EE09 404-DC MACHINES AND

TRANSFORMERS
Prof. THANKACHEN P.V

EE09 404-DC MACHINES AND

TRANSFORMERS

MODULE I
1.1 Magnetic Circuit
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing a magnetic flux.
The flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to the path by
magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or
other materials in the path. Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in
many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays, lifting electromagnets,
SQUIDs, galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads.

Fig 1.1.1: A simple magnetic circuit with an air gap

Figure 1.1.1 shows a simple magnetic circuit with an air gap of length lg cut in the middle of
a leg. The winding provides NI ampere-turn. The spreading of the magnetic flux lines outside the
common area of the core for the air gap is known as fringing field [figure 1.1.2 (a)]. For simplicity,
this effect is negligible and the flux distribution is assumed to be as in figure 1.1.2 (b). It can be
shown that the magnetic flux generated in the air gap is equal to the magneto motive force NI divided
by the sum of the reluctances of the core and of the air gap.

(a)

(b)
Figure 1.1.2: Air gaps (a) with fringing and (b) ideal

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Some corresponding quantities in electric and magnetic circuit are listed as below:
Electric quantity
Current in ampere (I)
Current density J
Conductivity
Electromotive force in volt=resistance x I

Magnetic quantity
Magnetic flux in webers ()
Magnetic flux density B
Permeability
Magneto motive force in ampere
turns=reluctance x
Magnetic field intensity H
Permeance=1/reluctance
Reluctance=1/A

Electric field intensity E

Conductance=1/resistance
Resistance=1/A.

The differences between electric and magnetic circuits are as below:

The path of the magnetic flux flows is perpendicular to the current flows in the circuit. In other
words, the directions of B and J are perpendicular.
For a given temperature, electric resistance is constant and does not depend on current density.
However, the magnetic reluctance depends on magnetic field and flux intensity since the
permeability is not constant.
Current flowing in an electric circuit involves dissipation of energy, but for magnetic circuit, energy
is needed to generate magnetic flux.

1.2 Magneto-Motive Force

The amount of flux density setup in the core is dependent upon five factors-the current,
number of turns, material of the magnetic core, length of core and the cross-sectional area of the
core. More current and the more turns of wire we use, the greater will be the magnetizing effect. We
call this product of the turns and the magneto motive force (mmf), similar to the electro motive force
(emf).
mmf =NI Ampere-turns

(1.2)

Where,
mmf - is the magneto motive force in Ampere-turns
N - is the number of turns wrapped on the core
I - is the current in the coil, in Amperes (A)

1.3 Reluctance
Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is a concept used in the analysis of magnetic
circuits. It is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit, but rather than dissipating electric energy
it stores magnetic energy. In likeness to the way an electric field causes an electric current to follow
the path of least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux to follow the path of least magnetic
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reluctance. It is a scalar, extensive quantity, akin to electrical resistance. The units for magnetic
reluctance are inverse Henries, H1.
In a DC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the "magneto motive force (MMF) in a magnetic
circuit to the magnetic flux in this circuit.
The definition can be expressed as follows:
S = mmf/

(1.3.1)

Where,
S is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is equivalent to turns per henry).
mmf is the magneto motive force in ampere-turns
("Phi") is the magnetic flux in webers.
The reluctance of a uniform magnetic circuit can be calculated as:

S = l/0rA

(1.3.2)

S = l/A

(1.3.3)

Or

Where,
l is the length of the circuit in meters
is the permeability of vacuum, equal to
henry per meter
is the relative magnetic permeability of the material (dimensionless)
is the permeability of the material (
)
A is the cross-sectional area of the circuit in square meters
The inverse of reluctance is called permeance.

1.4 Magnetization curves

Magnetization curve is a curve relating magnetic field intensity (H) in ampere turns per metre
and magnetic flux density (B) in Tesla.

