Page 0 of 48

PRE STRESSED CONCRETE

Pre-stressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be
used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced
concrete. Pre-stressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping
load which produces a compressive stress that balances the tensile stress that the concrete compression
member would otherwise experience due to a bending load. Traditional reinforced concrete is based on the
use of steel reinforcement bars, rebar, inside poured concrete. Pre-stressing can be accomplished in three
ways: pre-tensioned concrete, and bonded or unbonded post-tensioned concrete.
Prestressed concrete refers to concrete that has applied stresses induced into the member. Typically,
wires or tendons are stretched and then blocked at the ends creating compressive stresses throughout the
members entire cross section. Most Prestressed concrete is precast in a plant.
Advantages of Prestressed concrete vs. non-Prestressed concrete:
More efficient members (i.e., smaller members to carry same loads)
Much less cracking since member is almost entirely in compression
Precast members have very good quality control
Precast members offer rapid field erection
Disadvantages of Prestressed concrete vs. non-Prestressed concrete:
More expensive in materials, fabrication, delivery
Heavy precast members require large cranes
Somewhat limited design flexibility
Small margin for error
More complicated design

PRE-TENSIONED CONCRETE
Pre-tensioned concrete is cast around steel tendonscables or barswhile they are under tension.
The concrete bonds to the tendons as it cures, and when the tension is released it is transferred to the

concrete as compression by static friction. Tension subsequently imposed on the concrete is transferred
directly to the tendons.
Pre-tensioning requires strong, stable anchoring points between which the tendons are to be
stretched. Thus, most pre-tensioned concrete elements are prefabricated and transported to the construction
site, which may limit their size. Pre-tensioned elements may be incorporated into beams, balconies, lintels,
floor slabs or piles. An innovative bridge design using pre-stressing is the stressed ribbon bridge.
Pre-tensioned concrete is almost always done in a precast plant. A pretensioned
Prestressed concrete member is cast in a preformed casting bed. The BONDED wires (tendons) are
tensioned prior to the concrete hardening. After the concrete hardens to approximately 75% of the
specified compressive strength fc, the tendons are released and axial compressive load is then transmitted to
the cross-section of the member.

Post-Tensioned Prestressed Concrete:

A post-tensioned member has UNCOATED tendons cast into concrete in draped patterns. After the
concrete hardens to about 75% fc, the tendons are tensioned and try to straighten out. This creates an
upward camber of the member which offsets anticipated downward deflection due to gravity loads. Posttensioning can be accomplished on-site as necessary.

Post-tensioning is a method of reinforcing (strengthening) concrete or other materials with highstrength steel strands or bars, typically referred to as tendons. Post-tensioning applications include office and
apartment buildings, parking structures, slabs-on-ground, bridges, sports stadiums, rock and soil anchors,
and water-tanks. In many cases, posttensioning allows construction that would otherwise be impossible due
to either site constraints or architectural requirements.
Although post-tensioning systems require specialized knowledge and expertise to fabricate, assemble
and install, the concept is easy to explain. Imagine a series of wooden blocks with holes drilled through
them, into which a rubber band is threaded. If one holds the ends of the rubber band,
the blocks will sag. Post-tensioning can be demonstrated by placing wing nuts on either end of the rubber
band and winding the rubber band so that the blocks are pushed tightly together. If one holds the wing nuts
after winding, the blocks will remain straight. The tightened rubber band is comparable to a post-tensioning
tendon that has been stretched by hydraulic jacks and is held in place by
wedge-type anchoring devices.

ADVANTAGES/APPLICATIONS
There are post-tensioning applications in almost all facets of construction. In building construction,
post-tensioning allows longer clear spans, thinner slabs, fewer beams and more slender, dramatic elements.
Thinner slabs mean less concrete is required. In addition, it means a lower overall building height for the
same floor-to-floor height. Posttensioning can thus allow a significant reduction in building weight versus a
conventional concrete building with the same number of floors. This reduces the foundation load and can be
a major advantage in seismic areas. A lower building height can also translate to considerable savings in
mechanical systems and faade costs. Another advantage of post-tensioning is that beams and slabs can be
continuous, i.e. a single beam can run continuously from one end of the building to the other. Structurally,
this is much more efficient than having a beam that just goes from one column to the next.

Post-tensioning is the system of choice for parking structures since it allows a high degree of
flexibility in the column layout, span lengths and ramp configurations. Post-tensioned parking garages can
be either stand-alone structures or one or more floors in an office or residential building. In areas where
there are expansive clays or soils with low bearing capacity, post-tensioned slabs-on-ground and mat
foundations reduce problems with cracking and differential settlement.
Post-tensioning allows bridges to be built to very demanding geometry requirements, including
complex curves, variable super elevation and significant grade changes. Post-tensioning also allows
extremely long span bridges to be constructed without the use of temporary intermediate supports. This
minimizes the impact on the environment and avoids disruption to water or road traffic below. In stadiums,
post-tensioning allows long clear spans and very creative architecture. Post-tensioned rock and soil anchors
are used in tunneling and slope stabilization and as tie-backs for excavations. Post-tensioning can also be
used to produce virtually crack-free concrete for water-tanks.

CRITICAL ELEMENTS
There are several critical elements in a post-tensioning system. In unbonded construction, the plastic
sheathing acts as a bond breaker between the concrete and the prestressing strands. It also provides
protection against damage by mechanical handling and serves as a barrier that prevents
moisture and chemicals from reaching the strand. The strand coating material reduces friction between the
strand and the sheathing and provides additional corrosion protection.
Anchorages are another critical element, particularly in unbonded systems. After the concrete has
cured and obtained the necessary strength, the wedges are inserted inside the anchor casting and the strand is
stressed. When the jack releases the strand, the strand retracts slightly and pulls the wedges into the anchor.
This creates a tight lock on the strand. The wedges thus maintain the applied force in the tendon and transfer
it to the surrounding concrete. In corrosive environments, the anchorages and exposed strand tails are
usually covered with a housing and cap for added protection.

CONSTRUCTION
In building and slab-on-ground construction, unbonded tendons are typically prefabricated at a plant
and delivered to the construction site, ready to install. The tendons are laid out in the forms in accordance
with installation drawings that indicate how they are to be spaced, what their profile (height
above the form) should be, and where they are to be stressed. After the concrete is placed and has reached its
required strength, usually between 3000 and 3500 psi (pounds per square inch), the tendons are stressed

and anchored. The tendons, like rubber bands, want to return to their original length but are prevented from
doing so by the anchorages.
The fact the tendons are kept in a permanently stressed (elongated) state causes a compressive force
to act on the concrete. The compression that results from the posttensioning counteracts the tensile forces
created by subsequent applied loading (cars, people, and the weight of the beam itself when the shoring is
removed). This significantly increases the load-carrying capacity of the concrete. Since post-tensioned
concrete is cast in place at the job site, there is almost no limit to the shapes that can be formed. Curved
facades, arches and complicated slab edge layouts are often a trademark of post-tensioned concrete
structures. Post-tensioning has been used to advantage in a number of very aesthetically designed bridges.

