SexualReproductioninFloweringPlants

PreFertilisationEvents
Severalhormonalandstructuralchangesresultinthe
developmentofaflower.
Inflorescencesbeartheflowerbuds,andthentheflowers.
Flowersarethereproductivepartsofaplant.
Intheflowers,theandroecium(malereproductivepart)and
thegynoecium(femalereproductivepart)develop.

Androecium
Theandroeciumconsistsofwhorlsofstamen.
Thestamenconsistsofthe
filament
(longandslender
stalk)and
anther
(bilobedstructure).
Filamentisattachedtothethalamusortothepetal.
Anther
:
Atypicalantherisbilobedandeachlobeisdithecous
(consistsoftwotheca).
Thecaareseparatedbyalongitudinalgrooverunning
lengthwise.

 Themicrosporangiaarelocatedatthecorners,twoin
eachtheca.Theyfurtherdeveloptoformpollensacs,
whichcontainthepollengrains.

Structureofmicrosporangium
Themicrosporangiumissurroundedbyfourwalllayers
(epidermis,endothecium,middlelayers,andtapetum).
Theouterthreelayersareprotectiveandhelpin
dehiscenceofanthertoreleasethepollengrains.The
tapetumprovidesnourishmenttothedevelopingpollen
grains.
Intheyounganther,thesporogenoustissueformsthe
centreofeachmicrosporangium.


Microsporogenesis
ItistheprocessofformationofmicrosporefromPMC(Pollen
MotherCells).
Asdevelopmentoccursintheanther,thesporogenous
tissueundergoesmeiosistoformmicrosporetetrad.
Eachcellofsporogenoustissuehascapacitytogiverisetoa
tetrad.Hence,eachcellisapotentialpollenorPMC.
Astheanthermatures,themicrosporesgetdetachedfrom
eachotheranddevelopintopollengrains.
Pollengrains
Representthemalegameteandarespherical,havinga
twolayeredwall:
Exine(outer)Hardlayermadeofsporopollenin,
whichisextremelyresistantandcanwithstandhigh
temperatures,acidicandalkalineconditions,and
enzymes
Intine(inner)Thinandcontinuouslayermadeupof
celluloseandpectin
Maturepollengraincontainstwocells:

 VegetativecellLargewithirregularnucleus,contains
foodreserves
GenerativecellSmallandfloatsinthecytoplasmof
thevegetativecell

In60%oftheangiosperms,pollengrainsareshedat
2celledstagewhileinothersgenerativecellundergoes
mitosistoformtwomalegametes(3celledstage).
Theviabilityofpollengrainsaftertheyaresheddepends
upontemperatureandhumidity.Itrangesfrom30minutes
tofewmonths.
GynoeciumandFormationofFemaleGametophyte
Thegynoeciumrepresentsthefemalereproductivepartofa
flower.
Itmaybemonocarpellary(onepistil)ormulticarpellary
(manypistils).Inmulticarpellary,thepistilsmaybefused
inone(syncarpous)orfree(apocarpous).
Eachpistilconsistsof:
Stigma
Receivesthepollengrains
Style
Elongated,slenderpartbelowthestigma
Ovary
Bulgedbasalpartcontainingtheplacenta,
whichislocatedinsidetheovarianlocule(cavity)
Theplacentacontainsthemegasporangiaorovules.


Megasporangium
Theovuleisattachedtotheplacentabythe
funicle
.The
junctionoftheovuleandthefunicleiscalled
hilum
.
Eachovulehasoneortwoprotectivelayers,called
integuments
,whichcovertherestoftheovule,exceptfor
asmallopeningcalled
micropyle
.
The
chalaza
lyingontheoppositesideofthemicropyleend
representsthebasalpartoftheovule.
Nucellus
ispresentwithintheintegumentsandcontains
reservedfood.The
embryosac
orfemalegametophyteis
locatedwithinthenucellus.


Megasporogenesis
The
megasporemothercell
(MMC)getsconvertedinto
megasporesbytheprocessofmegasporogenesis.
TheMMCislargeandcontainsadensecytoplasmanda
prominentnucleus.Itundergoesmeiosistoproducefour
megaspores.
FemaleGametophyte
Inmostfloweringplants,onlyonemegasporeisfunctional
whiletheotherthreedegenerate.
Thesinglefunctionalmegasporedevelopsintothefemale
gametophyte.Thiskindofdevelopmentiscalledmonosporic
development.
Thenucleusofthefunctionalmegasporedividesmitotically
toform2nuclei,whichmovetowardstheoppositeends,
forminga2nucleateembryosac.Twomoremitoticdivisions
ensue,leadingtotheformationof4nucleateand8nucleate
embryosacs.
Afterthe8nucleatestage,thecellwallsarelaiddownand
thetypicalfemalegametophyte(embryosac)gets

organised.
Sixofthe8nucleigetsurroundedbythecellwallandthe
remainingtwo,called
polarnuclei
,aresituatedbelowthe
eggapparatusinthelarge
centralcell
.
Threeofthesixcellsareplacedatthemicropylarendand
constitutethe
eggapparatus
(2
synergids
+1
eggcell
).
Thesynergidshavespecialthickeningsatthemicropylar
end.Thesearetogethercalledthe
filiformapparatus
.It
helpsinleadingthepollentubesintothesynergids.
Threecellsareatthechalazalend,andarecalled
antipodal
cells
.
Atypicalangiospermfemalegametophyteis7celledand
8nucleatedatmaturity.