1.5 Magnetic hysteresis

It may be defined as the lagging of magnetization or induction flux density (B) behind the
magnetizing force (H). It may also be defined as a quality of a magnetic substance due to which
energy is dissipated in it on the reversal of its magnetism.
Consider a magnetic material being subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The graph
magnetic flux density (B) vs. magnetizing force (H) gives a closed curve called B-H loop. Consider
the portion AC of the curve given below (fig 1.5.1.b). The flux density B does not become zero when
the magnetizing field H is reduced to zero. Thus the flux density B at every stage lags behind the

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applied field H. This property is called magnetic hysteresis. The B-H loop is called hysteresis loop.
The shape and area of the loop are different for different materials.

1.5.1 Hysteresis loop:

Let us take an unmagnified bar of iron AB and magnetize in by placing it within the magnetizing
field of a solenoid (H). The field can be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing current
through it. Let H be increased in step from zero up to a certain maximum value and the
corresponding of induction flux density (B) is noted. If we plot the relation between H and B, a curve
like OA, as shown in fig, is obtained. The material becomes magnetically saturated at H=OM and
has, at that time, a maximum flux density, established through it.

(a)

(b)

Fig 1.5.1: (a) magnetization of an iron bar (b) hysteresis loop.

If H is now decreased gradually (by decreasing solenoid current) flux density B will not
decrease along AO (as might be expected) but will decrease less rapidly along AC. When it is zero B
is not zero, but has a definite value=OC. It means that on removing the magnetizing force H, the iron
bar is not completely demagnetized. This value of B (=OC) is called the residual flux density. The
property of retaining some magnetism on removing the magnetic field is called retentivity.
To demagnetize the iron bar we have to apply the magnetizing force H in the reverse
direction. When H is reversed by reversing current through the solenoid, then B is reduced to zero at
point D where H=OD. This value of H is required to wipe off residual magnetism (remanence) is
known as coercive force (OD) and the property is called coercivity.
After the magnetization has been reduced to zero value of H is further increased in the
negative i.e. reverse direction, the iron bar again reaches a state of magnetic saturation represented
by point E. By taking H back from its value corresponding to negative saturation (=OL) to its value
for positive saturation (=OM), a similar curve EFGA is obtained. If we again start from G, the same
curve GACDEFG is obtained once again.
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It is seen that B always lags behind H the two newer attain zero value simultaneously. This
lagging of B, behind H is given the name hysteresis which literally means to lag behind. The closed
loop ACDEFGA, which is obtained when iron bar is taken through one complete cycle of reversal of
magnetization is known as Hysteresis loop.
1.5.2 Hysteresis loss:
Hysteresis loss is when the effect of a cause lags behind the cause itself. This is noticed when
changes in magnetism of a body lag behind the changes in the magnetic field. Iron, for example,
depends not only on the magnetic field, but also any previous exposures. Deformations in the shapes
of substances that continue indefinitely, once the deforming force has been removed, are an example
of hysteresis. Hysteresis loss is energy wasted in the form of heat when alternating current reverses
rapidly and molecular dipoles lag the magnetizing force.
In other words we can say that, if the magnetic field applied to a magnetic material is
increased and then decreased back to its original value, the magnetic field inside the material does
not return to its original value. The internal field lags behind the external field. This behaviour
results in a loss of energy, called the hysteresis loss, when a sample is repeatedly magnetized and
demagnetized.
Energy loss in J/m3/cycle = Area of hysteresis loop.
Ph = kh (volume) f Bmn

Hysteresis power loss,

(1.5.2.1)

Ph = Hysteresis loss in watts

f = Frequency in Hz.
Bm = Maximum flux density, T
n varies from 1.5 to 2.5 depending on the material used. The constant kh also depends on the
material. For a particular machine, the volume of material also constant, so that Ph can be written as
Ph = Kh f Bmn

(1.5.2.2)

Where, Kh = kh x (volume of material)