BONDED POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE

Bonded post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term for a method of applying compression after
pouring concrete and the curing process (in situ). The concrete is cast around a plastic, steel or aluminium
curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the concrete element.
A set of tendons are fished through the duct and the concrete is poured. Once the concrete has
hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react (push) against the concrete member itself.
When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to the design specifications (see Hooke's
law), they are wedged in position and maintain tension after the jacks are removed, transferring pressure to
the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the tendons from corrosion. This method is commonly used
to create monolithic slabs for house construction in locations where expansive soils (such as adobe clay)
create problems for the typical perimeter foundation.
All stresses from seasonal expansion and contraction of the underlying soil are taken into the entire
tensioned slab, which supports the building without significant flexure.
Post-tensioning is also used in the construction of various bridges, both after concrete is cured after
support by falsework and by the assembly of prefabricated sections, as in the segmental bridge.
Among the advantages of this system over unbonded post-tensioning are:

Large reduction in traditional reinforcement requirements as tendons cannot destress in accidents.

Tendons can be easily "woven" allowing a more efficient design approach.
Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated between the strand and concrete.
No long term issues with maintaining the integrity of the anchor/dead end.

History of problems with bonded post-tensioned bridges

The popularity of this form of prestressing for bridge construction in Europe increased significantly
around the 1950s and 60s. However, a history of problems have been encountered that has cast doubt

over the long-term durability of such structures.

Due to poor workmanship of quality control during construction, sometimes the ducts containing the
prestressing tendons are not fully filled, leaving voids in the grout where the steel is not protected
from corrosion. The situation is exacerbated if water and chloride (from de-icing salts) from the
highway are able to penetrate into these voids.

UNBONDED POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded post-tensioning by providing each individual
cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this, each individual tendon is
coated with a grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion
process. The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved by the steel cable acting against steel anchors
embedded in the perimeter of the slab. The main disadvantage over bonded post-tensioning is the fact that a
cable can destress itself and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as during repair on the slab). The
advantages of this system over bonded post-tensioning are:

The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field conditions (For example: shifting a

group of 4 cables around an opening by placing 2 to either side).

The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated.
The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work.

Picture number one (below) shows rolls of post-tensioning (PT) cables with the holding end anchors
displayed. The holding end anchors are fastened to rebar placed above and below the cable and buried in the
concrete locking that end.
Pictures numbered two, three and four shows a series of black pulling end anchors from the rear along the
floor edge form. Rebar is placed above and below the cable both in front and behind the face of the pulling
end anchor. The above and below placement of the rebar can be seen in picture number three and the
placement of the rebar in front and behind can be seen in picture number four. The blue cable seen in picture
number four is electrical conduit.
Picture number five shows the plastic sheathing stripped from the ends of the post-tensioning cables before
placement through the pulling end anchors.
Picture number six shows the post-tensioning cables in place for concrete pouring. The plastic sheathing has
been removed from the end of the cable and the cable has been pushed through the black pulling end anchor
attached to the inside of the concrete floor side form. The greased cable can be seen protruding from the
concrete floor side form.
Pictures seven and eight show the post-tensioning cables protruding from the poured concrete floor. After the
concrete floor has been poured and has set for about a week, the cable ends will be pulled with a hydraulic
jack.

APPLICATIONS
Prestressed concrete is the main material for floors in high-rise buildings and the entire containment
vessels of nuclear reactors.
Unbonded post-tensioning tendons are commonly used in parking garages as barrier cable. Also, due
to its ability to be stressed and then de-stressed, it can be used to temporarily repair a damaged building
by holding up a damaged wall or floor until permanent repairs can be made.
The advantages of prestressed concrete include crack control and lower construction costs; thinner
slabs - especially important in high rise buildings in which floor thickness savings can translate into
additional floors for the same (or lower) cost and fewer joints, since the distance that can be spanned by
post-tensioned slabs exceeds that of reinforced constructions with the same thickness. Increasing span
lengths increases the usable unencumbered floor space in buildings; diminishing the number of joints

leads to lower maintenance costs over the design life of a building, since joints are the major focus of
weakness in concrete buildings.
The first prestressed concrete bridge in North America was the Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was completed and opened to traffic in 1951. Prestressing can also be
accomplished on circular concrete pipes used for water transmission. High tensile strength steel wire is
helically-wrapped around the outside of the pipe under controlled tension and spacing which induces a
circumferential compressive stress in the core concrete. This enables the pipe to handle high internal
pressures and the effects of external earth and traffic loads.

RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT

Portland cement (often referred to as OPC, from Ordinary Portland Cement) is the most common
type of cement in general use around the world, used as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and
most non-specialty grout. It usually originates from limestone. It is a fine powder produced by grinding
Portland cement clinker (more than 90%), a limited amount of calcium sulfate (which controls the set time)
and up to 5% minor constituents as allowed by various standards such as the European Standard EN 197-1:
Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at least two-thirds by mass of
calcium silicates (3 CaOSiO2 and 2 CaOSiO2), the remainder consisting of aluminium- and ironcontaining clinker phases and other compounds. The ratio of CaO to SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0. The
magnesium oxide content (MgO) shall not exceed 5.0% by mass.
Portland cement clinker is made by heating, in a kiln, a homogeneous mixture of raw materials to a
calcining temperature, which is about 1450C for modern cements. The aluminium oxide and iron oxide are

present as a flux and contribute little to the strength. For special cements, such as Low Heat (LH) and
Sulfate Resistant (SR) types, it is necessary to limit the amount of tricalcium aluminate (3 CaOAl2O3)
formed. The major raw material for the clinker-making is usually limestone (CaCO3) mixed with a second
material containing clay as source of alumino-silicate. Normally, an impure limestone which contains clay or
SiO2 is used. The CaCO3 content of these limestones can be as low as 80%. Secondary raw materials
(materials in the rawmix other than limestone) depend on the purity of the limestone. Some of the materials
used are clay, shale, sand, iron ore, bauxite, fly ash, and slag. When a cement kiln is fired by coal, the ash of
the coal acts as a secondary raw material.
The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite
material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete
can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element.
Users may be involved in the factory production of pre-cast units, such as panels, beams, road furniture, or
may make cast-in situ concrete such as building superstructures, roads, and dams. These may be supplied
with concrete mixed on site, or may be provided with "ready-mixed" concrete made at permanent mixing
sites. Portland cement is also used in mortars (with sand and water only) for plasters and screeds, and in
grouts (cement/water mixes squeezed into gaps to consolidate foundations, road-beds, etc.).
When water is mixed with Portland cement, the product sets in a few hours and hardens over a
period of weeks. These processes can vary widely depending upon the mix used and the conditions of curing
of the product, but a typical concrete sets in about 6 hours and develops a compressive strength of 8 MPa in
24 hours. The strength rises to 15 MPa at 3 days, 23 MPa at 1 week, 35 MPa at 4 weeks and 41 MPa at 3
months. In principle, the strength continues to rise slowly as long as water is available for continued
hydration, but concrete is usually allowed to dry out after a few weeks and this causes strength growth to
stop.
CEMENT PLANTS USED FOR WASTE DISPOSAL OR PROCESSING
Due to the high temperatures inside cement kilns, combined with the oxidizing (oxygen-rich)
atmosphere and long residence times, cement kilns are used as a processing option for various types of waste
streams: indeed, they efficiently destroy many hazardous organic compounds. The waste streams also often
contain combustible materials which allow the substitution of part of the fossil fuel normally used in the
process.
Waste materials used in cement kilns as a fuel supplement:

Car and truck tires steel belts are easily tolerated in the kilns
Paint sludge from automobile industries
Waste solvents and lubricants

