Farad
V/ = VR + jVL
where:
V = IZ
Z impedance in
124
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R-C SERIES CIRCUIT:
Review Course
if VC < VL
VL
I
VR
VC
VR
900
VL
~ V
VC
VC
VL - VC
VR
IMPEDANCES IN PARALLEL:
Current I lags
voltage V by
VR
Figure
Vab
Z1
I1
V = IZ
if VC > VL
I2
VR
In
Z=
R2 + [ X X ] 2
I = I1 + I2 + In
V=
V2 + [ V V ] 2
Vab
V
V
V
= ab + ab + ... ab
Z ab
Z1
Z2
Zn
VC - VL
V
VC
Current I leads
Z = R + XC
Zn
Figure
Z2
VL
Figure
Figure
VC
Zab = Z1 + Z2 +Zn
voltage V by
IMPEDANCES IN SERIES:
Figure
Z = R jXC
1 = 1 + 1 + ... 1
Zab Z1 Z 2
Zn
a
Z1
V=
VR2
V = IZ
+ VC
V/- = VR jVC
Z=
Z2
R + [ XC XL ]
Y = 1 = G + jB
Z
Vab
Zn
Yab=Y1 + Y2 +Yn
b
Figure
where:
V = IZ
V=
V +[ V V ]
R
Vab = V1 + V2 +Vn
Vab = IZab
where:
Z impedance in
Y - Admittance in Siemens
G - Conductance in Siemens
B - Susceptance in Siemens
Two Impedances in Parallel:
Z=
125
126
Z Z
1 2
Z1 + Z 2
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ADMITTANCE, CONDUCTANCE,
SUSCEPTANCE:
I
VR
~ V
X
I=
VX
V
R jX
when rationalized
X
R
I = V 2 m j 2
Z
Z
I = V [ G m jB ] = VY
Admittance:
Y= G m jB Siemens
Conductance:
G = R2
Z
Siemens
Susceptance:
B=
127
X
Z2
Siemens
Review Course
if jB then X is
inductive reactance XL
+jB then X is
capacitive reactance XC
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The reciprocal of capacitance is called
a. Elastance
b. conductance
c. permittivity
d. permeability
d.
0.5 lagging
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14. Calculate the susceptance in mho of
a circuit consisting of a resistor of 10
ohms in series with a conductor of
0.1H, when the frequency is 50Hz.
a. 0.0303
b. 0.0092
c. 0.029
d. 32.95
15. An
inductive circuit of
resistance 16.5 ohms and
inductance of 0.14H takes
a current of 25A. If the
frequency is 50Hz, the
supply voltage is
a.
b.
c.
d.
117. 4V
1174V
1714V
1471V
Review Course
is
the
130
d.
zero
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ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Review Course
MAGNETIC FLUX INTENSITY:
circuit in meters
H=
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT:
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF):
I
N
Figure
In SI:
= NI
where:
mmf in Ampere-Turns, At
N the number of turns ( t )
I the current in the coil in Amps
In CGS:
= 0.4NI
where:
- mmf in Gilberts
N the number of turns ( t )
I the current in the coil in Amps
RELUCTANCE:
l
l
l
=
=
=v =
A
A o r A
where:
reluctance in At/Wb
131
where:
In SI:
Flux in Weber
In CGS:
Flux in Maxwells
NI
=
=
l
l
where:
In SI:
H A-t/meter
In CGS:
H Oersted
PERMEABILITY:
=
I
= o r
H
= Henry/meter
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY:
r =
(unitless)
r = unitless
where:
F force in Newton
B flux density, normally perpendicular to I
in Tesla
I current in the conductor in Amperes
L length of the conductor in meters
- the angle between B and I if not 90o
FORCE between PARALLEL
CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS:
F = 2 10-7 I1I2
where:
F force in Newton
I1, I2 conductor currents in Amperes
l length of the conductors in meters
r the distance between the 2 paralleled
conductors in meters
TRACTIVE FORCE of a MAGNET:
F =
PERMEANCE:
P=
where:
1 A
=
=
l
In SI:
B Wb/sq.meter = Tesla
P - Wb/A-t
In CGS:
B Maxwells/sq.cm = Gauss
132
l
r
B2 A
2 ( o )
where:
F force per gap in Newton
B flux density in Tesla
A area in sq. meters
o 4 10-7 (H/m)
MAGNETIC FIELD ENERGY:
(In the air-gap)
W =
B2 l A
2 o
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Series Magnetic Circuit:
where:
W energy in Joules
B flux density in Tesla
A area in sq. meters
o = 4 10-7 (H/m)
l length in meters
Air-gap
IT
R1
RC
R2
I2
I1
V
e = -N
Magnetic Circuit
Magnetic Circuit
Rag
Electric Circuit
Figure
Magnetic Circuit
Electric Circuit
Figure
T = c + ag
T = c + ag
Electric Circuit
Figure
T = c + ag
Magnetic Circuit
MMF
Flux
Reluctance
Permeance
P
Reluctivity
v
Permeability
Electric Circuit
EMF
Current
Resistance
Conductance
Resistivity
Conductivity
V
I
R
G
T = c = ag
d
10-8
dt
(volts)
where:
- the flux in Maxwell or Line
The minus sign merely represents that the
voltage is induced.