1.6 Interaction of magnetic field (motor action)

It will be easier to understand the operation of the DC motor from a basic diagram that shows
the magnetic interaction between the rotating armature and stationary fields coils. Fig 1.6.1 shows
three diagrams that explain the Dc motors operation in terms of the magnetic interaction. In fig 1.6.1
(a) you can see that a bar magnet has been mounted on a shaft so that it can spin. The field winding is
one long coil of wire that has been separated in to two sections. The top section is connected to the
positive pole of the battery. It is important to understand that the battery represents a source of
voltage for this winding. In the actual industrial-type motor this voltage will come from the DC
voltage source for the motor. The current flow in this direction makes the top coil the north pole of
the magnet and the bottom coil the south pole of the magnet.

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The bar magnet represents the armature and the coil of wire represents the field. The arrow
shows the direction of the armatures rotation. Notice that the arrow shows the armature starting to
rotate in the clockwise direction. The north pole of the field coil is repelling the north pole of the
armature, and the south pole the field coil is repelling the south pole of the armature.

Fig 1.6.1: (a) magnetic diagram that explains the operation of a DC motor. The rotating
magnets moves clockwise because like poles repel. (b) The rotating magnet I being attracted because
the poles are unlike. (c) The rotating magnet is now shown as the armature coil, and its polarity is
determined by the brushes and commutator segments.
As the armature begins to move, the north pole of the armature comes closer to the armature
comes closer to the south pole of the field, and the south pole of the armature is coming closer to the
north pole of the field. As the two unlike poles near each other, they begin to attract. This attraction
becomes stronger until the armatures north pole moves directly in line with the fields south pole,
and its south pole moves directly in line with the fields north pole (fig 1.6.1 (b)).
When the opposite poles are at their strongest attraction, the armature will be locked up and
will resist further attempts to continue spinning. For the armature to continue its rotation, the
armatures polarity must be switched. Since the armature in this diagram is a permanent magnet, you
can see that it would lock up during the first rotation and not work. If the armature is an
electromagnet, its polarity can be changed by changing the direction of current flow through it. For
this reason the armature must be changed to a coil (electromagnet) and a set of commutator segments
must be added to provide a means of making contact between the rotating member and the stationary
member. One commutator segment is provided for each terminal of the magnetic coil. Since this
armature has only one coil, it will have only two terminals, so the commutator have two segments.

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Since the armature is now a coil of wire, it will need DC current flowing through it to
become magnetized. This presence another problem; since the armature will be rotating, the Dc
voltage wires cannot be connected directly to the armature coil. A stationary set of carbon brushes is
used to make contact to the rotating armature. The brushes ride on the commutator segments to make
contact so that current will flow through the armature coil.
In fig 1.6.1 (c) you can see that the DC voltage applied to the field and to the brushes. Since
negative DC voltage is connected to one of the brushes, the commutator segment the negative brush
rides on will also be negative. The armatures magnetic field causes the armature to begin to rotate.
This time when the armature gets to the point where it becomes locked up with the magnetic field,
the negative brush begin to touch the end of the armature coil that was negative. This action switches
the direction of current flow through the armature, which also switches the polarity of the armature
coils magnetic field at just the right time so that the repelling and attracting continues. The armature
continues to switch its magnetic polarity twice during each rotation, which causes it to continually be
attracted and repelled with the field poles.
This is a simple two pole motor that is used primarily for instructional purposes. Since the
motor has only two poles, the motor will operate rather roughly and not provide too much torque.
Additional field poles and armature poles must be added to the motor for it to become useful for
industry.
An electrical current in a magnetic field (produced by some other currents) experiences a
force perpendicular to both the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field, and
reverses if either of these reverses in direction. The force is proportional to the current and to the
strength of the magnetic field (fig 1.6.2). This principle can be called motor action.

Fig 1.6.2: A force is exerted on a current in a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the
magnetic field and the current.

