ch6 Mitra DSP C

Chapter 6
Z-Transform
cwlin@ee.nthu.edu.tw
03 5731152
03-5731152
Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra
4-1-1
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007
z Transform
z-Transform
The DTFT provides a frequency-domain representation of
discrete-time signals and LTI discrete-time systems
Because of the convergence condition, in many cases, the
DTFT of a sequence may not exist, thereby making it
impossible to make use of such frequency-domain
characterization in these cases
A generalization of the DTFT defined by
leads to the z-transform
z-transform may exist for many sequences for which the
DTFT does not exist
Use of z-transform permits simple algebraic manipulations
4-1-2
z Transform
z-Transform
For a given sequence g[n], its z-transform G(z) is defined
as:
where z = Re(z) + j Im(z) is a complex variable
If we let z = r ej, then the z-transform reduces to
The above can be interpreted as the DTFT of the
modified sequence {g[n]rn}
For r = 1 (i.e., |z| = 1), zz-transform
transform reduces to its DTFT,
provided the latter exists
p
of unityy
The contour ||z|| = 1 is a circle in the z-plane
radius and is called the unit circle
4-1-3
z Transform
z-Transform
Like the DTFT, there are conditions on the convergence
of the infinite series
For a given sequence, the set R of values of z for which

its z-transform
z transform converges is called the region of
convergence (ROC)
From our earlier discussion on the uniform convergence
of the DTFT, it follows that the series
converges if {g[n]rn} is absolutely summable, i.e., if
4-1-4
z Transform
z-Transform
In general, the ROC R of a z-transform of a sequence
g[n] is an annular region of the z-plane:
where
Note: The z-transform is a form of a Laurent series and
i an analytic
is
l ti ffunction
ti att every point
i t in
i th
the ROC
Example Determine the z-Transform X(z) of the causal
sequence x[n] = n [n] and its ROC
Now
The above power series converges to
ROC is the annular region |z| > ||
4-1-5
z Transform
z-Transform
Example Determine the z-Transform (z) of the unit
step function [n] can be obtained from
by setting = 1:
Note: The unit step function [n] is not absolutely

summable, and hence its DTFT does not converge
uniformlyy
4-1-6
z Transform
z-Transform
Example Consider the anti-causal sequence
y[n] = n[n 1]
Its zz-transform
transform is given by
ROC is the annular region |z| < ||

4-1-7
z Transform
z-Transform
Note: the z-Transforms of two sequences n[n] and
n[n 1] are identical even though the two parent
sequences are different
Only way a unique sequence can be associated with a ztransform is by specifying its ROC
The
Th DTFT G(e
G( j) off a sequence g[n]
[ ] converges uniformly
if
l
if and only if the ROC of the z-transform G(z) of g[n]
includes the unit circle
The existence of the DTFT does not always imply the
existence of the zz-transform
transform
4-1-8
z Transform
z-Transform
Example the finite energy sequence
has a DTFT given by
which converges in the mean-square sense

However, hLP[n] does not have a z-transform as it is not
absolutely summable for any value of r
4-1-9
Commonly Used z-Transform

z Transform Pairs
4-1-10
Rational z-Transform
z Transform
In tthe
e case o
of LTI d
discrete-time
sc ete t e syste
systems
s we
ea
are
e
concerned with in this course, all pertinent z-transforms
are rational functions of z1
That is, they are ratios of two polynomials in z1
The degree of the numerator polynomial P(z) is M and

the degree of the denominator polynomial D(z) is N
An alternate representation of a rational z-transform is as
a ratio of two polynomials in z:
4-1-11
z Transform
A rational
at o a z-transform
t a s o ca
can be a
alternately
te ate y written
tte in
factored form as
At a root z = l of the numerator p

polynomial
y
G(
(l), and as
a result, these values of z are known as the zeros of
G(z)
At a root z = l of the denominator polynomial G(l) ,
and as a result, these values of z are known as the
poles
l off G(z)
G( )
4-1-12
z Transform
Consider
Co s de
Note G(z) has M finite zeros and N finite poles