where:
B the flux density in Tesla
l the length of the conductor in meters
v the velocity in meters/second
In CGS:
In SI:
e = -N
d
dt
(volts)
where:
N the number of turns linking
- the flux in Weber
t time in seconds
133
ag
Review Course
134
e = B l v 10-8 (volts)
where:
B the flux density in Gauss
l the length of the conductor in
centimeters
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v the velocity in centimeters/second
1Weber = 108 Maxwell
EMF of SELF-INDUCTION:
di
dt
e=L
- reluctance
o = 4
r relative permeability of the core
l - length of the magnetic core in meters
10-7
W = LI
where:
W energy stored in Joules
L the inductance in Henry
I current in the inductor in Amperes
d D
Mutual Inductance:
-7
turns of wire
D
d
where:
L the inductance in Henry
D outer diameter
d inner diameter
L=
Figure
N2
Figure
e2 = N2
d 2
dt
Lta = L1 + L2 + 2M
= kN2
d1
dt
(Henry)
(Henry)
e2 = M
D
Figure
dI 1
dt
N A
(Henry)
l
where:
L the self -inductance of the coil in Henry
N number of turns
A cross-sectional area of the coil in sq. m
- flux in Webers
135
r2
r1
N2
L = o r
e1 1
e2
I1
N1
L = 210 ln
L= N
Figure
SELF-INDUCTANCE:
l Figure
(Joules)
(volts)
where:
L the inductance of the coil in Henry
di/dt - the rate of change of current in
Amps/sec
Review Course
-7
L = 410 ln
D
r1r2
where:
L the inductance in Henry
D distance between the two lines
r1, r2 radius of the wires
M = kN2
d1
dI 1
M = k
where:
136
= k N1N 2
L1 L 2
Figure
Lto = L1 + L2 2M
M=
Lta Lto
4
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where:
Lta the total-inductance; series-aiding in
Henry
Lto the total-inductance; series-opposing
in Henry
M mutual inductance between the coils
in Henry
Review Course
e = l v10
Inductance in Series-Parallel:
L1
L2
L3
where:
E - Average EMF induced in a coil in
volts
t time in seconds
Figure
L1
L2
L 2L 3
L2 + L3
In CGS:
E = N
Ln
-8
10
t
Inductance in Parallel-Series:
L2
Figure
L1
LT = L1 + L2 + .. Ln
Figure
Inductances in Parallel:
L1
L2
Ln
L3
LT =
L1[ L2 + L3 ]
L1 + L2 + L3
where:
E - Average EMF induced in a coil in
volts
t time in seconds
Induced EMF in a Conductor :
In SI:
e = l v
Figure
1
1
1
1
=
+
+ ...
Ln
LT L1 L2
v - velocity in centimeters/sec
DC GENERATOR:
A dc generator is an electrical machine that
converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
where:
- Flux density in Webers/sq.m = Tesla
v - velocity in meters/sec
E = N
137
where:
- Flux density in Linews/sq.cm =
Gauss
NOTE:
, l , v must be mutually perpendicular; if
not, the equation must be multiplied by the
sine of an angle between pairs of quantities.
