TOPIC 3

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCEDURES

3.1 Synopsis

This course explains the procedures in educational research, stating research problems, setting
objectives, developing research questions, forming research hypothesis, conducting literature
review, planning research design, determining sampling procedure, creating research
instruments, stating validity and reliability of research instruments, determining data collection
procedure, collecting data, analysing and interpreting data, and discussing and reporting the
results.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

1. to identify the procedures of educational research
2. to explain the procedures of educational research
3. to synthesise information from a variety of sources to understand the implementation of
educational research
3.3 Conceptual Framework
stating research problem

determining sampling
procedure

setting objective

building research
instruments

developing research
questions
forming research hypothesis

stating validity and reliability

of research instruments

Procedures in
Educational
Research
determining data collection
procedure

conducting literature review

planning research design

collecting data
discussing and reporting
research results

analysing and interpreting

data
18

3.4 Educational Research Procedures

Educational research is conducted in a similar manner to scientific research process, using
systematic measures from the formulation of research problem to the collection of data; and the
production of research report based on the analysis of the data collected.
3.4.1 Stating the Research Problem
a) Introduction
In this section, you will introduce the research problem with some elaborations on your main
focus, the variables involved and the purpose of your study. You should also highlight some
significant researches in the field of study that you choose. It should be about 200 words in
length.
b) Background of Study
In this section, you should describe the research problem that you have identified and explain
why the study is necessary. You should outline the current situation or the issue that needs to be
addressed, and explain how your research will yield the required solution or explanation to the
existing problem. You can also explain related literature to your research and any significant
findings.
c) Statement of Problem
Statement of problem can be written as a general purpose of study or in the form of a research
question. Generally, this statement is very specific and contains the variables of the study. If you
are using hypothesis, as in most quantitative research, it needs to be stated as well. The
following are some examples of statements of problem in the form of questions.
(i) What are the professional needs of English teachers?
(ii) Do they need pedagogical courses, for example, pedagogical knowledge of teaching young
learners, curriculum courses, classroom management courses or other courses?
(iii) Should teachers professional courses be distinguished based on their monthly salary scale?
(iv) Do the students who attend reading classes possess better reading skills as compared to
those who do not?

19

3.4.2 Setting Research Objectives

Specific goals of the research statement need to be listed before a research study commences.
The listing of specific goals of a study is very important to researchers so that they can collect
appropriate data and use relevant instruments. To build questionnaire items, you should refer to
your research objectives. In the same context, you are guided by the objectives throughout the
course of observation, interviews and document analysis.
Below are some sample objectives of a study on excellent teachers.
The objectives of the study are:
1. to identify approaches in teaching English, including teaching strategy, methodology and
techniques used
2. to identify strategies used by teachers in the ELT classroom
3. to provide a description of the reading skills to be acquired
4. to obtain students' perceptions of their teachers personality and teacher - students
relationship
3.4.3 Developing Research Questions
Research questions and objectives are closely related. A research question is formulated based
on a research objective. The answer to this question helps the researcher to achieve the
objective and aim of the research.
Below are a few examples of research questions.
(a) What are some of the teaching strategies, methodology and techniques that have been
employed by excellent teachers in the classroom?
(b) How do the teachers conduct reading lessons?
(c) What are the students' perceptions of their teacher i.e. as a friend, an authoritative person
or an information provider?
(d) How is the teachers teaching performance being evaluated by educators and students?
3.4.4 Developing Research Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a statement that is anticipated to be the solution to a problem. The features of a
hypothesis are as follows:
A statement which is predicted to be a valuable answer to the research question
A prediction which shows a correlation between several variables or the effect of one variable
on other variables
A hypothesis can be tested specifically
3.4.4.1 Differences between Research Hypothesis and Statistical Hypothesis
20

Research hypothesis is a statement about the expected result. On the other hand, statistical
hypothesis is a statement about an assumption made that there is no relationship between the
variables of the study. The assumption that the variables of the study are not related is
necessary because any statistical method used to test the hypothesis must assume that there is
no relationship between the variables.
For example:
Ho: 1 = 2 (statistical hypothesis / null)
Ha: 1 2 (research hypothesis / alternative)
1 = mean of population 1
2 = mean of population 2
For any null hypothesis/statistics that is built, there should be an alternative/research hypothesis
if the null hypothesis is being rejected. Hence, there is a set of hypothesis. Null hypothesis is
usually written as "no difference". Besides, a hypothesis cannot be tested if the dependent
variable is not quantifiable. Qualitative data which is not measurable with numbers cannot be
analysed statistically. Therefore, the research hypothesis is inapplicable, and the research
question is answered descriptively without numerical evidence.
3.4.5 Reviewing Literature
Creswell (2008) defined literature review as a summary of written articles from journals, books
and other documents that provide an overview of information of past and present. It is organised
according to the research topic. Relevant literature needs to be reviewed and should also match
the documents required by the research.
Literature review should allow researchers to have a better understanding of the related
research problem. Literature review also informs the researcher whether other researches have
been done.
Steps in reviewing the literature:
a. identify keywords
b. obtain a variety of literature resources
c. evaluate critically
d. sort the literature materials
e. write the literature review
3.4.6 Planning Research Design
21

