GEOS 4430 Lecture Notes:

Quantification and Measurement of the

Hydrologic Cycle
Dr. T. Brikowski
Fall 2011

file:hydro_cycle.tex,v (1.30), printed September 8, 2011

Hydrologic Budget
Misc. information and data sources:
Texas Regional Water planning homepage
Region C 2011 water plan Executive
Summary

Hydrologic Budget
Hydrologic budget is simply an H2O mass balance


rate of
mass in

rate of
mass out


=

change in
storage


(1)

usually assume density of water constant, then make a

volume balance instead
estimating these components is a large part of hydrology,
and can sometimes be quite difficult
2

Hydrologic Budget (cont.)

For a watershed (topographic basin) water balance is (Fig.
1):


rate of
mass in

rate of
mass out

P
|{z}

(2)

Precipitation

= |{z}
Qs +
Runoff

+ T}
|E {z

Evapotranspiration

Qg
|{z}

Groundwater Discharge

R
|{z}

Recharge

(3)

Basin Hydrologic Cycle

Figure 1: Hydrologic cycle for a watershed, after Domenico and

Schwartz [Fig. 1.2, 1990].
4

Evaporation
Misc. information and data sources:
U.S. Evaporation climatology (calculated)
U.S. raw evaporation data
Daily pan (or actual?) evaporation at DFW
lakes
moisture sensor
customers

rebate

for

NTMWD

Importance of Evapotranspiration
2/3 of precipitation in the U.S. returns to the atmosphere by
evapotranspiration
in arid regions ouptput by ET can exceed 90% of basin water
inputs
in humid regions (e.g. Western Washington) ET can be as
little as 10% of input

Evaporation: Physical Process

endothermic process (requires energy input) (Fig. 2)
requires relative humidity 100
(absolute humidity)
(relative humidity) =
100
(saturation humidity)
(kg water)
humidity =
(m3 air)
absolute humidity is the current moisture content of the air
saturation humidity is temperature dependent, the dewpoint
is the temperature at which saturation humidity becomes
equal to the absolute humidity. See Fetter [Table 2.1, 2001]
7

Water Phase Diagram

Figure 2: Phase diagram for H2O, after Tindall and Kunkel

[1999]. Energy (e.g. heating) is required to drive water across
the two-phase boundary into the vapor field (area to right of
curve).
8

Evaporation: Measurement
Direct methods:
pan evaporation (land pan, Figs. 34):
observe evaporation from a standard-sized shallow metal
pan
best to measure precipitation input separately (i.e. make
a quantitative water balance for pan)
apply empirical relationship to estimate lake or plant
evaporation (Fig. 6)
lysimeter (Fig. 5)
a cannister containing natural soil, installed at ground
level
weigh (and perform water balance) to determine moisture
content changes due to evaporation
9

 Indirect methods:
cal
Energy budget. 540 gm
energy required to transform water
to vapor at room temperature. Not all energy recieved by
surface water is used for evaporation though:

Qs
|{z}

incoming solar rad.

Qrs
|{z}

ref lected solar rad.

Qh
|{z}

turbulent exchange

Qv
|{z}

heat brought in by water f low

Qlw
|{z}

IR radiation out

Qe
|{z}

latent heat of vap.

Qe
|{z}

heat carried out by vapor

Q
|{z}

(4)

change in heat content

Bowen energy ratio: monitor soil T profile, incoming solar

10

radiation and heat radiated to atmosphere at soil surface

(combines Qh & Qe in Eqn. 4, see Hillel [p. 290, 1980]
Eddy correlation method
directly measure water vapor flux using wind speed,
humidity measurements, i.e. micro-meteorology
more recently used to measure CO2 fluxes, e.g. ABLE
experiment
soil chloride profile (Cl mass balance, e.g. paleoclimate
studies)

11

NOAA Evaporation Pan

Figure 3: Example of NOAA standard evaporation pan, from

Wikipedia.
12

U.S. Pan Evaporation Contours

Figure 4: U.S. Pan Evaporation Contours, showing general

distribution of open-water evaporation. See original data at
NWS.
13

Weighing Lysimeter

Figure 5: Example of commercial weighing lysimeter. Note

variety of sensors, and monitoring of natural and lysimeter
conditions. See UMS for installation details.