Inductance in Series:
LT = L1 +
In CGS:
138
-8
yc
yc = m
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Wave Winding
Cm
yc =
P
2
yb = yf 2m
where:
yb back pitch (an odd number)
yc
Simplex Lap
(SL)
Duplex Lap
(DL)
Triplex Lap
(TL)
Quadroplex Lap
(QL)
Z2
y=
P
In SI:
TYPES of DC GENERATORS :
P ZS
60 (a')
where:
y average pitch
yf
Lap Winding
Wave Winding
Type of Winding
Lap Winding
Separately-Excited DC Generator:
IL
If
Ra
Rf
DC
E=
P ZS
-8
10
60 (a')
mP
Ra
Ia
E
Pa
Rf
Po
V
If
Po = VIL
Pa = EIa
Pa = Po + Losses
E = V + IaRa
E = KS
140
RL
SHUNT GENERATOR:
Ia = IL + If
139
In CGS:
where:
the flux per pole in Maxwells or
Lines
Number of Brushes:
yc
where:
E generated emf in the armature in
volts
Type of Winding
yb
DC-GENERATOR VOLTAGE
EQUATION BETWEEN BRUSHES:
E=
y + yf
y= b
2
2m
RL
IL
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Pa = Po + Losses
If = V
Rf
EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC OF A
SHUNT GENERATOR:
A shunt generator is considered as having a
fairly constant output voltage.
Pa
Ia
E
Po
Rf
Pa
If
Ra
RL
Ia
E
IL
Pa
Po
Rf
If
RL
IL
Po = VIL
Pa = EIa
where:
Rs series field resistance
Po = VIL
Pa = EIa
Pa = Po + Losses
Pa = Po + Losses
E = V+ ILRs + IaRa
E = V + Ia(Rs + Ra)
Ia = IL + If
EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC OF A
SERIES GENERATOR:
IL
RL
If =
Ia = IL + If
Po
V
_
Ra
Load Current
SERIES GENERATOR:
Rs
Rs
+
Ia = IL
Load Voltage
where:
Po power output in watts
Pa power developed in the armature in
watts
V output (terminal/load) voltage in volts
E generated emf in the armature in volts
IL load current in amperes
If field current in amperes
Ia armature current in amperes
RL load resistance
Rf shunt field resistance
Ra armature resistance
Ia
SHORT-SHUNT
COMPOUND GENERATOR:
LONG SHUNT
COMPOUND GENERATOR:
Rs
E = V + Ia(Ra + Rs)
Ra
Review Course
If = V
Rf
V + IL RS
Rf
EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
COMPOUND GENERATORS:
where:
All other terms have been previously defined.
Pa = EIa
141
142
cumulative
Load Voltage
Po = VIL
over compound
VNL
flat compound
under compound
differential
Ra t e d
Load current
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Vf voltage across the shunt field
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C. Stray Load Loss = 1% of the Output
MEASUREMENT of STRAY POWER LOSS:
Short-Shunt Compound:
where:
= f s
VF = V + ILRS
+ cumulatively compounded
- differentially compounded
NOTE:
If the interpoles RI and the compensating RC
windings are included in the circuit, the total
resistance in the armature circuit Ra is:
Ra = Ra + RC + RI
VOLTAGE REGULATION:
V VFL
100
%V.R. = NL
VFL
where:
VNL no-load voltage
VFL full-load voltage
GENERATORS EFFICIENCY:
% =
Pout
100
Pin
Long-Shunt Compound
and Shunt Generator
VF = V
2. Series Field Loss = Ise2Rs
Long-Shunt Compound:
Ise = Ia
Short-Shunt Compound:
Ise = IL
Series Generator:
Ise = Ia = IL
Shunt Generator:
LOSSES:
A. Electrical Losses:
1. Shunt Field Loss = VfIf
143
RL = VIa
2
Ia Ra
where:
RL Rotational Loss
V Terminal Voltage
Ia Armature current
Ra Armature Resistance
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:
Maximum efficiency is obtained when
the fixed losses equal the losses which
vary with the square of the load current.
Parallel Operation of DC Generators:
Ise = none
P - Losses
% = in
100
Pin
Reasons:
1. Continuity of Service
2. Efficiency
3. Maintenance and Repair
4. Additions to Plants
Conditions:
1.Same External Characteristic
2. Same Polarity
3. Same Voltage
IL = IA + IB
PA = VBUSIA
PB = VBUSIB
PL = VBUSIL
PL = PA + PB
where:
VBUS Bus Voltage
IL Load Current
IA Current delivered by GenA
IB Current delivered by GenB
PA Power delivered by GenA
PB Power delivered by GenB
PL Power delivered to the load.
DC MOTOR:
A dc motor is an electrical machine that
converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.