Research design is a plan of how the research sample is divided into groups, what treatment (if
any) is to be given to these groups as well as what and how the data are to be collected. There
are eight commonly used research designs in educational research. Research design can be
either quantitative, qualitative or at times a combination of both.
1. Quantitative Research Design
Experimental
Quasi-Experimental
Correlation
Review
2. Qualitative Research Design
Grounded Theory
Ethnography
Narrative
Case Study

3. Combination of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Design

Mixed Method
Action Research

3.4.7 Determining the Sampling Procedure

The first step in writing an academic research is the drafting of a research proposal, which is a
systematic summary or a document consisting of the outline of the research to be conducted. A
comprehensive research proposal usually contains information on the research problem,
research question, literature review, research methodology and a list of references.
3.4.8 Why Write a Research Proposal
A research proposal consists of a conceptual framework of the research, aim and objective of
the research, research questions and hypothesis, significance of research and limitations,
literature review, research tools and data analysis techniques.

22

The researcher will conduct his research based on this proposal, and the end result can be in
the form of a research paper, dissertation, thesis or project. By preparing a research proposal,
the researcher is able to identify problematic issues to be studied and state a set of questions
that needs to be answered in the research.
Relevant literature that is related to the research problem needs to be reviewed (indicating the
status of academic knowledge in the field), and to identify areas that are yet to be explored or
are yet to be addressed by researchers. Generating hypothesis (predicted answer to the
research question, if applicable); constructing research methodology to test a hypotheses or
answer a research question; developing research design; choosing appropriate data collection
techniques; identifying appropriate data collection procedures.

3.4.8 Building Research Instrument

In general, the instrument is any device, way or method for obtaining and collecting research
data. The building of instruments is created by the researcher based on the research questions
and adapted from previous researchers and using available standard instruments. Quantitative
Research Instrument (QSI) uses questionnaires, a variety of tests and checklists.
Aim and design of quantitative research are:
1. to create the perception, opinion or trend in society towards an issue
Example: PISMP students perception towards the importance of research (research design:
survey)
2. to review the effectiveness of a treatment. Example: Effectiveness of cooperative learning
methods (research design: experimental) Note: random sampling
3. to review the effectiveness of a treatment. Example: Effectiveness of cooperative learning
methods (research design: quasi-experimental) Note: non- random sampling
4. to review the relationship between variables (research design: correlation) Example:
relationship between phonic reading method with reading proficiency)

Experimental Design
The main features:
1. respondents are selected and assigned randomly into experimental and control groups
2. an intervention is applied to one or more groups
23

3. result/outcome is measured at the end of the experiment - can determine the cause and
effect of the research
4. procedure is designed to address threats to validity
5. statistics is used to make comparisons

Example 1
Research Title: Learning Styles among Year 6 School Pupils in North Kinta District.
Research Background
1. Academic achievement is important for the students future and direction.
2. Students are incapable of choosing the most appropriate learning style that suits them and
prefer to practise last minute learning style before examinations.
3. Research in the form of a survey was conducted to investigate the learning styles practised
by the Year 6 school pupils in North Kinta District and the relationship with academic
achievements based on the four learning models/styles founded by Dunn and Dunn (1978): a) environmental stimulus
b) emotional stimulus
c) psychological stimulus
d) sociological stimulus
4. This study uses a 4-point scale questionnaire as the research instrument.

3.4.9 Stating the Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument

Validity and reliability of an instrument is very important in maintaining the accuracy of the
instruments from being exposed to errors. The higher the validity and reliability, the more
accurate the data obtained in producing good quality research.
1. Survey Instrument Validity (Quantitative)
Validity is defined as the appropriateness, truthfulness, meaningfulness and usefulness of
instruments that enable data to be inferred. Validity also means to maximise the agreement
between two trials in measuring similar traits using different methods. The Criterion - Related
Evidence technique is most commonly used by researchers for questionnaires instrument to
collect evidence on the validity of the instrument by a group of consultants. Hence, a researcher
normally appoints some experts to validate the instrument.

