SCIENCE

Variations in the electrical properties of concrete

with change in frequency
J.G. Wilson, BSc, PhD, CEng, MlEE
H.W. Whittington, BSc, PhD, CEng, MlEE

Indexing terms: Physical properties, Conductors and conductiuity, Measurement and measuring, Instrumentation and measuring science

Abstract: The paper proposes some mechanisms

which control the conductivity and dielectric constant of concrete over the frequency range 1100 MHz, and, from these, a model is developed.
The electrical response of this model is compared
with experimental measurements and the validity
of the model discussed.
1

Introduction

Investigations have been carried out, over many years,

into the electrical properties of concrete, for various
reasons, e.g. Spencer [l], Hammond and Robson [2, 31,
Monfore [4], Taylor and Arulanandan [SI, McCarter
and Curran [SI, Buenfield and Newman [7], and, by the
authors of this paper, both at low frequencies [8,9] and
high frequencies [lo, 111.
The authors electrical measurements have been
directed towards the development of reliable quality
assurance tests for fresh concrete and methods of investigating the integrity of existing concrete. The particular
areas of interest are the determination of mix proportions
and the establishment of measures for durability. It is
hoped, in the long term, to produce equipment which will
provide onsite assistance to the practicing civil engineer.
The current work is directed towards achieving an understanding of the electrical mechanisms involved in such a
complex material.
2

High-frequency measurements

2.1 Experimental method

Measurements have been carried out by the authors over

the frequency range 1-100 MHz, using the system shown
in Fig. 1.
The cement used for these experiments is ordinary
Portland cement (OPC). In practice, additives are frequently used to modify the behaviour of the material
(also, concrete can be subjected to external chemical
attack) and these can result in the presence of ions such
as chloride and sulphate which will modify the electrical
Paper 7387A (S2, S8), first received 28th September 1989 and in revised
form 12th February 1990
Dr. Wilson is with the Department of Electncal & Electronic Engineering, Napier Polytechnic of Edinburgh, 219 Colinton Road, Edinburgh
EH14 lDJ, United Kingdom
Dr. Whittington is with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Edinburgh, Kings Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh
EH9 3JL, United Kingdom

behaviour. This work is concerned with establishing basic

mechanisms, and the effects of such ions have, therefore,
not been considered.
The concrete samples are formed by placing two
stainless-steel plate electrodes in a PVC mould and
pouring in fresh concrete. The complete assembly is then
vibrated to achieve compaction of the concrete. This produces a 150mm cube of concrete sandwiched between
the electrodes. At one end of the plates, there is a transition to coaxial line which allows the samples to be connected to an impedance analyser. The configuration of
the samples is shown in Fig. 2. The samples remain in the
moulds during the measurements.
Because of the heterogeneous nature of concrete, to
establish confidence in the measurements, four identical
samples are used for measurement rather than a single
sample. The particular sample to be measured is selected
by the wideband microwave switching network, which is
controlled by computer.
Impedance measurements are carried out for each of
the samples over the frequency range 1-100 MHz, for a
total of 101 logarithmically spaced points. These measurements are repeated at various times up to one day
after water was added to the mix. Measurements are initially carried out hourly, but, after six hours, a logarithmic timescale is used, resulting in a total of nine sets of
measurements per sample over a one day period. The
impedance measurements are carried out by means of the
Hewlett-Packard HP4191A RF impedance analyser.
The overall control of the experiment is by means of a
Hewlett-Packard HP9816 computer. Impedance data
obtained from the analyser are stored on magnetic disc,
using a Hewlett-Packard HP9121D disc unit. A specialpurpose electronics unit generates timing signals and
controls the operation of the microwave switches. Communication between the various units is by an IEEE-488
bus.
2.2 Calibration methods
Because the impedance analyser is connected to each of
the four samples through the microwave switching
network, the normal internal calibration method for the
analyser cannot be used. It is necessary to carry out a
calibration routine, for each sample, individually, so that
the different paths through the switching network are
taken into account. The impedance measurements are
referenced to the face of the coaxial connector on each of
the samples.
Values of the conductivity and dielectric constant for
the concrete are obtained by assuming that the samples