If N > M there are additional N M zeros at z = 0 (the
origin in the z-plane)
poles at z = 0 ((the
If N < M there are additional M N p
origin in the z-plane)
4-1-13
z Transform
Example
a p e tthe
e z-transform
ta so
has a zero at z = 0 and a pole at z = 1
4-1-14
z Transform
Ap
physical
ys ca interpretation
te p etat o o
of tthe
e co
concepts
cepts o
of po
poles
es a
and
d zeros
e os
can be given by plotting the log-magnitude 20log10|G(z)| for
The magnitude plot

exhibits very large peaks
around the poles of G(z)
(z = 0.4 j 0.6928)
It also exhibits very
narrow and deep wells
around the location of
the zeros (z = 1.2
1 2 j 1.2)
1 2)
4-1-15
ROC of a Rational z-Transform

z Transform
ROC
OC o
of a z-transform
t a s o is
sa
an important
po ta t co
concept
cept
Without the knowledge of the ROC, there is no unique
p between a sequence
q
and its z-transform
relationship
The z-transform must always be specified with its ROC
Moreover,, if the ROC of a z-transform includes the unit
circle, the DTFT of the sequence is obtained by simply
evaluating the z-transform on the unit circle
There is a relationship between the ROC of the ztransform of the impulse response of a causal LTI
discrete time system and its BIBO stability
discrete-time
The ROC of a rational z-transform is bounded by the
locations of its poles
4-1-16

z Transform
Example the z-transform H(z) of the sequence h[n] =
(0.6)n[n] is given by
|z| < 0.6
Here the ROC is just outside the circle going through the
point z = 0.6
A sequence can be one of the following types: finitelength, right-sided, left-sided and two-sided
The
Th ROC d
depends
d on th
the ttype off th
the sequence off iinterest
t
t
4-1-17

z Transform
Example Consider a finite-length sequence g[n] defined
for M n N, where M and N are non-negative integers
and |g[n]| <
Its z-transform is given by
Note:
o e G(
G(z)) has
as M po
poles
es a
at z = a
and
d N po
poles
es a
at z = 0
As can be seen from the expression for G(z), the ztransform of a finite-length
g bounded sequence
q
converges
g
everywhere in the z-plane except possibly at z = 0 and/or
at z =
4-1-18

z Transform
Example A right-sided sequence with nonzero sample
values for n 0 is sometimes called a causal sequence
Consider a causal sequence u1[n], with its z-transform
given below
It can be shown that U1(z) converges exterior to a circle |z|
= R1, including the point z =
On the other hand, a right-sided sequence u2[n] with
nonzero sample values only for n M with M
nonnegati e has a z-transform
nonnegative
transform U2(z)
( ) with
ith M poles at z =
The ROC of U2(z) is exterior to a circle |z| = R4, excluding
the point z =
4-1-19

z Transform
Example A left-sided sequence with nonzero sample
values for n 0 is sometimes called a anti-causal
sequence
Consider a causal sequence v1[n], with its z-transform
given below
It can be shown that V1(z) converges interior to a circle |z|
= R3, including
i l di th
the point
i tz=0
On the other hand, a right-sided sequence V2[n] with
nonzero sample values only for n N with N nonnegative
has a z-transform V2(z) with N poles at z = 0
The ROC of V2(z) is interior to a circle |z| = R4, , excluding
4-1-20
the point
z = 0 by S. K. Mitra
Original PowerPoint
slides prepared

z Transform
Example The z-transform of a two-sided sequence w[n]
can be expressed as
The first term on the RHS,, can be interpreted

p
as the ztransform of a right-sided sequence and it thus converges
exterior to the circle |z| = R5
The second term on the RHS, can be interpreted as the ztransform of a left-sided sequence and it thus converges
interior to the circle |z| = R6
If R5 < R6, there is an overlapping ROC: R5 < |z| < R6
If R5 > R6, there
th
iis no overlap
l (th
(the z-transform
t
f
do
d nott exist)
i t)
4-1-21

z Transform
Example The z-transform of a two-sided sequence w[n]
can be expressed as
u[n] = n
where can be either real or complex
Its z-transform is g
given by
y
The first term on the RHS converges for |z| > || , whereas
the second term converges
g ||z|| < ||
| |
There is no overlap between these two regions
Hence,, the z-transform of u[n]
[ ] = n does not exist
4-1-22

z Transform
The ROC of a rational z-transform cannot contain any
poles and is bounded by the poles
To show that the z-transform is bounded by the poles,
assume that the z-transform X(z) has simple poles at z =
and z =
Assuming
A
i th
thatt the
th corresponding
di sequence x[n]
[ ] is
i a righti ht
sided sequence, x[n] has the form
x[n] = (r1n + r2n) [n N0],
] || < ||
where N0 is a positive or negative integer
Now,
Now the z-transform
z transform of the right
right-sided
sided sequence n[n
N0] exists if
for some z
4-1-23