14

Transpiration
Transpiration is evaporation from plants
underside of leaves contain pores (stoma) which open for
photosynthesis during the day
water drawn into plant by roots to provide support and
transport nutrients is lost via stoma
hence length of day is an important constraint on
transpiration
see animation for a helpful visualization
15

Evapotranspiration: Physical Process

Transpiration is evaporation from plants
underside of leaves contain pores (stoma) which open for
photosynthesis during the day
water drawn into plant by roots to provide support and
transport nutrients is lost via stoma
hence length of day is an important constraint on
transpiration
ET is combined bare soil evaporation and plant transpiration
16

 transpiration predominant mechanism for water loss from soil

in all but the driest climates [can be 15-80% of basin water
losses, Fetter, 2001] (Fig. 6)
phreatophytes (plants with roots to water table) are generally
most important, except in agricultural settings
for shallow-rooted plants, ET ceases when soil moisture drops
below wilting point (plant root suction less than soil suction)

17

ET From Cornfield

Figure 6: ET From Cornfield, showing ratio of ET to open-pan

evaporation. Recall that actual evaporation from open water is
usually about 0.7 times the pan evaporation. After [Fig. 5-1,
Dunne and Leopold, 1978].
18

Evapotranspiration: Estimation/Measurement
Measurement
Lysimeters (containing soil and plants)
phytometer - plant-in-a-box, airtight transparent
enclosure (lab or field), monitor humidity of air; unnatural
conditions and therefore questionable data
Estimation
Thornthwaite Method (empirical formula, inputs are
T, latitude, season; emphasizes meteorological controls,
ignores soil moisture changes, Fig. 7)

a
10Ta
Et = 1.6
(5)
I
19

cm
where Et is potential evaporation in mo
, Ta is mean
monthly air temperature in C , I is an annual heat index,
and a is a cubic polynomial in I
Blaney-Criddle method, adds a crop factor (empirical
estimate of vegetative growth and soil moisture effects);
most popular method, calibrated for U.S. only

Et = (0.142Ta + 1.095)(Ta + 17.8)kd

(6)

where k is an empirical crop factor (bigger for thirsty

crops or fast-growth periods), d is the monthly fraction of
daylight hours.
Penman Equation:
use vapor pressure, net radiation, T to calculate
fairly popular, but inaccurte (most parameters estimated)
20

 intended to mimic pan evaporation, so tends to overestimate ET (e.g. Fig. 9).

Note [Fig. 2.1 Fetter, 2001] is essentially a graphical
solution of this equation
see various Ag. schools for free software (e.g. U. Idaho).
Remote sensing:
early efforts developed species-specific ET rates for a
locale, estimate distribution, growth rate, etc. from
multi-spectral images, calculate spatially-variable ET
rates Czarnecki [e.g. 1990], Owen-Joyce and Raymond
[e.g. 1996]
more recently use energy balance approach, e.g. China
study comparison with lysimeter data

21

Thornthwaite Method

Figure 7: Graphical solution of Thornthwaite Method, indicating primary

dependence on mean air temperature and heat index (a U.S.-calibrated
indicator of daily temperature range). After [Fig. 5-4, Dunne and Leopold,
1978]. See also online calculator.

22

FAO Penman-Montieth Equation

worldwide standard method developed by UN Food and
Agriculture Organization
envisions a reference crop, accounts for energy balance and
resistance to ET (i.e. computes reduction from open-water
evaporation rate, Fig. 8)
computes potential evaporation (i.e. maximum possible)
schematic version of equation:
ETo

(net energy flux) + (wind) (RH)

=
resistances
23

where the energy flux is solar input minus infrared radiation

and reflection out, resistances are rs and ra as shown in Fig.
8

24

Setting: FAO Penman-Monteith Equation

Figure 8: Penman-Monteith setting, showing origin of

resistance terms. After FAO.
25

ET Method Comparison

Figure 9: Comparison of ET estimation methods. After [Fig.

5-3, Dunne and Leopold, 1978]. See also Casta
neda-Rao-2005.
26

ET Estimation Review
As hydrogeologists, youll probably consider the following
methods to predict ET, in order of increasing difficulty and
accuracy (see also FAO Summary) and FAO training manuals:
Land pan evaporation data:
apply appropriate pan
coefficients and nearby pan data to estimate reservoir, or
even crops (rarely). See Wikipedia summary
Forms of energy balance
Thornthwaite: meteorology/climate only, ignore vegetation
effects. OK for annual average
Blaney-Criddle: adds crop effect. Simple, widely used
and broadly inaccurate, better at monthly variations, good
when only temperature data is known
27

 Penman: original Penman eqn. mimics pan evaporation

curve, accounts for radiation and convective (wind) flux,
i.e. most terms in (4)
Penman-Monteith: world standard, assumes realistic
reference crop. Provides most inter-comparable results.