Meat and bone meal slaughterhouse waste due to bovine spongiform encephalopathy

contamination concerns
Waste plastics
Sewage sludge
Rice hulls
Sugarcane waste
Used wooden railroad ties (railway sleepers)
Spent Cell Liner (SCL) from the aluminium smelting industry (also called Spent Pot Liner or
SPL)

Portland cement manufacture also has the potential to benefit from using industrial by-products from the
waste-stream.[20] These include in particular:

Slag
Fly ash (from power plants)
Silica fume (from steel mills)
Synthetic gypsum (from desulfurization

The old adage time is money certainly applies to the construction industry. Delays waiting for
materials to arrive or properly cure have been the headache of contractors for decades. Time is of the
essence on many concrete projects, but contractors can't sacrifice quality, durability, or cost savings simply
to reduce construction time. That is why many concrete contractors are turning to rapid-hardening hydraulic
cement to meet tight schedules. Rapid-hardening hydraulic cement is not only a more durable alternative to
Portland cement on many projects, but its rapid-setting properties make it an ideal solution for today's
schedule-and budget-driven projects.
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC) is a type of cement that is used for special purposes when
a faster rate of early high strength is required. RHPC has a higher rate of strength development than the
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).
The Rapid Hardening Portland Cement's better strength performance is achieved by increasing the
refinement of the product. This is the reason that its use is increasing in India.
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement is manufactured by fusing together limestone (which has been
finely grounded) and shale, at extremely high temperatures to produce cement clinker. To this cement
clinker, gypsum is added in small quantities and then finely grounded to produce Rapid Hardening Portland
Cement. It is usually manufactured using the dry process technology.
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement is used in concrete masonry manufacture, repair work which is
urgent, concreting in cold weather, and in pre-cast production of concrete. Rapid Hardening Portland

Cement has proved to be a boon in the places where quick repairs are required such as airfield and highway
pavements, marine structures, and bridge decks.
The Rapid Hardening Portland Cement should be stored in a dry place, or else its quality deteriorates
due to premature carbonation and hydration. As the Indian cement industry produces Rapid Hardening
Portland Cement in large quantities, it is able to meet the domestic demand and also export to other
countries. The cement industry in India exports cement mainly to the West Asian countries.
The raw materials required for the manufacture of Rapid Hardening Portland Cement are:

Limestone
Shale
Gypsum
Coke

The major companies producing Rapid Hardening Portland Cement in India are:

ACC
Gujarat Ambuja
J K Cement
Grasim Industries
Indian Cement Ltd.

- See more at: http://business.mapsofindia.com/cement/types/rapid-hardeningportland.html#sthash.PLgrWFOV.dpuf

BENEFITS OVER PORTLAND CEMENT

The need for a more durable cement drove the research and development that produced CTS Cement
Mfg. Corp. Rapid Set cement. Although Portland cement has been successfully used for many years, it is not
without limitations. Portland cement concrete is prone to drying shrinkage cracking. It is susceptible to
attack by sulphates and has an undesirable reaction with certain aggregates (ASR). Generally, when one
accelerates the gain in strength of Portland cement concrete through finer grinding or chemical additives,
there is a significant increase in drying shrinkage.
Rapid-hardening hydraulic cement offers reduced shrinkage and superior resistance to chemical attack. It
achieves strength much faster than Portland cement and many installations can be put into service in as little
time as one hour. Compared to Portland cement, rapid-hardening hydraulic cement reaches typical
compressive strengths in a few hours that an equivalent Portland cement mix would require one month to
achieve.

Rapid-hardening hydraulic cement has been used for both concrete repair and new construction,
wherever superior durability and rapid strength gain are required. It is blended and packaged into a wide
range of high-performance products including nonshrink grout, structural repair mortar, concrete, exterior
plaster, and other cementitious products.

PROPERTIES
Rapid-hardening hydraulic cement is manufactured with similar raw materials, equipment, and
processes used to make Portland cement, but that is where the similarities end. The chemistry of rapidhardening hydraulic cement, which differs from Portland cement, is composed primarily of hydraulic tetra
calcium trialuminate sulphate (CSA) and dicalcium silicate (C2S). C2S is the most durable compound found
in Portland cement. The CSA compound, often referred to as calcium sulfoaluminate, hydrates to form
ettringite-a strong needle-like crystal that develops quickly to give rapid-hardening hydraulic cement its high
performance. Another significant aspect of this product's chemistry is the absence of tricalcium aluminate
(C3A), which makes a cement susceptible to sulfate attack. Because rapid-hardening hydraulic cement has
little or no C3A, it is very durable in sulfate environments.

ADVANTAGES
As a viable alternative to Portland cement, rapid-hardening hydraulic cement offers several
advantages including durability, versatility, speed, and ease-of-use, as well as cost benefits and
environmental considerations.
DURABILITY.

The amount of mixing water in concrete is a major factor in its durability. With Portland

cement concrete, the mixing water needed to make it fluid enough for placement is in excess of the water
needed to hydrate the cement. This excess water, often called water of convenience, evaporates over time
leaving voids or pores in the concrete and causes drying shrinkage. In a typical Portland cement concrete
mix, the excess water of convenience amounts to about 50% of the water in the mix.
In rapid-hardening hydraulic cement, the water required to hydrate the CSA compound is several
times greater than that required to hydrate typical Portland cement compounds. In a typical rapid-hardening
hydraulic concrete mix, nearly all of the water used in the mix is used up in the hydration process resulting
in a dense concrete with very low drying shrinkage.

Voids or pores in concrete, along with drying shrinkage cracks, provide routes of entry for substances
that attack the concrete and reinforcing steel. With fewer pores and less drying shrinkage, rapid-hardening
hydraulic concrete is more durable than Portland cement concrete.

VERSATILITY.

Rapid-hardening hydraulic cement can be formulated for a wide range of

applications. Various properties, such as setting time, fluidity, air content, and color are adjusted easily by
using commercially available additives. Rapid-hardening hydraulic cement is highly resistant to freezing and
thawing, and can, due to its rapid hydration, be used in cold weather conditions that are not possible with
Portland cement.

SPEED.

Today's schedule-driven projects require quick construction solutions. One such example is

the Hyperion Sewage Treatment Plant in Los Angeles. Serving more than four million residents, the city's
oldest and largest wastewater treatment facility has an average capacity of 450 million gallons per day. The
general contractor for the project, Kiewit, Santa Fe Springs, Calif., opted to use the product to reduce the
construction time and ensure high durability. Ten pallets of the Mortar Mix were used for full-depth repairs
on sewage containment tanks. The original specifications allowed for 28 days for the repair process and the
use of rapid-hardening hydraulic cement enabled the project to be complete in a mere three days.

EASE-OF-USE. As much of the infrastructure in the U.S. is wearing out, repair work becomes a
necessity both for safety and aesthetic reasons. The higher durability of rapid-hardening hydraulic cement
offers a real solution for repair work, not just a temporary, short-lived Band-Aid.
Restoration projects are extremely complex as design and construction teams have the added challenge of
matching an older look. First opened in 1910, the historic Hotel Shattuck in downtown Berkeley, Calif., is
one of the premier structures in the area. Although they had never used the product, BPR Properties, Palo
Alto, Calif., chose to use Cement All for grouting the concrete repairs. Eighteen different types of repairs
had to be used on the project and the contractor was able to use Cement All for all of the repairs, which
allowed the project to be completed faster.

COST BENEFITS.