z Transform
The following condition holds for |z| > || but not for |z| ||
Therefore, the z-transform of

x[n]
[ ] = (r
( 1n + r2n) [
[n N0], ||
| | < ||
has an ROC defined by || < |z|
Likewise,, the z-transform of a left-sided sequence
q
x[n] = (r1n + r2n) [ n N0], || < ||
has an ROC defined by 0 |z| < ||
Finally, for a two-sided sequence, some of the poles
parent sequence
q
for n < 0 and
contribute to terms in the p
the other poles contribute to terms n 0
4-1-24

z Transform
The ROC is thus bounded on the outside by the pole with
the smallest magnitude that contributes for n < 0 and on
the inside by the pole with the largest magnitude that
contributes
t ib t for
f n0
There are three possible ROCs of a rational z-transform
with poles at z = and z = (|| < ||)
4-1-25

z Transform
In general, if the rational z-transform has N poles with R
distinct magnitudes, then it has R + 1 ROCs
There are distinct sequences with the same z-transform
Hence, a rational z-transform with a specified ROC has a
unique sequence as its inverse z-transform
MATLAB [z,p,k] = tf2zp(num,den) determines the zeros,
poles, and the gain constant of a rational z-transform with
the numerator coefficients specified by num and the
denominator coefficients specified by den
[num,den]
[num den] = zp2tf(z,p,k)
zp2tf(z p k) implements the reverse process
The factored form of the z-transform can be obtained using
sos = zp2sos(z,p,k)
4-1-26

z Transform
The pole-zero plot is determined using the function zplane
The z-transform can be either described in terms of its
zeros and poles: zplane(zeros,poles) or, in terms of its
numerator and denominator coefficients zplane(num,den)
Example The pole-zero plot of
obtained using MATLAB
4-1-27
Inverse z-Transform
z Transform
General Expression: Recall that, for z = rej, the ztransform G(z) given by
is merely the DTFT of the modified sequence g[n]rn
Accordingly, the inverse DTFT is thus given by
j , the
B
By making
ki a change
h
off variable
i bl z = rej
th previous
i
equation can be converted into a contour integral given by
where C
C is a counterclockwise contour of integration
defined by |z| = r
4-1-28
Inverse z-Transform
z Transform
But the integral remains unchanged when it is replaced with
any contour
t
C encircling
i li th
the point
i t z = 0 iin th
the ROC off G(z)
G( )
The contour integral can be evaluated using the Cauchys
resid e theorem resulting
residue
res lting in
The above equation needs to be evaluated at all values of n

and is not pursued here
A rational z-transform G(z) with a causal inverse transform
g[n] has an ROC that is exterior to a circle
Its more convenient to express G(z) in a partial-fraction
expansion
p
form and then determine g[
g[n]] byy summing
g the
inverse transform of the individual terms in the expansion
4-1-29
Inverse z-Transform by PartialFraction Expansion
A rational G(z) can be expressed as
If M N then G(z) can be re-expressed as
where the degree of P1(z) is less than N

The rational function P1(z)/D(z) is called a proper fraction
Example Consider
By long division we arrive at
4-1-30
Simple Poles: In most practical cases, the rational ztransform of interest G(z) is a proper fraction with simple
poles
Let the poles of G(z) be at z = k 1 k N
A partial-fraction expansion of G(z) is then of the form
The constants in the partial

partial-fraction
fraction expansion are called
the residues and are given by
Each term of the sum in partial-fraction expansion has an
ROC given by |z| > |l| and, thus has an inverse transform
n[n]
of
the
form
(
)
4-1-31
l lby S. K. Mitra
Original PowerPoint slides prepared

Therefore,
e e o e, the
t e inverse
e se ttransform
a s o g[
g[n]] o
of G(
G(z)) is
sg
given
e by
N
Note:
t The
Th above
b
approach
h with
ith a slight
li ht modification
difi ti can
also be used to determine the inverse of a rational ztransform of a non-causal
non causal sequence
Example - Let the z-transform H(z) of a causal sequence
h[n]
[ ] be g
given
e by
A partial-fraction expansion of H(z) is then of the form

4-1-32

Now
o
Hence
The inverse transform of the above is therefore given by
4-1-33

Multiple
u t p e Poles:
o es If G(
G(z)) has
as multiple
u t p e po
poles,
es, tthe
e pa
partialta
fraction expansion is of slightly different form
Let the p
pole at z = be of multiplicity
p y L and the remaining
gN
L poles be simple and at z = , 1 l N L
Then the partial-fraction expansion of G(z) is of the form
where the constants are computed using