28

Typical ET Values

Figure 10: Typical values for ETo, in mm

day for climate types and
temperature range. After UN FAO. See current UTD/TAMU
values.

29

ET Example: Colorado River

Colorado River basin (Fig. 11) over-allocated (Fig. 13), so
components of water balance there are very important (17.5
Macft
Macft
allocated,
actual
flow
averages
14.5
yr
yr )
very difficult-to-measure aspect of this is ET
Tamarisk (salt cedar)
introduced as decorative plant in 1870s, has spread through
km2
most of watershed (colonization rate 3 yr )
individual ET rates 2.5

m
yr

1984 total consumptive use, Lower Basin 7x106

[Owen-Joyce and Raymond, 1996]
30

acreft
yr

 of that 15% lost through ET, 6% by natural phreatophytes

(primarily tamarisk), 18% exported to AZ, 67% exported to
CA
see USGS biennial consumptive use studies

31

Tamarisk Invasion/Control
current distribution monitored by USGS
other organizations organize remediation (e.g.
Coalition)

Tamarisk

see TRO Assessment report 2008 for current status of

mitigation/impact

32

Colorado River Hydrologic Basin

Figure 11: Colorado River Basin Compact states, and important

localities, from [Barnett and Pierce, 2008].
33

Colorado River Profile

Figure 12: Topographic profile of Colorado River, showing

river gradient and major impoundments. After Keller [p. 281,
1996].
34

Colorado River Water Allocation

Figure 13:
discharge.

Colorado River Basin Compact allocation and average

After Keller [p.

shortage plans.

282,

1996].

35

See Wikipedia summary of

Evaporation and Climate Change

36

Pan Evaporation Declining

Figure 14: Temporal trends in pan evaporation. Across the US and most
of the world pan evaporation rates have declined since the 1940s. Numbers
are precipitation trends in

mm
decade ,

[Lawrimore and Peterson, 2000].

37

Global Humidity Increasing

Figure 15: Temporal trends in specific humidity: lower atmospheric

moisture content has been steadily increasing, upper atmosphere (300mB)
moisture decreasing, consistent with brightening. Data from NCDC, based
on analysis of GPS satellite signals, this plot from The Blackboard.

38

Evaporation and Global Dimming/Brightening

Figure 16: Observed and modeled global warming and dimming. Light
lines show individual IPCC model results. These warming models include
dimming effects, and the evaporation paradox, after [Schmidt et al., 2007].
See Wild [2009] for good summary of brightening/dimming observations.

39

Climate Forcings

Figure 17: Model results of 20th century climate, with contributions from
various forcings. Observed warming best matched by effect of greenhouse
gas emissions, moderated through 1990 by particulates (sulfate, combined
natural and anthropogenic effects). See also Wikipedia summary.

40

Precipitation
Useful data sources:
National Weather Service flood prediction
data
Intellicast TX-OK 7-day cumulative precip
from NEXRAD data
Intellicast current hourly lightning strikes

41

Precipitation: Physical Process

condensation caused by cooling of the air mass, usually
during lifting
In Texas mostly during frontal storms (blue northers)
(Fig. 18)
See example of March 3, 2000 frontal storm: radar
animation, surface weather map, and lightning record
local climate effects can be important in hydrology
frontal precipitation (most common precip. in winter, see
Texas annual precip. distribution, Fig. 19)
convective precipitation (thunderstorms, most common in
summer)
42

 e.g. in temperate arid regions snow is predominant

recharge contributer, even if not predominant form of
precip.
orographic effect: heavier precip. on upwind side of
topographic highs, lower than average on downwind side
coastal states often affected by tropical cyclones (e.g.
similar effect from upper atmosphere low at DFW 2009,
Fig. 20)

43

Frontal Precipitation Model

Figure 18: Cross-section through frontal storm, showing the

special case of an occluded front. After Dingman [2002].
44

North Texas Monthly Normal Climate

Figure 19: North Texas monthly normals (after RSSWeather.

See also NOAA Southern Regional Climate Data Center.

45

4-Day Storm Event Cumulative Precipitation

Figure 20: Cumulative precipitation is often highly heterogeneous. 7 day

cumulative precipitation from high-level low pressure system in North Texas.
Sept. 7-14, 2009 (from Intellicast).