1.7 Developed torque

Fig 1.7 shows a coil carrying a current I and lying in a magnetic field of flux density B. It is
seen that an upward force is exerted on the left hand conductor and a downward force on the right
hand conductor.

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Fig 1.7: Torque on a coil in a magnetic field

Force on each conductor,

F = B I l Newton

(1.7.1)

Where B is flux density in Tesla, I is current in Amperes and l is the length of conductor in meters.
(If the conductor is inclined at an angle to the magnetic field, the force is, F =B I l sin )
Therefore total force is,
F = 2 B I l Newtons

(1.7.2)

If the coil has N turns, the total force is,

F = 2 N B I l Newtons

(1.7.3)

The torque is acting at a radius of r meters and is given by

Torque, T = 2 N B I l r Newtons-meter

(1.7.4)

The configuration of fig 1.7 is the basic moving part in an electrical measuring instrument.
An electrical motor also works on this principle.
The equation for torque developed in a DC motor can be derived as follows,
In equation 1.7.4, note that l and B are vector quantities. Since B = /A where A is the area
of the coil.
Therefore the torque for a multi turn coil with an armature current of Ia:
T = K Ia

(1.7.5)

Where is the flux/pole in weber, K is a constant depending on coil geometry, and I a is the current
flowing in the armature winding.
Note: Torque T is a function of force and distance, equation (1.7.5) lumps all the constant
parameters (eg. length, area and distance) in constant K.

1.8 Electromagnetically induced voltages (generator action)

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In 1831 Michael Faraday discovered that if a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, an
electrical voltage is induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of this generated voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field and the rate at which the conductor crosses the magnetic field. The induced voltage
has a polarity that will oppose the change causing the induction-Lenzs law
This natural phenomenon is known as generator action and is described today by Faradays
law of electromagnetic induction: (Vind = /t), where Vind = induced voltage, = change in flux
density, t = change in time.
All rotary generators built use the basic principles of Generator Action.
An electrical conductor, such as a copper wire, moving in a magnetic field has an electrical
current induced in it. This is expressed by the creation of an electromotive force or voltage, which
causes current to flow just as the voltage of a battery does. The effect is maximum when the wire, the
motion, and the magnetic field are all mutually perpendicular (fig 1.8.1). This principle can be called
generator action.

Fig 1.8.1: A voltage is induced in a conductor moved in a magnetic field. Note that the voltage is
opposite to the current causing a force in the direction of motion.

1.9 Energy conversion in rotating electrical machines

Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input to mechanical output or vice
versa are called electric machines. The process of translation is known as electromechanical energy
conversion. Electro mechanical energy conversion occurs when there is a change in magnetic flux
linking a coil, associated with mechanical motion. An electric machine is therefore a link between an
electrical system and a mechanical system. In these machines the conversion is reversible. If the
conversion is from mechanical to electrical energy, the machine is said to act as a generator. If the
conversion is from electrical to mechanical energy, the machine is said to act as a motor. These two
effects are shown in fig 1.9. In these machines, conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical
form or vice versa results from the following two electromagnetic phenomena:
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor: (generator
action)
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force. (motor action)
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Fig 1.9: The energy directions in generator and motor actions.

These two effect occur simultaneously whenever energy conversion takes place from
electrical to mechanical or vice versa. In motoring action, the electrical system makes current flow
through conductors that are placed in the magnetic field. A force is produced on each conductor. If
the conductors are placed on a structure free to rotate, an electromagnetic torque will be produced,
tending to make the rotating structure rotate at some speed. If the conductors rotate in a magnetic
field, a voltage will also be induced in each conductor. In generating action, the process is reversed.
In this case, the rotating structure, the rotor, is driven by a prime mover (such as a steam turbine or
diesel engine). A voltage will be induced in the conductors that are rotating with the rotor. If an
electrical load is connected the winding formed by these conductors, a current I will flow, delivering
electrical power to the load. Moreover, the current flowing through the conductor will interact with
the magnetic field to produce a reaction torque, which will tend to oppose the torque applied by the
prime mover. Note that in both motor and generator actions, the coupling magnetic field is involved
in producing a torque and an induced voltage.