246

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990

can be modelled by the system shown in Fig. 3. The electrodes are considered to form an open-circuited transmission line, with the concrete acting as the dielectric. The
transition from parallel plate to coaxial line is represented

result in the dimensions of the samples being a significant

fraction of a wavelength at 100 MHz.
The transmission line is assumed to be terminated in a
perfect open circuit, and the resistance of the conductors
water tank

r------ 1

RF impedance
analyser

RF switching
array

IEEE bus

E F
plotter

T-t
printer

1
I

1
Fig. 1

computer
system

Measurement system
transition from
coaxial to

elecl

/ \

cor

Fig. 2

electrode

Sample configuration

by a two-port network. A travelling-wave model has

been chosen because relatively high values of effective
dielectric constant have been reported [ 5 ] , which could
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pf.A , N o . 5, SEPTEMBER 1990

is assumed to be negligible. The inductance per metre of

the transmission line, for a 1 : 1 width to height ratio, has
been obtained from Wheeler [12], who gives a characteristic impedance of 179 R for such a line in free space. This
gives an inductance per metre of 5.97 x lo-' H, which is
the value used in these experiments.
The transition network requires three complex
numbers to specify its effect on impedance measurements
at each frequency. The network has been simplified to a
simple series impedance model, in which only one of the
three complex values is specified. In the open-circuited
transmission line, the conductivity and dielectric constant
of the material forming the dielectric are unknown. There
is, therefore, a total of four unknown quantities which
must be found to define the model parameters. Information necessary to find these values is obtained by carrying
out impedance measurements on two transmission lines
of different known lengths, which have identical transitions and dielectric materials. At each frequency therefore, two values of impedance are available, giving four
real numbers which allow the model parameters to be
241

calculated. The material used as a dielectric for model

calibration is mortar rather than concrete, on which the
experimental measurements are carried out. Mortar is a
more homogeneous electrical material compared with
open-ci rcu Ited
transmission line

7 1

impedance
measurement

transition
network

concret'e
dielectric

Fig. 3

Electrical model
time. days

0'

I l l l l

1no

Conductivity offour samples

1 5 0 t time. days

-1001

I 1 1 1 1

I 1 1 1 1 1 1

100

10
frequency, MHz

Fig. 5

2.3 Results
Having established the value of the complex number representing the network at a particular frequency, this
value can be used in all subsequent calculations. Thus, in
subsequent experiments, the only unknowns are the
values of conductivity and dielectric constant. For a
sample of a particular length, these values can be
obtained from one impedance measurement at the frequency of interest, because the impedance will have both
a real and an imaginary part. The method of calculation
is similar to that for the model calibration, but only a
two-dimensional Newton-Raphson process is required in
this case.
Measurements have been carried out on concrete
samples with a mix defined by mass ratios of:

I 1 1 / 1 1 1

10
frequency, MHz

Fig. 4

process is satisfactory over the range 1-100 MHz, giving

errors of less than 0.1 R in the modulus of the impedances, and 0.1" in phase, between the calculated impedances of the transmission line and the measured values.

0.5
1 : 1.5 : 3.0

Results for conductivity and dielectric constant for the

four individual samples are presented at times of 1 h
(0.0419 days) and 1 day after the water is added to the
mix in Figs. 4 and 5. It can be seen that there is good
agreement between the results for the four measurements,
bearing in mind the heterogeneous nature of concrete.
Subsequent results use the average values for the four
samples. Figs. 6 and I show the variation in conductivity
and dielectric constant, respectively, over the period of 1
day.
3

Dielectric constant of four samples

water/cement
cement/sand/aggregate

Developmentof model

3.1 Discussion of experimental results

time. days

A number of trends are observed from the experimental

results, namely:
(i) the reduction of the dielectric constant with increase
in frequency, in the frequency range 1 4 0 MHz; this is
particularly noticeable soon after mixing
(ii) the change in the characteristic of the conductivity
in the frequency range 7 4 0 M H z , and an increase in
dielectric constant at the lower frequencies, as time prog-

resses
(iii) the negative value of dielectric constant just after
mixing, the fall in the magnitude of the dielectric constant
above 60 MHz and the fall in conductivity at frequencies
above 40 MHz.

frequency, M H z

Fig. 6

' t
5 0I

-1001

Fig. 7

Average conductivity up to one day

time. davs

I 1 1 1 1 1 1

10
frequency, MHz

I l l l l

100

Average dielectric constant up to one day

concrete, as it does not contain randomly distributed

coarse aggregate.
Calculation of the model parameters is performed by a
four-dimensional Newton-Raphson iterative process
which nulls the error between the measured impedances
and the impedances calculated from the model. This
248

These three groups of effects could be related to three

characteristic phenomena:
(i) electrode polarisation due to electrolytic effects
(ii) a change in the general electrical behaviour, from
homogeneous conduction to heterogeneous conduction,
as the structure of the concrete is formed. Heterogenous
conduction can be described by the Maxwell-Wagner
characteristic
(iii) viscous conduction effects which limit the ability of
an ion to respond to an alternating electric field above
some cutoff frequency.
3.2 Electrode polarisation effects
Conduction through concrete is primarily by movement
of ions. If ions reach the electrodes, then gas will be released. Because of the high viscosity of concrete, even in
its fresh state, this gas cannot be dissipated, neither is
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . A , No. 5, SEPTEMBER I990

---I--

there a mechanism by which the gas can be reabsorbed.