46

Precipitation: Measurement
One of the most easily measured hydrologic cycle fluxes
NOAA uses a variety of automated gauges (Fig. 21)
see modern summary at Wikipedia and summary of
automated airport weather stations, the gold standard
of weather data worldwide
Two basic station networks: primary monitoring stations
(usually major airports) and cooperative stations (usually
not run by NOAA, data quality uncertain). See Fig. 22
this data accessible for free from .edu IP addresses at National
Climate Data Center (NCDC)
47

Rain Gauge Examples

Figure 21: Examples of recording rain gauges, after Dunne and

Leopold [1978].
48

NOAA Weather Station Network

Figure 22: NOAA Weather Station Network, after Dingman

[2002].
49

Treating Precipitation Heterogeneity

Precipitation usually extremely variable in space and time.
Hard to go from point measurements to regional input, must
use:
arithmetic average, assumes uniform density of precip. or
stations
Theissen polygon method:
area-weighted
Equivalent of natural-neighbor interpolation

average.

Isohyetal: contouring, includes some concept of local

meteorology
NEXRAD radar: use to estimate areal variability of rainfall,
calibrate with ground measurements,
50

 accuracy can be controversial, but now standard for runoff

models (see Applied Surface Water Modeling Notes re:
NEXRAD)
cumulative estimates avaliable nationwide (intended for
flood prediction) at NCDC Hydro Prediction Service

51

Engineering Characterization of Precipitation

See Applied Surface Water Modeling Notes topics:
Introduction: Design approaches in treating rainfall
Rainfall data adjustments
Rainfall data sources (online data)

52

Recharge

53

Recharge
Physical processes
infiltration - losses = recharge
infiltration = precipitation - runoff
runoff occurs when precip. exceeds infiltration capacity of
soil (Hortonian overland flow)
Measurement
Direct: lysimeters
Indirect
Water table fluctuation
assumes changes in water level in shallow wells reflect
recharge
54

 see USGS summary

also computer program to develop Master Recession
Curve for well water levels
Chemical mass balance: Cl, 3H, D , 18O
Cl method (assumes all input is atmospheric, OK if
no Cl-sediments in basin; N.B. Cl = 0 in evaporated
water) [Dettinger, 1989]
CI I
|{z}

Infiltrated mass

C
P P}
| {z

Precipitation

+ CQ Q = 0
| {z }
Runoff

P CP
QCQ

(7)
I =
CI
CI
Also note that in many desert basins the runoff is 0,
simplifying (7)
Determine Baseflow (hydrograph separation)
55

 Use empirical relations based on other basins: e.g.

Maxey-Eakin [Watson et al., 1976], uses rainfall and
elevation maps to estimate recharge, calibrated to basins
of known recharge
see excellent summary of methods and results for desert
basins [Hogan et al., 2004] (and online review)

56

Bibliography

57

Tim P. Barnett and David W. Pierce. When will Lake Mead go dry? Water Resour. Res., 44
(W03201), 29 March 2008. doi: 10.1029/2007WR006704. URL http://www.agu.org/
journals/pip/wr/2007WR006704-pip.pdf.
J. B. Czarnecki. Geohydrology and evapotranspiration at franklin lake playa, inyo county,
california. Ofr 90-356, Denver, CO, 1990.
M. D. Dettinger. Reconnaissance estimates of natural recharge to desert basins in nevada, u.s.
a., by using chloride-balance calculations. J. Hydrol., 106:5578, 1989.
S. L. Dingman. Physical Hydrology. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458, 2nd edition,
2002. ISBN 0-13-099695-5.
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in a Desert Environment: The Southwestern United States, volume 9 of Water Science
and Application. Amer. Geophys. Union, 2004. URL http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/
agubooks?topic=AL&book=HYWS0093584&search=Scanlon.
E. A. Keller. Environmental Geology. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1996. 7th Ed.,
ISBN 0-02-363281-X.
Jay H. Lawrimore and Thomas C. Peterson.
Pan evaporation trends in dry and
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ISSN 1525755X. URL http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
a9h&AN=5716377&site=ehost-live.

58

S. J. Owen-Joyce and L. H. Raymond. An accounting system for water and consumptive use
along the colorado river, hoover dam to mexico. Water-supply paper, U.S. Geol. Survey,
Washington, D.C., 1996.

G. A. Schmidt, A. Romanou, and B. Liepert. Further comment on a perspective on global

warming, dimming, and brightening. EOS, 88(45):473, 11 2007.

J. A. Tindall and J. R. Kunkel. Unsaturated Zone Hydrology for Scientists and Engineers.
Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1999. ISBN 0-13-660713-6.

P. Watson, P. Sinclair, and R. Waggoner. Quantitative evaluation of a method for estimating

recharge to the desert basins of nevada. J. Hydrol., 31:335357, 1976.

M. Wild. Global dimming and brightening: A review. J. Geophys. Res., 114, 2009. doi:
10.1029/2008JD011470.