24

Validity of Interview and Observation Instruments (Qualitative)

For qualitative research, triangulation techniques are used to strengthen the validity of data
collected through interview, observation and documents. The triangulation techniques
(questionnaires, interviews and observations) which are conducted simultaneously in a research
should be done in an equivalent form (same criterion and construct of items via different types
of instruments).
Using the triangulation technique, such as collecting data from documents as one of the
sources, not only supports and enhances evidence from various sources, but also helps to
confirm the information obtained from interviews and observations. Validity in qualitative
research (use of interview, observation and document as instruments) not only focuses on
research outcome but the entire research process.
For a researcher using the survey method, internal validity and criterion validity are used
simultaneously to prove the validity of the interview instrument. Internal validity is seen from the
aspect of manipulative control in ascertaining the relationship of the variables. Thus, the morale
ballot and cross-checking techniques are used simultaneously to strengthen the validity of the
data, especially in interviews. In light of this, researchers usually have two informants (one male
and one female) for every purpose of the interview in a particular research.
The validity of criteria in interview is achieved through interviewing individuals who are
knowledgeable and well-informed in the field of research. For this, the researcher will interview
several informants with similar characteristics and capacities in different locations. However,
validity in observations is done using the construct validity technique, by way of categorising
events observed into several clusters for the desired variables, and comparing the past
observation with the present observation.
Validity of instrument is done by the researcher to ensure the validity of the items (instruments)
used so that they have the following criteria:
i. defensibility (can be defended - findings are accurate and useful)
ii. accuracy (accurately answer the research question)
iii. appropriateness (suitability - relevant to the aim of the study)
25

iv. meaningfulness (implication - making sense of the data through scoring)

v. usefulness (usability - able to make decisions in relation to what is being researched on or
produced as the results of the assessment which can provide meaningful information about the
title and the variables to be measured by making inferences from the data obtained via survey)
3.4.10 Analysing and Elaborating Data
A typical quantitative research tool will generate a large amount of data. As a researcher, you
are responsible for processing the data into an appropriate format so that the data can be
appropriately analysed and interpreted later.
You have to manipulate the data into category, percentage, mean and standard deviation. Below
are the steps in data analysis:
(a) pre-analytical phase
(b) reduction of data size phase
(c) display data phase
(d) data validation phase
(e) generating findings phase
In a pre-analytical phase, the details of the research variables are to be read and understood,
updated and completed. You must be certain that the key variables are properly labelled by type
or category. They should be properly arranged according to the analysis theory.
Data Processing
As mentioned in the previous topic, the data are collected and updated through the following
procedures:
(a) A letter requesting for permission to conduct research should be sent to

the school

administrator, along with a letter of authorisation from the Ministry of Education.

(b) After receiving approval from the principal, make an appointment with the class teacher for a
suitable time for you to carry out the research. Background information on the class should also
be known before starting the research.
(c) After the samples have been identified, questionnaires / inventories are to be distributed for
them to fill.

26

d) Prior to analysis, raw data obtained should be processed in order to acquire background
information of the research subjects, such as the percentage of pupils by gender, parents socioeconomic status, total income and school location.
(e) Data from research tools, such as questionnaires/inventories, should be changed to
research variables score. This is usually done using calculation, such as counting the total or
mean of specific items in order to calculate the score for the "attitude" variable. If the score has
been obtained manually, then the accuracy needs to be reviewed.
(f) When all the background information of the research subjects and the scores of all variables
have been obtained, the researcher can begin to analyse the survey data in order to answer
questions and/or hypotheses of the research.
3.4.11 Discussing and Reporting Findings
If anyone wishes to write in a clear style, let him be first clear in his thoughts; and if anyone
would write in a noble style, let him first possess a noble soul.
(Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)
In discussing the findings, we must critically review the results. According to Akhiar and
Shamsina (2012), we also need to ask ourselves some questions, such as:
What are the selected criteria to show the quality of content validity? Have we left out any
important criteria or are there any unnecessary criteria that have been included instead?
If we carry out a treatment and make comparisons between groups or time, then we need to ask
the following questions:
Is there a significant difference between the groups, regarding the content before and after the
treatment?
Besides the treatment, has identical condition been given to each group (e.g. instructions,
ability level)?
Has anything else, besides the planned treatment, happened that could influence the findings?
Is there any difference in motivation between the groups before or during the research?

Note:
In Institutes of Teacher Education (IPGs), the writing of research reports must conform to the
format/style of the American Psychological Association (APA).
27

Activity

Research is defined as a systematic acquisition of facts through the process of collection,

analysis and interpretation of results (Khalid, 2003). Explain four reasons why the research is
being conducted.

OLL
How is a research problem stated in an educational research?

28