Although Portland cement is less expensive on a first-cost basis than rapid-

hardening hydraulic cement, its durability, rapid cure time, reduced shrinkage, and resistance to chemical
attack outweigh the cost differentials, especially when the cost of time is added to the equation. For a
contractor or owner, the value of time for a repair delay that results in the late opening of a parking garage,
an airport runway, or a retail center often are much greater than the premium paid for rapid-hardening
hydraulic cement. On many jobs, bonuses offered for getting a job done on time or a project completed
earlier is money well spent.

Superior Wall Systems, Fullerton, Calif., selected WunderFixx-a durable, fast-setting, one-component
concrete patching material formulated with a premium-grade hydraulic cement, high-performance polymers,
and a finely ground aggregate-for a project at Sony Picture Studios. For this project, it was critical that an
ultra-smooth finish was achieved on the plaster system. The contractor for the project learned about the
product at a trade show and thought it would be the best application for this job as opposed to an acrylic
system. WunderFixx required fewer coats because it had a much larger spread than the acrylic system, so the
contractor was able to provide a tremendous cost savings by using less material. A scratch coat, brown coat,
two coats of base material, and then the rapid-set product served as the final coat on the plaster. The owner
liked the smooth and fine spreadability of the product, the elimination of chatter marks, as well as the fact
the product is engineered for sandability.
Yet another example of the cost savings rapid-set hydraulic cement can provide is found on the Highway 23
project in California. Security Paving, Sun Valley, Calif., the contractor for the project, used 20 pallets of the
DOT Repair Mix for road and bridge repair work. Some of the work performed was vertical in nature but the
majority was flatwork that was 1 to 8 inches in depth. They were able to use one-third less material, which
saved a great deal of money.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY.

Rapid-hardening hydraulic cement has a much

smaller carbon footprint than Portland cement. During the production process, rapid-hardening hydraulic
cement reduces CO2 emissions by 32% to 36% over conventional Portland cement manufacturing
procedures. This is because rapid-hardening hydraulic cement is produced at lower temperatures, so less
fossil fuel is required. It also requires less limestone per ton, further reducing CO2 emissions.
Rapid-hardening hydraulic concrete is much more durable than Portland cement, and has a greater
resistance to sulfate and other types of chemical attack. Due to chemical formulation, lower porosity and
subsequent internal self-desiccation, rapid-hardening hydraulic cement is extremely impervious to
carbonation, freeze/thaw susceptibility, and acid rain leaching. Rapid-hardening hydraulic cement has a
proven record of field performance that exceeds the normal useful lifespan of Portland cement concrete.

A PROVEN TECHNOLOGY
Contractors across the country have realized the benefits of using rapid-hardening hydraulic cement
products on a diverse range of projects for nearly three decades. Compute the cost of durability and time,
and it is apparent that rapid-hardening hydraulic cement is a viable, cost-effective alternative to Portland
cement. No special equipment is needed to mix rapid-hardening hydraulic cement, and it can be put into
service in as little as one hour, which allows contractors to complete work faster. Rapid-hardening hydraulic

cement can obtain the same strength in just six hours, as the 28-day strength of an equivalent Portland
cement mix.

READY MIX CONCRETE

Ready-mix concrete is concrete that is manufactured in a factory or batching plant, according to a set
recipe, and then delivered to a work site, by truck mounted intransit mixers. This results in a precise
mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixtures to be developed and implemented on construction sites. The
first ready-mix factory was built in the 1930s, but the industry did not begin to expand significantly until the
1980s, and it has continued to grow since then.
Ready mix concrete is sometimes preferred over on-site concrete mixing because of the precision of
the mixture and reduced work site confusion. However, using a pre-determined concrete mixture reduces
flexibility, both in the supply chain and in the actual components of the concrete.
Ready Mixed Concrete is also referred as the customized concrete products for commercial purpose. The
Ready-mix Concrete Company offer different concrete according to user's mix design or industrial standard.
The ready mixed concrete company is required to equip themselves with up-to-date equipment, such
as transit mixer, concrete pump, and Concrete Batching Plant, which needs visualized production
management software and also PLC controller.
Ready Mixed Concrete, or RMC as it is popularly called, refers to concrete that is specifically
manufactured for delivery to the customer's construction site in a freshly mixed and plastic or unhardened
state. Concrete itself is a mixture of Portland cement, water and aggregates comprising sand and gravel or
crushed stone. In traditional work sites, each of these materials is procured separately and mixed in specified
proportions at site to make concrete. Ready Mixed Concrete is bought and sold by volume - usually
expressed in cubic meters.
Ready Mixed Concrete is manufactured under controlled operations and transported and placed at
site using sophisticated equipment and methods. RMC does not assures its customers numerous benefits.
As the name indicates, Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) is the concrete which is delivered in the
ready-to-use manner. RMC is defined by the American Concrete Institutes Committee 116R-90 as:
Concrete that is manufactured for delivery to a purchaser in a plastic and unhardened state.
The Indian Standard Specification IS 4926:2003 defines RMC as:

Concrete mixed in a stationary mixer in a central batching and mixing plant or in a truck-mixer and
supplied in fresh condition to the purchaser either at the site or into the purchasers vehicles.
In India, concrete has traditionally been produced on site with the primitive equipments and use of
large labor force. Ready mixed concrete is an advanced technology, involving a high degree of
mechanization and automation. A typical RMC plant consists of silos and bins for the storage of cement and
aggregates respectively, weigh batchers for proportioning different ingredients of concrete, high efficiency
mixer for thorough mixing of ingredients, and a computerized system controlling the entire production
process. The quality of the resulting concrete is much superior to site-mixed concrete.

SITE MIXED VERSUS READY MIXED CONCRETE

Technologically speaking, ready mixed concrete is certainly an advancement over the age-old site
mixed concrete. The benefits of RMC in terms of quality, speed, life-cycle cost and environmental
friendliness are overwhelmingly superior to those of site mixed concrete. Following brief comparison
illustrates this vividly:
QUALITY OF CONCRETE:
RMC-India uses sophisticated plant and equipment, which enables it to produce quality concrete.
The Company exercises strict control on the quality of all ingredients through rigorous testing, applies
stringent controls on process parameters, meticulously monitors key properties of concrete in the fresh and
hardened state and applies the well-known Cusum technique to quickly detect any changes in the properties
of concrete. All these efforts result in providing uniform and assured quality of concrete to customers. In
contrast, in a typical site-mixed concrete there is poor control on the quality of input materials, batching of
ingredients and mixing of concrete, thus the resultant quality of concrete is poor, non-uniform and
inconsistent.