1iL
The residues l are calculated as before
4-1-34
Inverse z-Transform via Long

Division
The
e z-transform
t a s o G(
G(z)) of
o a causa
causal sequence
seque ce {g[n]}
{g[ ]} ca
can be
expanded in a power series in z1
In the series expansion,
p
the coefficient multiplying
p y g the term
zn is then the n-th sample g[n]
For a rational z-transform expressed as a ratio of
polynomials in z1, the power series expansion can be
obtained by long division
Example
E
l - Consider
C
id
Long division of the numerator by the denominator yields
H(z) =1+1.6 z1 0.52 z2 + 0.4 z3 0.2224 z4 +
As a result, {h[n]} = {1 1.6 0.52 0.4 0.2224 ....}, n 4-1-35
0
z Transform Properties
z-Transform
4-1-36
z-Transform
Example
a p e - Co
Consider
s de tthe
e ttwo-sided
o s ded sequence
seque ce
v[n] = n[n] n[n 1]
[n
n 1]
1] with X(z) and Y(z)
Let x[n] = n[n] and y[n] = n[
denoting, respectively, their z-transforms
Now
and
Using the linearity property we arrive at
The ROC of V(z) is given by the overlap regions of |z| > ||
and
d ||z|| < ||
4-1-37
z-Transform
Example
a p e - Determine
ete
e tthe
e z-transform
ta so a
and
d its
ts ROC
OC o
of tthe
e
causal sequence
v[n]
[ ] = rn ((coson)[n]
)[ ]
We can express x[n] = v[n] + v*[n] where
The z-transform of v[n] is given by
Using the conjugation property we obtain the zz-transform

transform of
v*[n] as
||z|| > ||||
4-1-38
z-Transform
Us
Using
g tthe
e linearity
ea ty p
property
ope ty we
e get
or,
Example - Determine the zz-transform

transform Y(z) and the ROC of
the sequence
y[n] = (n + 1)n[n]
We can write y[n] = n x[n] + x[n] where x[n] = n[n]
4-1-39
z-Transform
Now,
o , the
t e z-transform
t a s o X(z)
( )o
of x[n]
[ ] = n[
[n]] iss given
g e by
Using the differentiation property, we arrive at the z[ ] as

transform of nx[n]
Using the linearity property we finally obtain
4-1-40
LTI Discrete-Time Systems in the

Transform Domain
An LTI d
discrete-time
sc ete t e system
syste is
s co
completely
p ete y ccharacterized
a acte ed in
the time-domain by its impulse response sequence {h[n]}
Thus, the transform-domain representation
p
of a discretetime signal can also be equally applied to the transformdomain representation of an LTI discrete-time system
Besides providing additional insight into the behavior of LTI
systems, it is easier to design and implement these
systems in the transform
transform-domain
domain for certain applications
We consider now the use of the DTFT and the z-transform
in developing the transform-domain representations of an
LTI system
4-1-41
LTI Discrete-Time Systems in the

Transform Domain
Consider
Co s de LTI d
discrete-time
sc ete t e syste
systems
s ccharacterized
a acte ed by linear
ea
constant coefficient difference equations of the form
Applying the z-transform to both sides of the difference
equation and making use of the linearity and the time
timeinvariance properties we arrive at
A more convenient form of the z-domain representation of
the difference equation is given by
4-1-42
The Transfer Function

A ge
generalization
e a at o o
of tthe
e frequency
eque cy response
espo se function
u ct o
The convolution sum description of an LTI discrete-time
y
with an impulse
p
response
p
h[n]
[ ] is given
g
by
y
system
Taking
T ki the
th z-transforms
t
f
off both
b th sides
id we gett
4-1-43

Or,
O,
X (z)
Therefore,
Hence, H(z) = Y(z)/X(z)

The function H(z), which is the z-transform of the impulse
response h[n] of the LTI system, is called the transfer
f
function
ti or the
th system
t
f
function
ti
The inverse z-transform of the transfer function H(z) yields
the impulse response h[n]
4-1-44

Consider an LTI discrete-time system characterized by a
difference equation
Its transfer function is obtained by taking the z-transform of
both sides of the above equation
Or, equivalently as
An alternate form of the transfer function is given by
4-1-45