Pollination
Itistheprocessoftransferofpollengrainsfromtheanther
tothestigma.
Dependingonthesourceofpollen,pollinationcanbedivided
asfollows:
Autogamy
Itisthetransferofpollengrainsfromthe
anthertothestigmaofthesameflower.Autogamy

requirestheantherandthestigmatolieclose.Italso
requiressynchronyinthepollenreleaseandstigma
receptivity.
Plantslike
Viola
,
Oxalis
,etc.,producetwokindsof
flowers
chasmogamousflowers
(withexposed
antherandstigma)and
cleistogamousflowers
(whichdonotopenatallandonlyautogamyoccurs).
Geitonogamy
Itisthetransferofpollensfromthe
antherofoneflowertothestigmaofanotherflowerin
thesameplant.Genetically,itissimilartoautogamy,
butitrequirespollinatingagents.
Xenogamy
Itisthetransferofpollengrainsfrom
theanthertothestigmaofadifferentplant.Pollination
causesgeneticallydifferenttypesofpollenstobe
broughttoaplant.
AgentsofPollination
Plantsuseair,water(abioticagents)andanimals(biotic
agents)forpollination.
Pollinationbywind
Itisthemostcommonformofabioticpollination.
Plantspossesswellexposedstamensandlarge,
featherystigma.
Pollensshouldbelightandnonstickytobecarried
easilybywinds.
Windpollinatedflowersoftenhavesingleovuleinthe
ovaryandnumerousflowerspackedinan
inflorescence.

 Itiscommoningrass.
Pollinationbywater
Itisrareinfloweringplants,exceptforsomeaquatic
plantslike
Vallisneria
and
Hydrilla.

Inmostwaterpollinatedplants,thepollengrainsare
longandribbonlike,andareprotectedfromwettingby
mucilaginouscovering.
Inamajorityofwaterplantslikewaterhyacinthand
waterlily,flowersemergeabovethewaterleveland
arepollinatedbyinsects.
Pollinationbyanimals
Majorityoffloweringplantsusebutterflies,bees,wasps
etc.,forpollination.
Mostoftheinsectpollinatedflowersarelarge,
colourful,fragrant,andcontainnectartoattractthe
animalpollinators.Thesearecalledfloralrewards.
Floralrewardcanbeintheformofprovidingsafe
placestolayeggs(example:thetallestflower,
Amorphophallus
)

Asymbioticrelationshipexistsbetweentheplant,
Yucca
anditspollinatormoth.Themothisdependent
ontheplantsincethemothdepositsitseggsinthe

loculeoftheovaryoftheplant,andinreturn,theplant
ispollinatedbythemoth.
Thepollengrainsarestickyandgetstucktothebody
ofthepollinator.
OutBreedingDevices

 Repeatedselfpollinationleadstoinbreedingdepression.
Plantshavedevelopedmethodstopreventselfpollination.
Autogamyispreventedbyfollowingways:
Pollenreleaseandstigmareceptivitynotcoordinated
Differentpositioningoftheantherandthestigma
Productionofunisexualflowers
Waystopreventbothautogamyandgeitonogamy:
Presenceofmaleandfemaleflowersondifferent
plants,suchthateachplantiseithermaleorfemale
(dioecy).
Thismechanismispresentinseveralspeciesofpapaya.
PollenPistilInteractions
Pollinationdoesnotalwaysensurethetransferofcompatible
pollens.
Hence,thepistilhastheabilitytorecognisetherighttypeof
pollentopromotepostpollinationevents.
Ifthepollenisofthewrongtype,thepistilpreventspollen
germination.
Thisinteractionismediatedbychemicalcomponentsofthe
pollenandthepistil.
Pollenpistilinteractionisadynamicprocessinvolving
pollenrecognition,followedbypromotionorinhibitionofthe
pollen.
Thepollentubereachestheovaryandenterstheovule
throughthemicropyle.Then,throughthefiliformapparatus,
itreachessynergids.Inthisway,thepollentubegrows.
ArtificialHybridisation&DoubleFertilisation