SPEED of a DC MOTOR:
In SI:
IA
VBUS
IL
IB
144
S=
where:
60 a'Ec
P Z
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S speed in RPM
a number of parallel paths
Ec counter EMF in volts
P number of poles
- flux per pole in Webers
Z number of armature conductors
k - proportional constant
If field current in Amps.
Nf number of turns of a field winding
S=
60 a'Ec
8
10
P Z
where:
- flux per pole in Maxwells
All other terms have been previously
defined.
After the machine has been assembled, a,
P, Z could be taken as a constant, thus
S=k
Ec
P Z Ia
T=
2 a'
SPEED REGULATION:
S NL SFL
x 100
SFL
%S.R. =
In CGS:
Review Course
where:
SNL No-load Speed
SFL Full-load Speed
where:
T torque in N-m
- flux per pole in Webers
Ia = aI armature current in Amps.
T=
F = IL
P Z Ia
20 a'
where:
IL
F=
10
where:
F - Force in Dynes
flux density in Gauss
I current in a conductor in Amps
L length of the conductor in cm
F=
P Z Ia
10-8
a'
where:
T torque in lb-ft
- flux per pole in Maxwells or Lines
All other terms have been previously
defined.
IL
10 7
1.13
where:
F - Force in Lbs.
flux density in lines per sq. inch
I current in a conductor in Amps
HP =
2 T S
33,000
where:
T torque in lb-ft
S speed in RPM
T torque in dyne-cm
- flux per pole in Maxwells or Lines
T = 0.1173
where:
60 a'
k=
PZ
MECHANICAL OUTPUT
of a DC MOTOR:
where:
F - Force in Newton
flux density in Tesla
I current in a conductor in Amps.
L length of the conductor in meters
HP =
2 T S
44,760
where:
T torque in N-m
S speed in RPM
STARTING DC MOTOR:
(Without the starting resistor R)
+
Ec
T = kt Ia
146
Ra
Ias
Ias =
V Ec
Ra
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Pin = VI
Armature Current
T = ktIa
I = If + Ia
Ra
Ias
where:
Ias armature current at starting in amps.
V terminal voltage in volts
EC counter emf in volts
Ra armature resistance in
R starting resistor in
TYPES of DC MOTORS:
SHUNT MOTOR:
I
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SHUNT
MOTOR:
If
and
Rf
Pa
Ec
Po
Rated
Armature Current
S 2 Ec2
=
S1 Ec1
SERIES MOTOR:
Pin
Ra
Ia
Pa
Rated
Pin = VI
148
Rated
Rs
Armature Current
147
T2 I a2
=
T1 I a1
V
Ra
Torque
It follows that:
Ia
Pin
V
where:
Pin power input
Pa power developed in the armature
Po power output
RL rotational loss
V input (terminal) voltage
Ec counter emf
I line current
If field current
Ia armature current
Rf shunt field resistance
Ra armature resistance
Torqu
S = ksEc
Speed
V Ec
R a + R'
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SERIES
MOTOR:
and
If = V
Rf
where:
Rs series field resistance in
All other terms have been previously defined.
Ec
Ias =
I = Ia
Po = Pa RL
R
V
Po = Pa RL
Rated
Pa = EcIa
Ec=V - IaRa
Pa = EcIa
Speed
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Ec
Po
Armature Current
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In a series motor, the flux produced by the
series field is proportional to the armature
current Ia, thus:
T = ktIa
Pa = EcIa
V - Ia Rs
If =
Rf
where:
All terms have been previously defined.
Po = Pa RL
Review Course
S = ks E c
Ia
Torque
I = If + Ia
If = V
Rf
Pin
S 2 Ec2 I a1
=
S1 Ec1 I a2
V
_
Ra
Ia
If
Rf
Pa
Ec
Po
Rated
I
Rf
If
Pa
Pin = VI
Pa = EcIa
Po = Pa RL
Ec
Armature Current
Po
Ec = V - IRs - IaRa
Pin = VI
149
Cumulative
Ra
Rs
Pin
Ia
Differential
Speed
Rs
I = If + Ia
But
thus
Pout=Pin Losses,
% =
and
P
% = out 100
Pin
Rated
T2 I a2
=
T1 I a1
MOTORS EFFICIENCY:
Differential
Armature Current
It follows that:
S 2 Ec2 1
=
S1 Ec1 2
where:
= f s
+ cumulatively compounded
- differentially compounded
and
150
Pin - Losses
100
Pin
LOSSES:
1. Electrical Losses
(See Losses in Generators)
2.