SPEED OF CONSTRUCTION:
Mechanized operations at RMC-Indias plants ensure that construction activities are speeded up.
While the production output from a typical site-mixed concrete operation using 8/12 mixer is around 4-5
m3/hour, the output form a 60-m3/hour RMC plant is around 45 m3/hour. Thus there is nearly 10-fold
increase in the output from RMC plant, which translates into direct savings to the customer!
ELIMINATION OF MATERIAL PROCUREMENT REQUIREMENTS AND STORAGE HASSLES:
With the use of RMC, customers are not required to procure and store cement, aggregates, sand,
water and admixtures at site. This not only drastically reduces the space requirements at construction sites
but also minimizes efforts on the part of customers to procure different materials, ensure their proper storage
and check their quality parameters from time to time.
SAVING IN LABOUR REQUIREMENT:
Site-mixed concrete is a labor-intensive operation and managing large labor force is a big hassle for
the customer. With the use of RMC the labor requirements are minimized considerably, thus benefiting
customers. Further, as RMC-India looks after the entire QA & QC needs, the customers manpower
requirement for QA & QC operations is minimized. This is a saving for the customers.
REDUCTION IN WASTAGE:
In site-mixed concrete job, wastage occurs in handling of all materials, including cement. The latter
is generally of the order of about 2-3 kg per 50 kg bag of cement. All such wastages are considerably
minimized at RMC facility.
IMPROVED LIFE CYCLE COST:
Increased speed of construction coupled with reduction in labor cost and wastage results in
considerable savings to customers. Further, the improved quality of concrete translates into enhanced longterm durability of concrete, thus minimizing the maintenance and repair costs. Overall, when one considers
the life cycle costs, the use of RMC become cost-effective in the long run. The benefits directly accrue to the
customers.
RMC IS ECO-FRIENDLY:
All plants of RMC-India pass the pollution control norms and are duly certified by the state pollution
control authorities. As mentioned earlier, wastages are reduced drastically with the use of RMC. Further,
RMC-India optimizes the mix proportions using the maximum possible potential from each material
ingredient. All these improve the environmental performance of concrete produced by the Company. Finally,

with the approval of customers/consultants, RMC-India uses a variety of supplementary cementitious

materials like fly ash, blast-furnace slag, silica fume, etc. in concrete, thus conserving cement and helping in
reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases like CO2. Thus, concrete produced by RMC-India can certainly
be considered to be eco-friendly.
OVERALL, THE USE OF RMC IS BENEFICIAL TO USERS FROM ALL ANGLES:
Better quality, higher speed, better durability, savings in labor, reduction in wastages, reduction in
life cycle cost, etc.

Q. What are the advantages of using ready-mixed concrete over site-mixed concrete?
How much is the difference between the cost of ready-mixed and site-mixed concrete?
A

A detailed answer to the first part of the question is enumerated in the write-up on What is ready-mixed
concrete? under the heading Customer Support. Briefly, the two main advantages of ready-mixed
concrete are: vast improvement in the quality and uniformity of concrete and enhanced speed of
construction. Besides, there are many other advantages which include savings in labor, reduction in
wastage, elimination of material procurement requirements and storage hassles, etc. All these advantages
clearly establish the technical superiority of ready-mixed concrete over site-mixed concrete. As regards
cost, ready-mixed is slightly costlier than site-mixed concrete. This increased cost is mainly on account
of government taxation. It is indeed unfortunate that a quality product like ready-mixed concrete is taxed
in our country, whereas there is no tax on site-mixed concrete! If tax component is removed, the cost of
ready-mixed would be quite close to that of the site-mixed concrete. However, if due consideration is
given to the higher speed of construction (which is possible due to use of ready-mixed concrete) the
savings on account of early completion of the project would far outweigh the increased cost of readymixed concrete. Further, the improved quality of RMC would go a long way in enhancing the long-term
durability, thus reducing the maintenance and repair expenses and hence the life-cycle cost of your
structures. In addition, the savings in labor and wastage would also be available to you. Thus, if you look
at the overall advantages and savings, the increased cost of ready-mixed concrete would appear to be a
paltry sum.

STANDARD READY-MIX CONCRETE VS. SITE-MIX CONCRETE

A centralized concrete batching plant can serve a wide area. Site-mix trucks can serve a larger area

including remote locations that standard trucks cannot.

The plants are located in areas zoned for industrial use, and yet the delivery trucks can service

residential districts or inner cities. Site-mix trucks have the same capabilities.
Better quality concrete is produced. Site mix can produce higher compression strength with less
water than standard batching methods.

DISADVANTAGES OF READY-MIX CONCRETE

The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing begins at that plant, so the traveling time
from the plant to the site is critical over longer distances. Some sites are just too far away, though

this is usually a commercial rather than a technical issue.

Generation of additional road traffic. Furthermore, access roads and site access have to be able to
carry the greater weight of the ready-mix truck plus load. (Green concrete is approx. 2.5 ton per m.)
This problem can be overcome by utilizing so-called 'minimix' companies which use smaller 4m

capacity mixers able to reach more-restricted sites.

Concrete's limited timespan between mixing and going-off means that ready-mix should be placed
within 90 minutes of batching at the plant. Modern admixtures can modify that timespan precisely,
however, so the amount and type of admixture added to the mix is very important.

Ready Mix Concrete is manufactured under computer-controlled operations and transported and placed at site using
sophisticated equipment and methods. RMX assures its customers numerous benefits:

Uniform, consistent and assured quality of concrete

Flexibility in concrete design mixes
Easier addition of admixtures
Faster and speedier construction
Reduced inventories, material handling and storage of raw materials at sites
Savings in labor requirements, labor costs and supervision of labor
Reduced wastage of materials

The use of RMX is an environmental friendly practice that ensures a cleaner work place and causes minimal disturbance
to its surroundings. This makes its utility more significant in crowded cities and sensitive localities.
In contrast to this, conventional methods of making, transporting and placing concrete at most construction sites are
somewhat labor-intensive and suffer from practices which may be erratic and not very systematic.
Therefore the use of Ready Mix Concrete can prove to more cost effective in the longer term while ensuring that
structures are built faster and using concrete that comes with higher levels of quality assurance.

Light weight concrete

What is it ?
Light weight concrete - or foamed concrete - is a versatile material which consists primarily of a cement based mortar mixed
with at least 20% of volume air. The material is now being used in an ever increasing number of applications, ranging from
onestep house casting to low density void fills.
Foamed concrete has a surprisingly long history and was first patented in 1923, mainly for use as an insulation material.
Although there is evidence that the Romans used air entrainers to decrease density, this was not really a true foamed
concrete. Significant improvements over the past 20 years in production equipment and better quality surfactants (foaming
agents) has enabled the use of foamed concrete on a larger scale.
Lightweight and free flowing, it is a material suitable for a wide range of purposes such as, but not limited to, panels and
block production, floor and roof screeds, wall casting, complete house casting, sound barrier walls, floating homes, void
infills, slope protection, outdoor furniture and many more applications.

Not everyone knows that density and compressive strength can be controlled. In the light weight concrete this is done by
introducing air through the proprietary foam process which enables one to control density and strength precisely.
Normal concrete has a density of 2,400 kg/m3 while densities range from 1,800, 1,700, 1,600 down to 300 kg/m3.
Compressive strengths range from up to 40 mpa down to almost zero for the really low densities. Generally it has more than
excellent thermal and sound insulating properties, a good fire rating, is non combustible and features cost savings through
construction speed and ease of handling.
The technology is the result of over 20 years of R&D, fine tuning the product and researching the possible applications. It is
used in over 40 countries world wide today and has not reached the end of its possible uses.

Frequently asked questions

How strong is it ?
Strength is a relative term. Concrete mixes should be designed based on end use. High compressive strength is
useful where deadload or abrasion are factors, but are unnecessary for roofs and non-structural partitions. All
concrete is deficient in tensile and shear strengths, however these are supplemented through structural
reinforcement. Compressive strength can be made up to 40 Mpa, exceeding most structural requirements.

What are the advantages of pre-formed foam ?

The pre-formed foam process offers excellent quality control and assurance of specified density. Preformed foam,
unlike gas-forming chemicals, assures a consistent three-dimensional distribution of the engineered air cell system.
Pre-formed foam produces a consistent matrix of relatively small air cells which are more desirable than a
disorganized matrix of different size bubbles often created with the gas method of reactive admixtures.