A significant gas layer will therefore be generated at the
electrodes, preventing further ions reaching the electrodes. These layers of gas can be considered as forming
capacitances in series with the bulk of the material,
which, in turn, can be represented by a resistor, owing to
the low conductivity of the material, with a capacitor in
parallel, owing to the bulk dielectric constant of the
material.
When the conductivity and dielectric constant of a
sample of material are being determined, generally the
conductivity is related to the real part of the admittance
of the sample, and the dielectric constant is related to the
imaginary part. In the model postulated, this requires
that the equivalent circuit of Fig. 8A be equated with the
circuit of Fig. 8B.

cS = dielectric constant when f = 0 Hz

= dielectric constant
T~

up
Fig. 9

2 m
frequency

Electrode polarisation response

Previous investigations
cutoff frequency

Fig. 8A

Polarisation model

Fig. 86

f1

Parallel equivalent

Consider the impedance of the equivalent circuit:

1
Z=joC,
1

y=-=
Z

+j w C , R
j o C , ( l +j w C , R )
+

l+jo(C,R+C,R)

where
C , = capacitance due to the gas layer
R = resistance due to the bulk conductivity
C , = capacitance due to the bulk dielectric constant

From the parallel model of Figure 8B:

1

=-

+j w C ,

R P

where
R, = equivalent parallel resistance
C , = equivalent parallel capacitance.

Equating these values gives eventually:

U

.
:
U

= UI
ES

E, =

[1

W2(Tl

+ OEAT,

[I -k

W2(Tl

+ TZ)]

f T2)
-k TZ)]

where
U

a,

The complete analysis is given in Appendix 8.1.

As, in general, 5 , % I T , 1, the value of T , will not affect
the value of these functions significantly. These functions
have the forms shown in Fig. 9.

whenf+

C,R
= C,R

T, =

[SI have shown that the lower

=g

is in the region of 1 Hz. Taking a value of conductivity of

0.206 Sjm, from Fig. 6, gives a value of apparent dielectric constant of 3.7 x lo9 at frequencies less than 1 Hz.
Although the existence of such large values of apparent
dielectric constant is not in doubt, there have been a
number of different explanations postulated as to the
reasons [6, 131. Gillespie and Cole [14], however,
pointed out the need to calibrate out electrode polarisation effects, when carrying out dielectric constant measurements on sulphuric acid, and Schwan et al. [ l S ] used
similar calibration techniques in their work on the dielectric constants of colloidal particles in ionic solutions.
3.3 Maxwell- Wagner effects
In the case of a dielectric material in which conducting
volumes are distributed, a relaxation effect takes place at
some critical frequency. If an alternating electromagnetic
field is applied at a frequency very much less than the
critical frequency, then the charge carriers can redistribute themselves within the conducting particles, so giving
rise to an enhanced dielectric constant and low electrical
loss, which is associated with a low value of conductivity.
If the frequency of the field is greater than the critical
frequency, then the charge carriers cannot redistribute
fully. This causes a reduced dielectric constant, an associated increase in electrical loss and increase in conductivity. This is called the Maxwell-Wagner effect and is typical
of the behaviour of an artificial dielectric. This effect has
been surveyed in detail by van Beek [16].
In the case of a material which has a finite conductivity at zero frequency, the process can be represented by
the equations:

= apparent conductivity

apparent dielectric constant

uI = conductivity whenf- CO
E, =

249

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990

where

E, =

us = conductivity when f = 0 Hz
U, = conductivity whenf+ CO
E, = dielectric constant whenf- CO
E~ = dielectric constant whenf= 0 Hz
T~ = process time constant

us = conductivity when f = 0 Hz
U, = conductivity whenfCO
E~ = dielectric constant whenf= 0 Hz
E [ = dielectric constant whenfCO
eo = permittivity of free space
= 8.85 x lo- F/m
p = ionic mobility
q = ion density
a = fraction of cross section associated with viscous
conduction
urn= conductivity of conventional material
E, = dielectric constant of conventional material

The values of all parameters in these expressions are

dependent on the electrical properties of the individual
materials, the fractional volumes of these materials, and
the geometry and orientation of the conducting particles.
Fricke [17] has shown that very high values of dielectric
constant E~ can be obtained if the conducting particles
are in the form of long thin needles.
The form of these expressions is shown in Fig. 10.

x
dielectric constant

conductivity

1
2n r,

(1 - a)&,

and

Note that cS may be negative.