1.10 Eddy currents and eddy current losses

When a changing magnetic field cuts through a sample of metal or magnetic materials that is
not connected to a circuit, by Faradays law, a circulating current is induced. This current is known as
eddy current, it is localised within that material and has a flow pattern as shown in fig 1.10.1.

Fig 1.10.1: Eddy current (black arrows) induced within the metal or magnetic material and
the current induced by the external magnetic field (red arrows).
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This circulating current creates a magnetic field that opposes the external magnetic field. The
direction of the eddy current is described by Lenzs law. The stronger of the external magnetic field
or the greater of the electrical conductivity of the material, the eddy current that is developed will be
stronger and also yields stronger opposing force.
Eddy current creates losses through Joule heating, and it reduces the efficiency of device that
operates under alternating magnetic field condition such as iron core of transformers and alternating
current motors. This power loss is known as eddy current loss due to the induced eddy current in the
metal or magnetic materials.
In order to reduce the eddy current loss, the resistivity of the material is increased by adding
silicon in the metal or ferromagnetic materials. Another effective way to achieve low eddy current
loss is by using lamination of electrical metal sheets. These metal sheets are coated with insulator
which breaks the eddy currents path as illustrated in the diagram below.

Figure 1.10.2: Eddy currents in a laminated toroidal core.

The power due to the eddy current loss is given as;
Pe = ke t2 f2 Bm2 (volume)

, unit: W/m3

(1.10.1)

Where f is the frequency of excitation (Hz), k e is a constant determined by the nature of

the metal or magnetic material, Bm is the maximum or peak value of the magnetic flux density, and
t is the thickness of the lamination. This formula is obtained under the assumption of global eddy
current as shown in fig 1.10.2
For a particular machine ke, t2 and volume can be combined into a single constant Ke so that
Pe = Ke f2 Bm2

(1.10.2)

Taken together the hysteresis and eddy current loss is known as core loss or iron loss. Since
frequency and maximum flux density are constant, the core loss in a machine is constant.

1.11 Construction of dc machines

A DC machine either uses or produces electrical energy. It does this by converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice versa. A DC machine is made out of two essential
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parts, one stationary and one moving, called the field and the armature. An essential example of a DC
machine is a copper coil spinning on its own axis between two magnets. A practical DC machine also
needs a commutator, brushes, poles and bearings.
The construction of DC machines is discussed here. An actual generator consists of the following
parts:

magnetic frame or yoke

field winding

pole cores and pole shoes

commutator

armature core

brushes

armature windings or conductors

bearing

The yoke, pole cores, armature core and air gaps between the poles and the armature core
form the magnetic field. The rest form the electrical circuit. Figure 1.11 shows the construction of a
DC machine in which the above parts have been depicted.

Figure 1.11: Sectional view of a 4 pole DC Machine

Magnetic frame or yoke: The magnetic frame or yoke gives mechanical support for poles as
well as protects the whole machine as a protecting cover. It also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the poles. In small generators yokes are made of cast iron, whereas for large
machines cast steel is used. The yoke carries 50 per cent of total flux per pole.

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Pole cores and pole shoes: The pole core and pole shoe stacked together under hydraulic
pressure and then attached to the yoke. These two structures are assigned for different
purposes, the pole core is of small cross sectional area and its function is to just hold the pole
shoe over the yoke, whereas the pole shoe having a relatively larger cross-sectional area
spreads the flux produced over the air gap between the stator and rotor to reduce the loss due
to reluctance. The pole shoe also carries slots for the field windings that produce the field
flux.