ArtificialHybridisation
Itisamethodtoimprovecropyield.
Inthismethod,itisessentialtoensurethattherightkinds
ofpollengrainsareused,andthestigmaisprotectedfrom
unwantedpollengrains.Itisachievedby:
EmasculationTheantherisremovedfromthebudif
thefemaleparentbearsbisexualflowers.
BaggingTheemasculatedfloweriscoveredbyabag
soasnottoallowcontaminationofthestigmaby
unwantedpollengrains.
Whenthestigmaofthebaggedflowerbecomesreceptive,
thecollectedpollengrainsaredustedontothestigma,and
thentheflowerisrebagged.
Ifthefemaleparentisunisexual,emasculationisnot
necessary.Inthiscase,thefemalebudisdirectlybagged,
andwhenthestigmaturnsreceptive,suitablepollengrains
aredustedontoitsoastoallowgermination.
DoubleFertilisation
Whenthepollengrainsfallonthestigma,thepollentube
entersoneofthesynergidsandreleasestwomalegametes.
Oneofthemalegametesmovestowardstheeggcelland
fuseswithittocompletethe
syngamy
toformthe
zygote
.
Theothermalegametefuseswiththetwopolarnucleiand
formstriploid
primaryendospermnucleus(PEN)
.Thisis
termedas
triplefusion
.

 Sincetwokindsoffusionsyngamyandtriplefusiontake
place,theprocessisknownasdoublefertilisation,andis
characteristicoffloweringplants.
Aftertriplefusion,thecentralcellbecomestheprimary
endospermcell(PEC).
Theprimaryendospermnucleusgivesrisetothe
endosperm,whilethezygotedevelopsintotheembryo.

PostFertilisationEvents
Itincludesdevelopmentofendospermandembryo,and
maturationofovulesintoseedsandovariesintofruits.
FormationofEndosperm
Theendospermdevelopsbeforetheembryobecausethe
cellsoftheendospermprovidenutritiontothedeveloping
embryo.
Theprimaryendospermnucleusrepeatedlydividestogive
risetofreenuclei.Thisstageofdevelopmentiscalledfree
nuclearendosperm.
Cellwallformationoccursnext,resultinginacellular

endosperm.
Theendospermmaybeeitherfullyconsumedbythe
growingembryo(asinpeaandbeans)orretainedinthe
matureseed(asincoconutandcastor).
DevelopmentofEmbryo
Theembryodevelopsatthemicropylarendoftheembryo
sacwherethezygoteissituated.
Thezygotegivesrisefirsttotheproembryo,andthento
theglobular,heartshaped,matureembryo.
Atypical
dicotembryo
consistsofanembryonalaxisand
twocotyledons.
Theportionoftheembryonalaxisabovethelevelof
cotyledonsiscalledepicotyl.Itcontainstheplumule(shoot
tip).Theportionbelowtheaxisiscalledhypocotyl.It
containstheradicle(roottip).Theroottipiscoveredbythe
rootcap.

Ina
monocotembryo
,thereisonlyonecotyledon.In
grass,itisknownasthescutellum,andissituatedatone
sideoftheembryonalaxis.Atitslowerend,theembryonal
axishastheradicleandtherootcapenclosedinthe

coleorrhiza.
Theepicotylliesabovethelevelofthescutellum,andhas
theshootapexandleafprimordiaenclosedinhollow
structurescalledcoleoptiles.

SeedsandFruits
DevelopmentofSeeds
Itisthelaststageofsexualreproductioninangiosperms.
Seedsarethefertilisedovulesthataredevelopedinsidea
fruit.
Aseedconsistsof:
Seedcoat
Cotyledons
Embryonalaxis
Seedsmaybe
albuminous
(endospermpresentasin
wheatandmaize)or
nonalbuminous
(endospermabsent

sinceitisconsumedbythegrowingembryoasinpeaand
beans).
Someseedssuchasblackpepperandwheathaveremnants
ofnucellusknownas
perisperm
.
Theintegumentsofovuleshardentoformtheseedcoat,
andthemicropylefacilitatestheentryofoxygenandwater
intotheseed.
Asitlosesmoisture,theseedmayenterdormancy,orif
favourableconditionsexist,itgerminates.
DevelopmentofFruits
Theovaryofaflowerdevelopsintoafruit.
Thewallsoftheovarytransformintothewallsofthefruit
(pericarp).
Fruitsmaybefleshy,asinmangoandorange,orcanbe
dry,asingroundnutandmustard.
Insomeplants,floralpartsotherthantheovarytakepartin
fruitformation,asinappleandstrawberry.Inthese,the
thalamuscontributestofruitformation.Suchfruitsare
called
falsefruits
.Fruitsthatdevelopfromtheovaryare
called
truefruits
.
Somefruitsdevelopwithoutfertilisation,andareknownas
parthenocarpicfruits
(example:banana).
ApomixisandPolyembryony
Someplantsproduceseedswithoutfertilisation.Thisprocess
ofseedformationisknownasapomixis.
Apomixisisaformofasexualreproductionmimickingsexual
reproduction.

 Insomespecies,apomixisoccursasthediploideggcellis
formedwithoutmeiosis,anddevelopsintoembryowithout
fertilisation.
Insomevarietiesofcitrusandmango,thenucelluscells
divideandprotrudeintotheembryosactodevelopinto
embryos.Insuchcases,eachovulemaycontainseveral
embryosandthisconditioniscalledpolyembryony.
Apomixisisimportantforproducinghybridvarietiesoffruits
andvegetables,andalsoforincreasingcropyieldmultifold.