Or, equivalently as
1, 2, , M are the finite zeros, and 1, 2, , N are the

finite poles of H(z)
If N > M, there are additional (N M) zeros at z = 0
If M > N, there are additional (M N) poles at z = 0
For a causal IIR digital filter, the impulse response is a
causal sequence
The ROC of the causal transfer function is thus exterior to a
circle going through the pole furthest from the origin
Thus the ROC is given by
4-1-46

Example - Consider the M-point moving-average FIR filter
with an impulse response
Its transfer function is then given by
The transfer function has M zeros on the unit circle at

z = e j2k /M, 0 k M 1
There are poles at z = 0 and a single pole at z = 1
The pole at z = 1 exactly cancels the zero at z = 1
The ROC is the entire z-plane except z = 0
4-1-47

Example A causal LTI IIR filter is described by a constant
coefficient difference equation given by
y[n] = x[n 1] 1.2 x[n 2] + x[n 3] +1.3 y[n 1]
1.04 y[n 2] + 0.222 y[n 3]
Its transfer function is therefore given by
Alternate forms:
Note: Poles farthest from z = 0 have a magnitude

ROC: |z| >
4-1-48
Frequency Response from Transfer

Function
If tthe
e ROC
OC o
of tthe
e ttransfer
a s e function
u ct o H(z)
( ) includes
c udes tthe
eu
unitt
circle, then the frequency response H(ej) of the LTI digital
filter can be obtained simply as follows:
For a real coefficient transfer function H(z) it can be shown
th t
that
For
F a stable
t bl rational
ti
l transfer
t
f function
f
ti in
i the
th form
f
the factored form of the frequency response is given

4-1-49
Geometric Interpretation of
Frequency Response Computation
Itt iss convenient
co e e t to visualize
sua e tthe
e co
contributions
t but o s o
of tthe
e zero
eo
factor (z k) and the pole factor (z k) from the factored
form of the frequency response
The magnitude function is given by
which reduces to
The phase response for a rational transfer function is of the

form
4-1-50
The
e magnitude-squared
ag tude squa ed function
u ct o o
of a real-coefficient
ea coe c e t
transfer function can be computed using
The factored form of the frequency response
is convenient to develop a geometric interpretation of the

frequency
q
y response
p
computation
p
from the p
pole-zero p
plot as
varies from 0 to 2 on the unit circle
The geometric interpretation can be used to obtain a sketch
of the response as a function of the frequency
4-1-51
A typ
typical
ca factor
acto in tthe
e factored
acto ed form
o o
of tthe
e frequency
eque cy
response is given by
((ej
ej)
where ej is a zero (pole) if it is zero (pole) factor
As shown below in the z-plane the factor (ej ej)
represents a vector starting at the point z = ej and ending
on the unit circle at z = ej
As is varied from 0 to 2, the
tip of the vector moves counterclockwise
l k i ffrom th
the point
i tz=1
tracing the unit circle and back to
the point z = 1
4-1-52
Ass indicated
d cated by
the magnitude response |H(ej)|at a specific value of is

given by the product of the magnitudes of all zero vectors
divided by the product of the magnitudes of all pole vectors
Likewise, from
we observe that the phase response at a specific value of

is obtained by adding the phase of the term p0/d0 and the
linear-phase
linear
phase term (N M) to the sum of the angles of the
zero vectors minus the angles of the pole vectors
4-1-53
Thus,
us, a
an app
approximate
o
ate p
plot
ot o
of tthe
e magnitude
ag tude a
and
dp
phase
ase
responses of the transfer function of an LTI digital filter can
be developed by examining the pole and zero locations
Now, a zero (pole) vector has the smallest magnitude when
=
To highly attenuate signal components in a specified
frequency range, we need to place zeros very close to or
on the unit circle in this range
Likewise, to highly emphasize signal components in a
specified frequency range,
range we need to place poles very
close to or on the unit circle in this range
4-1-54
Stability Condition in Terms of the

Pole Locations
In add
addition,
t o , for
o a stab
stable
ea
and
d causa
causal d
digital
g ta filter
te for
o which
c
h[n] is a right-sided sequence, the ROC will include the unit
circle and entire z-plane including the point z =
An FIR digital filter with bounded impulse response is
always stable
On the other hand, an IIR filter may be unstable if not
designed properly
In
I addition,
dditi
an originally
i i ll stable
t bl IIR filter
filt characterized
h
t i d by
b
infinite precision coefficients may become unstable when
coefficients get quantized due to implementation
4-1-55