3.
RL = VIa Ia Ra
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Squirrel-Cage Rotor
Wound-Rotor
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED:
(Speed of the Revolving Field)
120f
NS =
P
(RPM)
fR = sf (Hz)
where:
s per cent slip
f line frequency (Hz)
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:
Characteristics of Synchronous Motors:
1. It runs at synchronous speed or not at
all.
2. It is not self-starting.
3. It can be operated over a wide range of
power factors hence it can be used for
power factor correction.
ROTOR SPEED:
(The motors actual speed (rotor speed) is
equal to the synchronous speed)
where:
f frequency (Hz)
P number of poles
N - NR
s= S
NS
NR = NS ( 1 s )
151
TRANSFORMERS::
A transformer is an electrical device that
transfers electrical energy from one
circuit
to
another
circuit
by
electromagnetic induction without a
change in frequency. It changes voltage
from high to low (step down) and low to
high (step up) with a corresponding
increase and decrease in current
correspondingly.
EMF EQUATION of a TRANSFORMER :
E = 4.44fNm
Exciter
E = 4.44fNmA 10-8
where:
m - maximum flux in maxwells or lines
m maximum flux density
in maxwells/sq.cm = Gauss
A area of the core in sq. cm
All other terms have been previously defined.
RATIO of TRANSFORMATION:
V1 ~
I1
E1
N1
E2
I2
~ E
Ra
Ia
Armature Circuit
V2
N2
Figure
E1 = 4.44fN1m
Xs
Figure
E = 4.44fNm 10-8
E = 4.44fNmA
(RPM)
In CGS:
An Ideal Transformer
(RPM)
where:
f frequency (Hz)
P number of poles
where:
where:
V source(applied) voltage per phase in
volts
E - generated voltage per phase in volts
Ra effective armature resistance per phase
in
Xs synchronous reactance per phase in
Ia armature current per phase in amps.
ROTOR FREQUENCY:
120f
Nr =
P
m = mA
where:
E EMF in volts
f frequency in Hertz
N number of turns
m- maximum flux in Webers
152
E2 = 4.44fN2m
I 2 N1
=
=a
I1 N 2
E1 N 1
=
=a
E2 N 2
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No leakage flux
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER
.
Ideally:
V1 N 1
=
=a
V2 N 2
where:
a ratio of transformation
E1 primary induced emf
E2 secondary induced emf
N1 primary number of turns
N2 secondary number of turns
V1 input (source) voltage
V2 output (terminal) voltage
NOTE:
For an ideal transformer:
Power input = Power output
No core loss, no copper loss
R1
X2
X1
I2
Io
I1
V1
R2
V2
E2
E1
Ic
Im
N1
N2
Figure
where:
X1 primary reactance in
X2 secondary reactance in
R1 primary resistance in
R2 secondary resistance in
X2
X1
Io
INL
V1
Ic
Im
Rc
E1
Figure
154
E2
Xm
N1
153
R2
N2
I2 = 0
V2
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Core
Volume
Wh
At no-load, INL = Io. Since Io is but a small
percentage of the full-load current (about
1%), thus the voltage drops across R1 and X1
are neglected.
TWO COMPONENTS OF IO:
IC wattful current (responsible for the core
loss)
Im magnetizing current (responsible for the
flux)
Xm magnetizing reactance
Joules/cyc
le
Io
Im
Ergs/cycle
Ic
Io =
Ic + Im
Gaus
s
Ph = khf m1.6
Wh = Vkhm1.6
Cubic
centimete
r
In CGS
where:
V core volume
kh hysteresis constant (depending on the
materials)
m maximum flux density
1.6 Steinmetz exponent
where:
Ph hysteresis loss in watts
f frequency in Cycles/seconds
kh constant
1
6 10 16
[tfm ]2V
Pe =
(watts)
CORE LOSS:
Pc = Ph + Pe
[ tfm ]2V
6
Pe = ke [ f m]
(vars)
where:
Pe eddy-current loss in watts
resistivity of the ferromagnetic
material in -cm
t thickness of the laminations in cm.
f frequency in Hz
m maximum flux density in Gauss
V - Core Volume in cu. cm.
ke - constant
EDDY-CURRENT LOSS:
Qm = V1Iosin = Im Xm
Pe =
Pe = ke [ f m]
HYSTERESIS LOSS:
2
Tesla
in -m
t thickness of the laminations in meters
f frequency in Hz
m maximum flux density in Tesla
V - Core Volume in cu. m.