The full development of these expressions is given in
Appendix 8.2.
This analysis therefore predicts that, under conditions
of viscous conduction, the conductivity and the magnitude of the dielectric constant will fall with increase in
frequency, for frequencies in the region of

f=--

2nT4

and that negative values of dielectric constant are possible.

The form of these expressions is shown in Fig. 11.

frequency

Fig. 10

Maxwell Wagner response

conductivity

3.4 Viscous conduction effects

Initial calculations indicated that viscous effects were
unlikely to be apparent, until frequencies in the region of
40 GHz were reached [l8]. However, the experimental
results obtained require that this effect be reassessed.
Consider the following after Schwarz [19]: The movement of a particle with charge q in electric field E(t) is
defined by the following differential equation :

dielectric constant

dielectric constant

dv

rn - + ru = qE(t)
dt
1

where

1
2%

U = velocity
rn = mass
I

frequency

= a viscous friction constant

It is possible to develop this expression in a model which

includes a material giving viscous conduction effects
together with a more conventional material. This gives:

where
us = (1
U,

250

a)u,

= (1 - a)u,

+ apq

Fig. 11

Viscous conduction eflect

3.5 Combined effects

The detailed analysis of the combined effect of these
responses is very complex, bearing in mind that the conductivitities, dielectric constants and time constants will
be functions of frequency.
In the case of electrode polarisation effects, the time
constant involved is known to be relatively large, and in
the frequency range up to 10 MHz, where the polarisation effects are effective, the bulk conductivity and dielectric constant of the material is relatively constant. The
values of ul and
applying in this case, are therefore
considered to be the bulk values, with their variations in
frequency owing to the other effects.
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990

The basic behaviour of the bulk material is considered

to be controlled by the ionic conduction mechanisms.
The viscous conduction expressions for conductivity and
dielectric constant are considered to have a multiplicative
effect on the characteristics of the bulk material.
When the structure is forming, a Maxwell-Wagner
response is to be expected. This response is then modulated by the viscous conduction effects. Before the structure forms, the Maxwell-Wagner response can still be
assumed, but with us = U , and cS = E , .
The combined response can then be represented by
1

U s = - [U4

(63 -

(U3

(E3

63

X [U2

EB =

- [E4
E3

x
U

= UB

[E3

+ W25:)]
- U2)W25:/(1 + WT:)]

is the variation in dielectric constant above 20 MHz, as

shown in Fig. 12. Thus, effects similar to that of viscous
conduction could determine the response at frequencies
above 60 MHz.
Fig. 13, however, shows that the derived electrode
polzrisation model is not accurate at lower frequencies,

U4)/(1

frequency, MHr

Fig. 12

Conductivity comparison at one hour

- &.,)/(IW25:)]

+ (E2 -

+ W531

W.:

[1

W2(T1

Tz)~]

-1 00

conductivity as a function of frequency

= conductivity associated with viscous conduction effects asf+ cc
= conductivity associated with viscous conduction effects at f = 0 Hz, and with MaxwellWagner effects asf+ CO
= conductivity associated with Maxwell-Wagner
effects a t f = 0 Hz
= bulk conductivity of the material as a function
of frequency
= dielectric constant as a function of frequency
= dielectric constant associated with viscous
conduction effects asf+ CO
= dielectric constant associated with viscous
conduction effects at f = O H z , and with
Maxwell-Wagner effects a t f + CO
= dielectric constant associated with MaxwellWagner effects a t f = 0 Hz
= bulk dielectric constant of the material as a
function of frequency
= dielectric constant due to electrode polarisation effects a t f = 0 Hz
= time constant associated with viscous conduction effects
= time constant associated with MaxwellWagner
effects
= time constants associated with electrode polarisation effects.