What are the disadvantages of lightweight concrete, compared to typical concrete ?

In the lower density ranges lightweight concrete does not develop the compressive strength of plain concrete.
While this may be a disadvantage in plain concrete applications, it is an advantage in a lightweight concrete
application. It should be considered that lightweight concrete and plain concrete are typically used for different
types of applications. Each form of concrete exhibits a unique family of performance characteristics. Each should
be utilized in the appropriate type of project. But a high strength of 33 Mpa has been achieved with a high cement
content mix.

Is segregation a problem ?
Unlike plain concrete there is little to segregate in lightweight concrete which makes segregation a moot point. The
lightweight concrete equivalent to segregation would be a collapse of the air cell system and a volume reduction in
material. To prevent this one should use the most stable liquid foam concentrates and treat the mixed lightweight
concrete with some care in placing. Fresh lightweight concrete is not fragile and can be pumped for long distances.

Is lightweight concrete chemically compatible with common additives ?

Lightweight concrete is compatible with common concrete construction additives; however, most common
admixtures are added to plain concrete to effect a change in the characteristics of the concrete that are not
applicable to lightweight concrete application performance. As an example, lightweight concrete needs no air
entrainment or finishing aids; however, colour admixtures and strength enhancing admixtures work well if they are
applicable to the project.

What additives are common to cellular concrete ?

Fiber reinforcement, Heat-of-hydration reducers (iced water or chemicals), Compressive strength enhancers,
Colouring pigments or colour enhancing admixtures

What is the correct water to cement ratio for the cement water slurry ?
Typically, a .5 water to cement ratio slurry consisting of two parts cement to one part water is typically used as a
base mixture for lightweight concrete. The water cement ratio varies according to specific project requirements.
Note that lightweight concrete obtains it's natural fluidity from the air bubble structure, not from excess water
content.

Does lightweight concrete mix contain either fine or course aggregate ?

Lightweight concrete may also contain normal or lightweight, fine and/or coarse aggregates. The rigid foam air cell
system differs from conventional aggregate concrete in the methods of production and in the more extensive range
of end uses. Lightweight concrete may be either cast-in-place or pre-cast. Lightweight concrete mix designs in
general are designed to create a product with a low density and resultant relatively lower compressive strength
(when compared to plain concrete). When higher compressive strengths are required, the addition of fine and/or
course aggregate will result in a stronger lightweight concrete with resultant higher densities. We should note that
most lightweight concrete applications call for a lightweight material. When considering the addition of course
aggregate, one must consider how appropriate this heavy aggregate will be to a project, which typically calls for
lightweight material. The inclusion of aggregate, particularly course aggregate may be counter productive to the
materials intended performance.

What type of cement is appropriate for lightweight concrete ?

Lightweight concrete may be produce with any type of portland cement or portland cement & fly ash mixture. The
performance characteristics of type II, type III and specialty cements carries forward into the performance of the
lightweight concrete.

Is it appropriate to add fly ash to the cement and water slurry for lightweight concrete ?
Fly ash added to the cement does not adversely affect the basic hardened state of lightweight concrete. Infusing
and supporting the lightweight concrete with the air cell system is a mechanical action and is not problematic with
fly ash or other additives. Note that some fly ash mixes may take longer to set than pure portland cement
applications. Mixes with large percentages of fly ash may take an very extended time to set up. High carbon
content fly ash such as typical "bottom ash" should be generally avoided in most cellular or plain concrete mixes.

Is it appropriate to reinforce cellular concrete with synthetic fibers ?

Synthetic fiber reinforcement is a mechanical process and does not have any effect on the chemistry of concrete. It
is therefore perfectly acceptable to design fiber reinforced lightweight concrete. Fiber reinforced cellular concrete is
becoming a standard material for roof decks and Insulated Concrete Form (ICF) construction. Oil palm fibers are

also successfully being added and it produces a very good design mix of 900 kg density per meter cube most
suitable for high rise buildings wall panels.

Is it appropriate to reinforce cellular concrete with steel fibers ?

There is no chemical or mechanical reason not to reinforce lightweight concrete with steel fibers. However, most
lightweight concrete applications require a lightweight material. Most steel fiber concrete applications require
heavy, high compressive strength steel fiber reinforced concrete. It would seem somewhat unlikely that an
application would require steel fiber reinforce lightweight concrete, but there is no technical reason not to design a
steel fiber reinforced lightweight concrete.

Do the bubbles in lightweight concrete collapse, reducing its volume ?

Not with well engineered liquid foam concentrates. The pre-formed foam lightweight concrete products made from
top quality liquid foam concentrates do not collapse. Air cell stability is the mark of a superior foam concentrate and
foam generator combination. Which is not to say that all lightweight concrete products are stable. Particular care
should be taken to test foams from water pressure type foam generators, and gas-off chemical products. The
proposed pre-formed foam for an application should be tested for stability or certified for stability before actual
project placement.

Densities and Strengths

One of the most useful features of a lightweight concrete system is the system's ability to be manufactured in a
wide range of low densities and strengths. Application requirements for lightweight concrete range from very light
density low strength fill dirt replacement to higher strength structural lightweight concrete. To accommodate this
wide range of performance properties lightweight concrete has developed a mix design chart, which will illustrate
the basics of making this wide range of materials from just one lightweight concrete concentrate. With a lightweight
concrete foam generator and a single liquid foam concentrate the contractor now has available to them a wide
variety of cost effective, high performance, lighter lightweight concrete products.

What are the different densities and strengths available ?

Lightweight concrete exhibits a much lighter density than typical aggregate concrete. Typical plain concrete has a
density of 2400 kg/m3, lightweight concrete densities range from 300 kg/m3 to 1800 kg / m3. Lightweight concrete
is an insulator and can be used in a variety of applications which require an insulating material that can also exhibit
some integrity and strength. Lightweight concrete at its lightest density is still more stable and strong than well
compacted soil. When replacing soils, lightweight concrete can be designed to provide whatever strengths and
characteristics needed for the soil stabilization project. Some soil engineers lightheartedly refer to lightweight
concrete used in Geotechnical stabilization projects as "designer dirt." They know that lightweight concrete can be
specified to easily exceed whatever compacted soil requirements are needed.

How much does lightweight concrete cost ?

Cost effective lightweight concrete varies in price by geographical area and by application requirements such as
density and strength requirement. A typical concrete structure project will be much less expensive cubic meter to
cubic meter when compared to plain concrete due to labour savings, less cost of forming works, less steelworks,

eliminate brickworks, cement renderings work and the price savings is very substantial when compare to
conventional methods.

Is lightweight concrete suitable for long-term use as a marine float device ?

At the lower densities, lightweight concrete will float, and in many cases float indefinitely. Because of its limited
impact and abrasion resistance, lightweight concrete used for marine flotation should be encased and used for the
fill of a float. For example, a marine float could be made with sealed drums filled with low-density lightweight
concrete.

Where do I purchase lightweight concrete ?

Lightweight concrete is purchased through a licensing system. For Australia the master licensee is LYNKFS Pty Ltd
and can be contacted through its representatives.

How to produce lightweight concrete ?

The pre-formed foam is added to the cement slurry and mixed in the concrete mixer or in a continuous process.
From that point, lightweight concrete is placed in any way that a fluid mix can be transported. Pumping is the most
common method of placement. Tailgate ready mix truck delivery, bucket cranes, wheelbarrows, hand carried
buckets and any other acceptable method of delivering a fluid mix works well.