Armature core: The armature or rotor core, which carries the armature or rotor winding, is
made of sheet-steel laminations, and as a result is subjected to altering magnetic field in the
path of its rotation which directly results in magnetic losses. For this reason the rotor is made
of armature core, thats made with several low-hysteresis silicon steel laminations, to reduce
the magnetic losses like hysteresis and eddy current loss respectively. The laminations are
stacked together to form a cylindrical structure.

Armature winding or conductors: Armature winding is an arrangement of conductors to

develop desired emfs by relative motion in a magnetic field. These windings are first wound
in the form of flat rectangular coils and are pulled into proper shape in a coil puller. The
conductors are placed in the armature slots which are lined with a tough insulating material
called Latheroide paper. Here normally two layer winding with diamond shaped coils are
used.

Field winding: The field winding of dc motor are made with field coils (copper wire) wound
over the slots of the pole shoes in such a manner that when field current flows through it, then
adjacent poles have opposite polarity are produced. The field windings basically form an
electromagnet, that produces field flux within which the rotor armature of the dc motor
rotates, and results in the effective flux cutting.

Commutator: The commutator is cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge shaped

segments of high conductivity hard drawn copper. These segments are insulated from each
other by thin layers of mica usually 0.5 to 1 mm thickness. The commutator is a form of
rotating switch placed between the armature and the external circuit. Following purposes are
served by the commutator:
It provides electrical connections between rotating armature coils and stationary external
circuit.
It collects current from armature conductors. It rectifies alternating current induced in the
armature conductors into unidirectional current for external load circuit

Brushes: The brushes of dc motor are made with carbon or graphite structures, making
sliding contact over the rotating commutator. The function of brush is to collect current from
the armature conductors and supply it to the external load circuit. The brushes are rectangular
in shape and rests on commutator.

Bearings: In small motors ball bearings are used at both ends. For larger motor, roller
bearings are used at driving end and ball bearing at commutator end. Where end thrust is
more thrust bearings are used. Large motors use pedestal bearings.

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1.12 Flux distribution curve in the air gap

To estimate the correct reluctance of the air gap, the magnetic field distribution in the
space between the pole shoes and the armature is plotted. Consider a smooth armature, the half pole
pitch of it is divided into suitable number of sections. Its flux lines are plotted by method of
curvilinear squares. All these lines must leave and enter the surface at right angle. While the
intermediate portion is plotted by suitable approximations. The flux density in the gap varies
inversely as the length of the air gap.

Theoretical value of flux density at the inter polar axis is zero, so a straight line is
drawn from this point to the flux density ordinate at the tip of the pole shoe. The actual flux density
at any division is taken as the ordinate between the straight line and the original flux density plot.
Then average flux density is estimated by midordinates methods. This value is about 68% to 70% of
the maximum flux density. The coefficient Kf is the ratio of average flux density to maximum flux
density is about 68% to 70%. This ratio approximately same as the ratio of pole arc to pole pitch. So
Kf = pole arc/pole pitch

The relation between the flux per pole and the mmf drop in the air gap (which is
less than Mf) is linear; it is represented by the air gap line in fig 1.12. At low excitation, the
magnetization curve follows the air gap line. As excitation increases, the machine begins to saturate,
and the curve moves away from the line (knee of the curve). At heavy excitation, the machine is well
into saturation, and the curve is well away from the line. It is noted that at zero field excitation, there
is some remanent magnetism (due to hysteresis in the iron) so that the flux is not zero.

Fig 1.12: Magnetization curve, vs. Mf

1.13 Armature windings

The armature windings are usually former-wound. These are first wound in the form
of flat rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various
conductors of the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots
which are lined with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the armature
conductors placed in the slot and is secured in place by special hard wooden or fiber wedges.
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The Dc armature windings are always of the closed continuous type of double layer
lap or wave winding. For small machines, the coils are directly wound in the armature slots using
automatic winders. In large machines, the coils are performed and then inserted into the armature
slots. Each coil consists of a number of turns of wire, each turn taped and insulated from the other
turns and form the rotor slots. Each side of the turn is called the conductor. The number of the
conductors on a machine's armature is given by