Ph = Wh f
STEINMETZ LAW:
Im = Iosin
Cubic
meter
Figure
Ic = Iocos
where:
Rc resistance representing the core loss
where:
Pe eddy-current loss in watts
resistivity of the ferromagnetic material
155
156
where:
Pc core loss in watts
Ph hysteresis loss in watts
Pe eddy-current loss in watts
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE
TRANSFORMER REFERRED TO THE
PRIMARY SIDE:
X1
R1
I1
V1 ~
a2X2 a2R2
aV2
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TRANSFORMER TESTS:
Z o1
= a2
Z o2
VOLTAGE REGULATION:
Ro1 = R1 + a2R2
Ro2 = R2 + R1/a2
Xo1 = X1 + a2X2
Xo2 = X2 + X1/a2
%V.R. =
VNL VFL
100
VFL
where:
VNL voltage at no-load
VFL voltage at full-load
VNL=
2
2
[ V2 cos + I 2 R o2 ] + [ V2 sin I 2 X o2 ]
Zo1 =
R o12 + Xo12
Zo2 =
R o2 2 + Xo2 2
V1 /a = V2 + I2Zo2
V1 = aV2 + I1Zo1
where:
Ro1 equivalent resistance referred to the
primary side
Xo1 equivalent reactance referred to the
primary side
Zo1 equivalent impedance referred to the
primary side
where:
Ro2 equivalent resistance referred to the
secondary side
Xo2 equivalent reactance referred to the
secondary side
Zo2 equivalent impedance referred to the
secondary side
157
V1/a ~
X2
R o1
= a2
R o2
X o1
= a2
X o2
R2
I2
V2
OpenCircuited
where:
V2 load-voltage
I2
load current
cos - power factor of the load
+ inductive load (lagging pf)
- capacitive load (leading pf)
In complex form:
VNL / = V2 + I2(cos jsin )( Ro2 + jXo2 )
where:
V2 - load-voltage
I2 - load current
cos - power factor of the load
+ capacitive load (leading pf)
- inductive load (lagging pf)
158
Lo
Hi
Figure
Wattmeter
Rated
POC = PC
Core loss
Ammeter
Io
Exciting
Current
~
Hi
Figure
Lo
Electronics Engineering
Electronics Engineering
Review Course
P - Losses
% = in
100
Pin
Voltmeter
Vsc
PSC = PCU
5% to 10% of the
Rated
Copper Loss
Rated
R oH =
Z oH
XoH =
Review Course
3.
Maximum Efficiency:
% max =
LOSSES:
1. Core Loss : PC - constant
2. Copper Loss: Pcu
varies as the square of the load
2
WO
100
WO + WC + WCU
Psc
I sc 2
V
= sc
I sc
ZoH 2 R oH 2
where:
RoH equivalent resistance referred to the
high side
XoH equivalent reactance referred to the
high side
ZoH equivalent impedance referred to high
side
Psc wattmeter reading
Vsc voltmeter reading
Isc ammeter reading
TRANSFORMERs EFFICIENCY:
P
% = out 100
Pin
4.
where:
Wo energy out on a certain day in(kw-hour)
Wc energy loss due to core loss in(kw-hour)
Wcu energy loss due to copper loss in (kwhour)
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:
At maximum efficiency:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Pcu = Pc
The load current at maximum efficiency:
I2 =
PC
R o2
2.
PC
Pcu (rated)
159
Po
100
Po + 2PC
Po = KVAload(pf)
160
5.
6.
Electronics Engineering
Electronics Engineering
Review Course
d. Mutual induction
Distortion of the main field by
interaction with the armature field
can be minimized by the use of
a. slip rings
b. compensating windings
c. a commutator
d. special brushes
8. Motor reaction in a dc generator is
a physical force caused by the
magnetic interaction between the
armature and the field. What effect,
if any, does this force have on the
operation of the generator?
a. It tends to oppose the
rotation of the armature
b. It tends to aid the rotation
of the armature
c. It causes the generator to
vibrate
d. None
9. In dc generators, core losses are
caused by which of the following
factors?
a. Eddy currents in the field
poles
b. Resistance in the
armature winding
c. Reactance in the
armature and field
windings
d. All of the above
10. Hysteresis in armature cores is
kept low by which of the following
actions?
a. Using special silicon steel
as a core material
b. Limiting armature current
c. Insulating the core
d. Laminating the iron in the
core
7.