Pole Locations
A causa
causal LTI d
digital
g ta filter
te is
s BIBO
O stab
stable
e if a
and
do
only
y if its
ts
impulse response h[n] is absolutely summable, i.e.,
We now develop
p a stability
y condition in terms of the p
pole
locations of the transfer function H(z)
The ROC of the z-transform H(z) of the impulse response
sequence h[n] is defined by values of |z| = r for which
h[n]rn is absolutely summable
Thus, if the ROC includes the unit circle |z| = 1, then the
digital filter is stable, and vice versa
4-1-56

Pole Locations
Example
a p e Co
Consider
s de tthe
e causa
causal LTI IIR ttransfer
a s e function:
u ct o
The plot of the impulse response is shown below
As can be seen from the above plot,

plot the impulse response
coefficient h[n] decays rapidly to zero value as n increases
satisfied,
The absolute summability condition of h[n] is satisfied
H(z) is a stable transfer function
4-1-57

Pole Locations
Now,
o , consider
co s de tthe
e case when
e tthe
e ttransfer
a s e function
u ct o coe
coef. a
are
e
rounded to values with 2 digits after the decimal point:
A plot of the impulse response of
is shown below
In this case, the impulse response coefficient

p y to a constant value as n increases
rapidly
Hence,
is an unstable transfer function
increases
4-1-58

Pole Locations
The
e stab
stability
ty test
testing
go
of a IIR ttransfer
a s e function
u ct o iss therefore
t eeoea
an
important problem
In most cases it is difficult to compute
p
the infinite sum
For a causal IIR transfer function
function, the sum S can be
computed approximately as
partial sum is computed
p
for increasing
g values of K until
The p
the difference between a series of consecutive values of SK
is smaller than some arbitrarily chosen small number, which
is typically 1066
For a transfer function of very high order this approach may
nott be
b satisfactory
ti f t
4-1-59

Pole Locations
Consider
Co s de tthe
e causa
causal IIR d
digital
g ta filter
te with
t a rational
at o a ttransfer
a se
function H(z) given by
Its impulse
p
response
p
{{h[n]}
[ ]} is a right-sided
g
sequence
q
The ROC of H(z) is exterior to a circle going through the
pole furthest from z = 0
But stability requires that {h[n]} be absolutely summable
This in turn implies that the DTFT of {h[n]} exists
Now, if the ROC of the z-transform H(z) includes the unit
circle, then
4-1-60

Pole Locations
Conclusion:
Co c us o All po
poles
es of
o a causa
causal stab
stable
e ttransfer
a s e function
u ct o
H(z) must be strictly inside the unit circle
The stabilityy region
g
((shown shaded)) in the z-plane
p
is shown
below
4-1-61

Pole Locations
Example:
a p e The
e factored
acto ed form
o o
of
is
which has a real pole at z = 0.902 and a pole at z = 0.943
Since both poles are inside the unit circle H(z) is BIBO stable
Example: The factored form of
is
which has a pole at z = 1 and the other inside the unit circle
Since one pole is not inside the unit circle, H(z) is not BIBO
stable
4-1-62

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Chapter 6

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007

For a given sequence, the set R of values of z for which

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

Note: The unit step function [n] is not absolutely

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

ROC is the annular region |z| < ||

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

which converges in the mean-square sense

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

Commonly Used z-Transform

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

The degree of the numerator polynomial P(z) is M and

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

At a root z = l of the numerator p

Note G(z) has M finite zeros and N finite poles

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

has a zero at z = 0 and a pole at z = 1

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

The magnitude plot

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

The first term on the RHS,, can be interpreted

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

Therefore, the z-transform of

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

ROC of a Rational z-Transform

obtained using MATLAB

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007

The above equation needs to be evaluated at all values of n

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007

Inverse z-Transform by PartialFraction Expansion

A rational G(z) can be expressed as

If M N then G(z) can be re-expressed as

where the degree of P1(z) is less than N

Inverse z-Transform by PartialFraction Expansion

The constants in the partial

Inverse z-Transform by PartialFraction Expansion

A partial-fraction expansion of H(z) is then of the form

Inverse z-Transform by PartialFraction Expansion

The inverse transform of the above is therefore given by

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

Inverse z-Transform by PartialFraction Expansion

where the constants are computed using

Inverse z-Transform via Long

Original PowerPoint slides prepared by S. K. Mitra

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007