t 2 ,tl

Fig. 13

I I I I I

I 1 1 1 1 1 1

10
frequency, MHz

100

Dielectric constant comparison at one hour

measured

t 0.1

00
O

10
frequency. MHz

Fig. 14

-1001

Fig. 15

100

Conductivity comparison at one day

I I I I

10
frequency, MHz

I I l l 1

100

Dielectric constant comparison at one day

Table 1 : Values assumed for theoretical model

Comparison between measured values and

model results

A comparison between the measured values and the

results from the model are given in Figs. 1 2 and 13, for
samples of age 1 h, and Figs. 1 4 and 15, for samples of
age 1 day.
Table 1 gives the values of parameters assumed for the
model.
Fig. 1 2 shows that the early conductivity behaviour is
well modelled by the viscous conduction expressions, as
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990

1 day

1 hr

2.080x
2.080x
6.250x
9.000x
-7.000x
-7.000x
8.190
1.000 x
-2.587x
2.000x
3.200x

lo-
lo-

3.780x
1.000
10.
6.250x
9.000x
109
10
6.000x
10
-3.000x
8.190
10-3 1.500x
lo- 6.883x
10-9 2.000x
lo- 3.200x

lo-
lo-=
109
10

lo2
1 0-3

lo-
10-9
251

with regard to dielectric constant, and that the model has

a higher order response, in the region 1-10 MHz, than
the practical result. It might be that the polarisation
mechanism is more complex than that assumed in the
model, or that polarisation is not complete across the
electrode surface.
Fig. 14 shows a more rapid rise in conductivity, caused
by Maxwell-Wagner effects in the practical case, compared with the model, as the frequency is increased. Similarly, Fig. 15 shows a more rapid fall in dielectric
constant, in the practical case, with increase in frequency.
The Maxwell-Wagner expression does, however, assume
fixed volumes and geometries for the conducting volumes
in the dielectric matrix. In the practical case, there will be
statistical distributions of the volumes and geometries
which could emphasise the higher frequencies.
5

Conclusions

The results obtained for higher frequency electrical measurements on concrete can be explained by a viscous conduction mechanism.
Electrode polarisation can account, in part, for the
increase in dielectric constant with reduction in frequency. However, other effects must be considered, if the
behaviour in the frequency range of interest is to be
explained in full.
Maxwell-Wagner effects are evident as the mechanical
structure of the material is formed, but the response is
more complex than the simple models normally used,
and may be affected by statistical distributions of the
conducting volumes.
6

11 WILSON, J.G., and WHITTINGTON, H.W.: Measurement of the

electrical properties of concrete, Proc. 2nd Int. Conf Computer Appl.

in Concrete, Nanyang Technology Institute, Singapore, 1988, C-84
12 WHEELER, H.A.: Transmission-line properties of parallel wide
strips by a conformal-mapping approximation, IEEE Trans., 1964,
MlT-12, pp. 28C-289
13 WILSON, J.G., and WHITTINGTON, H.W., on McCARTER,
W.J., and CURRAN, P.N.: The electrical response characteristics of
setting cement paste, Mag. Concrete Res., 1985, 37,(130), pp. 52-53
14 GILLESPIE, R.J., and COLE, R.H.: The dielectric constant of sulphuric acid, Trans. Faraday Soc., 1956,52, pp. 1325-1331
15 SCHWAN, H.P., SCHWARZ, G., MACZUK, J., and PAULY, H.:
On the low frequency dielectric dispersion of colloidal particles in
electrolyte solutions, J. Phys. Chem., 1962,66, pp. 26262635
16 VAN BEEK, L.K.H.: Dielectric behaviour of heterogeneous
systems, Prog. Dielectrics., 1967, 7,pp. 69-114
17 FRICKE, H.: The Maxwell-Wagner dispersion in a suspension of
ellipsoids, J. Phys. Chem., 1953, 57,pp. 934-937
18 WILSON, J.G.: The electrical properties of concrete. PhD thesis,
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Edinburgh,
1986 (unpublished)
19 SCHWARTZ, G.: A theory of the low-frequency dielectric dispersion of colloidal particles in electrolyte solutions, J. Phys. Chem.,
1962.66, pp. 26362642

Appendixes

8.1 Equivalence of series and parallel models

The impedance of the equivalent circuit given in Fig. 8A
is given by the following:
1
R
Z = y +
JWC, 1 + j w C 2 R

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Prof. P.H. Beards of the

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Napier Polytechnic of Edinburgh, and Prof. J. Mavor of
the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of
Edinburgh, for the use of their facilities.
Provision of funding by the UK Science and Engineering Research Council is also gratefully acknowledged.
7

References

1 SPENCER, R.W.: Measurement of the moisture content of concrete, J. Am. Concrete Inst. Proc., 1937,34, pp. 4 5 4 1
2 HAMMOND, E., and ROBSON, T.D.: Comparison of the electncal .
orowrties
of various cements and concretes, Enaineer, 1955,
.