Can lightweight concrete be under mixed ?

The cement and water slurry should be mixed until there are no dry clumps or balls of cement. The pre-formed
foam mixture is then added into the mixture. The foam mixes quite rapidly into the slurry and only requires modest
mixing times depending upon the mixing equipment.

Can cellular concrete be over mixed ?

Mixing until there is a reduction of volume of product is not recommended. Air cell stability is the mark of our liquid
foam concentrates and our Foam Generators. With typical mixing procedures, lightweight concrete formulated with
pre-formed foam is very stable even with modestly extended mixing times.

How far can lightweight concrete be pumped ?

Lightweight concrete is a very easily pumped, highly fluid mixture. The bulk of lightweight concrete is placed by
pumping. Lightweight concrete typically will move through the pump lines using less pressure than typical heavier
grout mixes

How do you finish lightweight concrete ?

Most lightweight concrete is left to self-seek a level and not surface "finished" in the traditional sense. Much
lightweight concrete is covered by another material. A floor overlayment type smoother tool can be used simply to
break the surface air cells and create a more uniform and polished look to the surface in the rare case when a
more uniform surface appearance is desired.

How do I test lightweight concrete to determine it is performing to specs ?

Test procedures for lightweight concrete are beyond the scope of this FAQ document; however, lightweight
concrete representatives will be happy to assist you in the actual testing or furnishing descriptions of common
tests. Properties commonly tested are for its compressive strength The majority of regular concrete produced is in
the density range of 2400 kg permeter cube. The last decade has seen great strides in the realm of dense concrete
and fantastic compressive strengths which mix designers have been achieved. Yet regular concrete has some
drawbacks. It is heavy, hard to work with, and after it sets, one cannot be cut or nailed into it without some difficulty
or use of special tools. Some complaints about it include the perception that it is cold and damp. Still, it is a
remarkable building material - fluid, strong, relatively cheap, and environmentally innocuous and available in
almost every part of the world. Lightweight concrete begins in the density range of less than 300 kg/m3 to 1800 kg
per/m3. It has traditionally been made using such aggregates as expanded shale, clay, vermiculite, pumice, and
scoria among others. Each has their peculiarities in handling, especially the volcanic aggregates which need
careful moisture monitoring and are difficult to pump. Decreasing the weight and density produces significant
changes which improves many properties of concrete, both in placement and application. Although this has been
accomplished primarily through the use of lightweight aggregates, since 1960 various preformed foams have been
added to mixes, further reducing weight. The very lightest mixes (from 300 kg /m3 to 800 kg / m3) are often made
using only foam as the sand and aggregate are eliminated, and are referred to as floating lightweight concrete. The
entrapped air takes the form of small, macroscopic, spherically shaped bubbles uniformly dispersed in the concrete
mix. Today foams are available which have a high degree of compatibility with many of the admixtures currently
used in modern concrete mix designs. Foam used with either lightweight aggregates and/or admixtures such as fly
ash, silica fume, synthetic fiber reinforcement, and high range water reducers (aka superplasticizers), has
produced a new hybrid of concrete called lightweight concrete materials. For the most part, implementation of
Lightweight Composite design and construction utilizes existing technology. Its uniqueness, however, is the novel
combination drawing from several fields at once: architecture, mix design chemistry, structural engineering, and
concrete placement.

Multi-storey office buildings

The dominance of steel in the multi-storey commercial sector is based on tangible client-related benefits
including the ability to providecolumn free floor spans, efficient circulation space, integration of building
services, and the influence of the site and local access conditions on the construction process. For inner city
projects, speed of construction and minimum storage of materials on-site require a high level of prefabrication, which steel-framed systems can provide.
There is a strong demand for high quality office space, especially in city centres. Corporate headquarters for
banks and other high profile companies require that buildings are built to high architectural
and environmental standards. Investment value is the main criterion for choice of the building architecture,
form and servicing strategy. Many buildings are curved or of complex architectural form, and have highly
glazed faades and atria.
In many large commercial buildings, a two stage construction process means that the tenant is responsible
for the servicing and fit-out, and so the building structure has to be sufficiently flexible to cope with these

differing requirements. Many smaller buildings are designed for natural ventilation and with a high
proportion of renewable energy technologies built into them. Many solutions are possible using steel
construction.
Attributes of steel construction
Main article: The case for steel, Service integration, Cost of structural steelwork, Cost planning through
design stages, Cost comparison study, Health and safety
The commercial sector demands buildings that are rapid to construct, of high quality, flexible and
adaptable in application, and energy efficient in use. Steel, and in particular, composite construction has
achieved over 70% market share in this sector in the UK where the benefits of long spans: speed of
construction; service integration; improved quality; and reduced environmental impact are widely
recognised.
The overall building economics are fundamental on the rationale for using steel construction in the
commercial building sector, where the market share for steel has been consistently 65 to 70% for the last 20
years.
Value for money
Recent cost comparison studies show that the building superstructure generally accounts for only 10% to
15% of the total building cost and that the influence of the choice of structure on the
foundations, services and cladding costs is often more significant. For example, a reduction of 100 mm in
the ceiling to floor zone can lead to a 2.5% saving in cladding cost (equivalent to 0.5% saving in overall
building cost).
Therefore, best practice building design requires a synthesis of architectural, structural, services, logistics
and constructional issues. Where this synthesis has been achieved, long-span steel systems with provision
for service integration dominate commercial building design.
The results of a recent independent cost comparison study of multi-storey commercial buildings can be
seen here.
Factor

Improvement

20 to 30% reduction in
construction time relative to
site-intensive construction,
Speed of
depending on the scale of the
construction project.
Site
Site management costs are
management reduced because of the
costs
shorter construction period,

Economic benefit
The economic benefit depends on the business
operation. In terms of overall building cost, a
saving of 1% in interest charges and 2% in early
rental or use of the space is predicted.
Site management costs can be reduced by 20 to
30% which can lead to a 3 to 4% saving in terms of

and the packaged nature of

the construction process.

overall building cost.

The integration of services in

the structural zone leads to
reduction of 100 to 300mm in
floor to floor zone and hence
to savings in cladding cost.

A 5% reduction in floor to floor height can lead to

one additional floor in 20, and to a similar
reduction in cladding cost, which is equivalent to
about 1% in total building cost.

Steel construction is less than

half the weight of an
equivalent concrete structure,
which is equivalent to a 30%
reduction in overall
Foundations foundation loads.

Foundation costs depend on the sub-structure and

factors such as underground services and represent
5 to 15% of the building cost. A 30% reduction in
foundation loads can lead to a 2 to 3% overall
saving in terms of construction cost.

Long span steel construction

provides more flexible use of
space, which depends on the
Column free function of the building and
space
its future uses.

A large column in the middle of the space leads to a

loss of space of approximately 1m2, which
represents about 1% of the floor area, and may lead
to an equivalent loss of rental income.

Service
integration

Summary of the economic benefits of steel construction in office buildings

Speed of construction
All steel construction uses pre-fabricated components that are rapidly installed on site. Short construction
periods leads to savings in site preliminaries, earlier return on investment and reduced interest charges. Time
related savings can easily amount to 3 to 5% of the overall project value, reducing the clients requirements
for working capital and improving cash flow. In many inner city projects, it is important to reduce disruption
to nearby buildings and roads. Steel construction dramatically reduces the impact of the construction
operation on the locality.
[top]Flexibility and adaptability
Long spans allow the space to be arranged to suit open plan offices, different layouts of cellular offices and
variations in office layout throughout the height of the building. Where integrated beam construction is used,
the flat soffit gives complete flexibility of layout allowing all internal walls to be relocated, leading to fully
adaptable buildings.