161
Review Course
d.
Excessive speed
Electronics Engineering
Electronics Engineering
Review Course
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
163
a. armature current
b. field current
c. total load current
d. eddy current
The purpose of the resistor placed
in series with the armature of a dc
motor is
a. To counteract armature
reaction
b. To limit armature current
c. To increase field strength
d. To prevent overspeeding
Voltage is induced in what part of
an generator?
a. The commutator
b. The brushes
c. The armature
d. The field
Which of the following alternator
types is most widely used?
a. Shunt-wound
b. Rotating-armature
c. Series-wound
d. Rotating-field
Transformers are rated using which
of the following terms?
a. Volts
b. Watts
c. Amperes
d. Volt-amperes
What does the term three-phase
mean relative to three-phase
alternators?
a. All output voltages are in
phase with each other
b. The voltage and current
are in phase
c. The phase angle is
constant
d. three single phase
voltages are produced
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Review Course
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
164
b. field voltage
c. armature resistance
d. electric load
When alternators are to be
operated in parallel, which of the
following alternator characteristics
must be considered?
a. Voltage
b. Frequency
c. Phase relationship
d. All the above
Which of the following motors is/are
types of ac motor?
a. Series
b. Synchronous
c. Induction
d. All of the above
Which of the following types of
motors is widely used to power
small appliances?
a. Universal
b. Synchronous
c. Polyphase
d. Compound
A universal motor is a special type
of
a. synchronous motor
b. series motor
c. parallel motor
d. polyphase motor
In the primary winding of a
transformer, what opposes the
current from the source?
a. impedance
b. forward emf
c. self-induced emf
d. exciting current
A 50kVA transformer has a primary
voltage of 6,600V and a secondary
voltage of 250V. It has 1373 turns
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
Electronics Engineering
Electronics Engineering
Review Course
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
165
Review Course
b.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
b. soft iron
c. cast iron
d. cast steel
When the load is doubled in a dc
series motor, the torque will be
a. halved
b. unchanged
c. doubled
d. quadrupled
DC shunt motors are used in those
applications when ____ is required.
a. high starting torque
b. high no-load speed
c. practically constant
speed
d. variable speed
In a duplex wave winding, the
number of parallel paths is equal to
a. number of poles of the
machine
b. number of pair of poles
c. 2
d. 4
A 120V, 4-pole wave wound, 600
rpm dc generator having 0.1Wb of
flux has ___ conductors.
a. 100
b. 250
c. 375
d. none of these
A motor has a large starting current
because
a. Ra is high
b. self-excited
c. cumulative
d. differential
65. If the series field winding current is
the same as the armature current,
the compound generator is called
a. long-shunt
b.
c.
short-shunt
differential
d. cumulative
66. Residual flux is not required in a
___ dc generator.
a. separately-excited
b. self-excited
c. cumulative
d. differential
67. A cumulative compound generator
has its series field ____ the shunt
field winding.
a. aiding
b. opposing
c. canceling
d. doubling
68. A 12-pole wave wound dc
generator has 300 conductors, the
emf induced per conductor is 5V.
The generated voltage will be
a. 750V
b. 125V
c. 250V
d. none of these
69. The speed of a dc shunt motor can
be decreased under one of the
conditions below
a. increased armature
voltage
b. decreased armature
resistance
Electronics Engineering
Review Course
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
167
c. increase in load
d. none of these
The greatest eddy-current loss
occurs in the ___ of a dc machine.
a. poles
b. yoke
c. armature core
d. all of these
______ is analogous to
permeability.
a. resistivity
b. conductivity
c. retentivity
d. reluctivity
A cumulatively compounded
generator having full-load terminal
voltage greater than the no-load
terminal voltage is called
a. under-compounded
b. over-compounded
c. flat-compounded
d. none of these
When the armature current is
maintained constant, the dc motor
is
a. field controlled
b. armature controlled
c. resistance controlled
d. none of these
In a certain motor, the armature
resistance is 0.1 ohm. When
connected to a 110V source, the
armature current is 20A, and its
speed is 1200 rpm. What is the
speed when the armature takes
50A with the field current increased
by 10%.
a. 2160rpm
b. 800rpm
c. 1060rpm
d. 5010rpm