Z= 2CN
(1.13.1)

where :

Z= numbers of conductors on rotor

C= numbers of coils on rotor
N= number of turns per coil

Since the voltage generated in conductor under the south pole opposite the voltage
generated in the conductor under the North pole, the coil span is equal to 180 electrical
degrees, one pole pitch. In a 2 pole machine 180 electrical degrees is equal to 180 mechanical
degrees, whereas in a 4-pole machine 180 electrical degrees is equal to 90 mechanical
degrees. In general, the relationship between the electrical angle and mechanical angle is

electrical angle = (P/2) mechanical angle

where P is the number of poles.

1.14 Lap and wave

Two types of winding mostly employed are known as lap winding and wave winding.

1.14.1 Lap winding:

In lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment
and to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole and so on, till all the
coils have been connected. This type of winding derives its name from the fact it doubles or
laps back with its succeeding coils. For a progressive lap winding the commutator pitch y = 1.
A typical coil of N turns for a simplex lap winding is shown in fig 1.14.1

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Fig 1.14.1.a: Simplex lap winding

In the simplex lap winding the number of parallel path is equal to the number of poles and
also to the number of brushes. When two adjacent commutator bars make contact with a
brush, one coil is shorted by the brush in the lap winding. This type of winding is used for
low-voltage,
high
current
application.

Fig 1.14.1.b: unrolled lap winding and equivalent coil representation

1.14.2 Wave winding:

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TRANSFORMERS

In the wave winding, the two ends of a coil are connected to a commutator segments
that are approximately 360 degrees apart. This way all the coils carrying current in the same
direction are connected in series. Therefore, there are only two parallel paths between the brushes,
a=2 independent of the number of poles. This type of winding is used low-current, high voltage
application.

Fig 1.14.2.a: Simplex wave winding

Fig 1.14.2.b represents an unrolled wave winding of a dc armature, along with the
commutator segments (bars) and stationary brushes. Coils are laid out in a wave pattern and cross all
the poles. In wave windings, the number of parallel paths, a, is always two (2), and there may be two
or more brush positions. When two adjacent commutator bars make contact with a brush, p/2 coils
are shorted by the brush in the wave winding.

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EE09 404-DC MACHINES AND

TRANSFORMERS

Fig 1.14.2.b: unrolled wave winding and equivalent coil representation

1.15 Equalizer rings

The existence of many parallel paths, in a lap winding, can lead to the serious
problem of circulating currents. The fluxes from all the poles are not exactly equal. Because
of wear on the bearings, the air gap does not remain uniform around the whole periphery. As
the armature conductor rotate, the voltage induced in some conductors may be slightly more
than that in the others. Since all the parallel paths are in parallel, a resultant emf acting
around a closed path may cause circulating current in the winding. The resistance of winding
being very small, even a small imbalance in the emfs can give rise to a large circulating
current. Evidently these circulating currents cause energy loss and heating. Therefore the
points which should be the same potential, in different parallel paths, are connected together
by a ring made of copper. Each ring is insulated from the other. These rings, known as
equalizer rings or bars, help in keeping the circulating currents inside the small sections
shorted together, so that these circulating currents may not flow through the brushes.

1.16 Dummy coils

Dept. Of EEE

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SIMAT,Vavanoor

EE09 404-DC MACHINES AND

TRANSFORMERS

These coils are used with wave winding and restored to when the requirement of the
winding are not met by the standard armature punching available in armature winding shops, these
dummy coils does not influence the electrical character of the winding. Because, they are not
connected to the commutator. They are exactly similar to the other coils except that their ends are
short and tapped. The dummy coils inserted into the slots in the same way as the others to make the
armature dynamically (an armature having some slots without windings would be out of balance
mechanically) balanced but it is not a part of the armature winding.

Dept. Of EEE

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SIMAT,Vavanoor