where
C , = capacitance due to the gas layer
R = resistance due to the bulk conductivity
C , = capacitance due to the bulk dielectric
constant
T, = C , R
5, = C , R

This must be equated with the admittance of the parallel

model of Fig. 88:

199,pp. 78-80

3 HAMMOND, E., and ROBSON, T.D.: Companson of the electrical properties of various cements and wncretes, Engineer, 1955,
199,pp. 114-115
4 MONFORE, G.E.: The electrical resistivity of concrete, J. P C A
Res. & Deo. Labs., 1968, 10, Pt. 2, pp. 3-8
5 TAYLOR, M.A., and ARULANANDAN, K.: Relationships

between electrical and physical properties of cement pastes, Cement

& Concrete Res., 1974, 4, (6), pp. 881-897
6 McCARTER, W.J., and CURRAN, P.N.: The electrical response
characteristics of setting cement paste, Mag. Concrete Res., 1984,
36, (126), pp. 4 2 4 9
7 BUENFIELD, N.R., and NEWMAN, J.B.: The permeability of
concrete in a marine environment, Mag. Concrete Res., 1984, 36,
(127), pp. 67-80
8 WILSON, J.G., WHITTINGTON, H.W., and FORDE, M.C.:
Microprocessor based system for automatic measurement of wnCrete resistivity, J. Phys. E, 1983.16, pp. 700-705
9 WHITTINGTON, H.W., and WILSON, J.G.: Low-frequency electrical characteristics of fresh concrete, IEE Proc. A , 1986, 133, (3,
pp. 26S271
10 WILSON, J.G., WHITTINGTON, H.W., and FORDE, M.C.:
Dielectric properties of concrete at different frequencies. IEE Conf
Publ. 1984, (239), pp. 157-160
252

Y =-+jwC,
RP
where
R,
C,

= equivalent
= equivalent

parallel resistance
parallel capacitance

Equating real and imaginary parts of the admittance

gives
R, = R

[I

+ T2)21

022:
[TI

W2(T1

[l

+ W 2 T 1 T 2 ( T 1 + T2)l

+ w 2 ( r l + rJ2]

For a volume of width 1 and cross-sectional area A,

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. A , No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990

where
uB = bulk conductivity.

Substitution gives

If E(t) has constant value E, then, in the steady-state condition

rv

qE

The mobility p of an ion is the mean velocity of the ion in

an electric field of 1 V/m. Thus,
rP

=4

and
However,
1
uA

=-

The solution for an alternating electric field, with angular

frequency w, is given by

jwmu

where

u = qE

where

= apparent conductivity
c0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.85 x
F/m
E, = apparent dielectric constant
U

Thus,

U = complex

= complex

form of v
form of E

Thus,
PE

U=-

For a sample of width I, with complex voltage V applied

across this width,
E=-

And so,
a1 = rTB

V
1

thus,
uv

For an ion density q and cross-sectional area A, the

current across the cross-section will be

where
uI = conductivity when f --* to
E~ = dielectric constant whenf= 0 Hz
E, = dielectric constant whenf+ m
Substitution gives

i = qAu

where
i = complex form of current

Thus,

Admittance is given as
i

8.2 Viscous conduction model

Consider the following after Schwarz [19] : The movement of a particle with charge q in electric field E(t) is
defined by the following differential equation :
m

do

dt

y=V

+ rv = qE(t)

where
U = velocity
m = mass
r = a viscous friction constant

253

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990

.-

Thus

Comparing this with the analysis of Appendix 8.1 gives

Rearrangmg gives the following:

&

P V- 4

Eo

-1

+ WT:

where
U,

= conductivity

E,

= dielectric constant associated with the viscous

associated with the viscous process

process
Note the negative value in this case.
Consider a volume of material of width I and crosssectional area A, with fraction a of the cross-section
associated with viscous conduction and the remaining
fraction 1 - a with conductivity U, and dielectric constant E,. The admittance of this arrangement is given by

where
us = (1 - a)u,

uf= (1

+ apq

a)u,

= (1

-a)&,

= (1

-a)&,

apv4
EO

and
us = conductivity whenf = 0 Hz
oI = conductivity whenf- cc
= dielectric constant whenf= 0 Hz
el = dielectric constant when+ co

This gives effective values of conductivity and dielectric

constant, for this complex structure, of

254

remembering that cS may be negative.

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990