Long spans, open plan commercial office space Vulcan House, Sheffield

[top]Service integration

Complex service routing through and between steel beams

Steel and composite structures can be designed to reduce the overall depth of the floor zone by integrating
major services within the depth of the structure, and/or by achieving the minimum structure depth. This is
important in cases in which the building height is restricted for planning reasons, or in renovation projects.

[top]Quality and safety

Off-site prefabrication improves quality by factory controlled production, and is less dependent on site
trades and the weather. Working in a controlled, manufacturing environment is substantially safer than
working on site. The use of pre-fabricated components reduces site activity for frame construction by up to
75%, thereby substantially contributing to overall construction safety.

[top]Sustainability
Many of the intrinsic properties of steel usage in construction have significant environmental benefits. For
example, the steel structure is 100% recyclable, repeatedly and without any degradation, the speed of
construction and reduced disruption of the site gives local environmental benefits and the flexibility and
adaptability of steel structures maximise the economic life of the building as it can accommodate radical
changes in use.

Modern fully glazed faade system in an office building in Spinningfields, Manchester

The structural efficiency of steel and composite constructionleads to resource efficiency. For example,
composite steel construction achieves the highest rating of A+ in the Green Guide to Specification.
Recent research under the Target Zero programme has confirmed that steel-framed commercial buildings
can achieve low operational carbon targets and the highestBREEAM ratings cost effectively.

Anatomy of commercial buildings

Main articles: Concept design
The anatomy of a commercial office building is function of its size and location, i.e. city centre tower or
two-storey science park office building at the two extremes, and client and planning requirements. Some key

aspects of building anatomy are described below. The common features that influence the building design
are:

Open plan areas that can be configured to suit the client requirements

Partitioned space for executive offices, conference room etc. Partitions should be moveable for future
re-configuration

Communal space for toilets, kitchens, etc, which are often located near to service risers

Access space for lifts, stairs and services maintenance, including means of escape in fire

Featured space, such as the entrance lobby, atria, and penthouse

Service plant areas which may be located on the roof or in the basement

Below ground car parking in some cases.

[top]City

centre commercial buildings

Palestra building, London produces some of its operational energy from renewable sources

Commercial buildings in city centres tend to be relatively tall (6 to 12 storeys is a typical city centre project)
because of the high cost of land and the confinement of adjacent buildings and utilities. Planning
requirements have a strong impact on the building form and its architecture, and in many parts of the
country, it is a planning objective that commercial buildings are required to generate a proportion of their
on-site energy use from renewable sources, e.g. photovoltaics, heat pumps, CHP, CCHP, as in the Palestra
building near Waterloo, London.
An important aspect of many modern commercial building developments is the need for retail space at
ground floor, office space above, and in many cases, below ground car parking. This can lead to complexity

in the alignment of planning grids from floor to floor. A common solution is to create a transfer structure at
ground or first floor levels to optimise the space use above and below.
The sub-structure of city centre projects tends to be complex because of the high loads that are supported,
the need to avoid affecting the foundations of neighbouring buildings, and to avoid obstructions and services
in the ground. Piled foundations below basement level are most commonly used and the piles are placed in a
group of typically 3 or 4 below a pile cap. There are various techniques to form basements including
temporary sheet pile walls supported by steel H sections and contiguous bored pile walls.
Services also tend to be complex and some form of combined structure-services zone is considered in the
building design. Vertical services are routed at discrete points on plan and distributed horizontally through
the building. Long-span solutions are commonly used in this sector in order to optimise the internal space
use. The building facades and roof tend to be lightweight, such as unitised curtain walling or infill
walls supporting metallic or architectural faade systems.

[top]Tall commercial buildings

In London, a number of major towers have taken steel to new frontiers. Two of these are the Swiss Re
building and the Broadgate Tower.
Londons Swiss Re building by Normal Foster is now an iconic building, and consists of a diagrid assembly
of inclined members and welded nodes to form the complex curved shape in two directions. The steel
structure was therefore a key part of the architectural concept.
Broadgate Tower was unusual in that it was a 35 storey super-structure constructed over the railway lines to
Londons Liverpool Street station, and therefore the need to minimise the weight of the structure on its
inclined supports and on the foundations was important to the design solution. This project was completed
without disrupting the day to day operation of this major London railway hub.

Swiss Re building an iconic building on Londons skyline

Broadgate Tower London spans over

railway lines

Tall steel-framed commerical buildings

The requirements for access to the upper levels of tall buildings and for overall stability mean that the core
area is a high proportion of the plan area and is generally located centrally on plan. The office space wraps
around the core, and from a functional point of view, this space should be as flexible as possible. The
main beams therefore radiate from the core and are supported on perimeter columns. The provision of
natural lighting tends to mean that the width of the office space is limited to about 15m. Services emanate
from the core and are distributed through openings in the structure.
The nature of the construction is that the core is generally in slip formed reinforced concrete. The core
construction progresses a few floors above the steel construction, which is faster and so its progress is
limited by the construction of the core.

[top]Commercial buildings with atria

Larger commercial buildings are often designed around an atrium, which provides natural lighting and
circulation space for the offices around it. There are many examples of this form of construction, such as in

Mid-City Place, More London 7 and Tower Place in London. The plan form of More London 7 is shown
below.

Complex plan form of More London 7 showing its atrium

The area of the building on plan tends to be large (over 1,000m2 per floor) and the atrium is often located
centrally, or may form part of an extended entrance area. The atrium is designed as part of the whole
building energy and lighting strategy, and also provides the safe means of escape in fire; therefore smoke
control in the atrium is a crucial part of the design solution. For a building layout point of view, the
commercial space is typically 15 to 18m wide around the atrium and the cores are located at positions
dictated by means of escape in fire. Generally, a minimum of two cores, and often as many as four separate
cores are required on plan in buildings with atria. The simplified plan form of an office building with a
central atrium is shown.

Typical columns layout in an office building with an atrium

The optimum use of space means that there is benefit in designing the structure to span from the atrium to
the faade columns, which are located typically on a 6 to 8m grid around the perimeter of the building.
The service routes from the cores can be relatively long, which means that the duct sizes can be large when
distributed from the core. In this area, the use of shorter span beams with large rectangular openings may be
more practical.

Column layout in an office building with a central core

The steel elements used in the atrium are generally in the form of hollow sections and tension ties, which are
often designed architecturally to emphasise the high quality of the public space that is created.
Tower Place in London combines a wide range of steel members, including hollow sections in the 6 storey
high entrance atrium, as shown.

Braced frames
The majority of structural systems used in office construction are braced by one of two methods;

Steel bracing, generally in the form of cross-flat plates or hollow sections that are located in
the faade walls, or in internal separating walls, or around service areas and stairs.

Concrete or steel plated cores that enclose the stairs and lifts, service risers, toilets etc.

The choice of this system depends on the form and scale of the buildings. In most buildings up to 6 storeys high, steel
bracing is preferred, although its location is strongly influenced by the layout of the building. V or K bracing
using tubular sections is often preferred as it is more compact and can be arranged around windows and doors in
some cases. X flat bracing is preferred for use in brickwork as it can be located in the cavity between the leaves of the
brickwork.
For taller buildings, concrete cores are more efficient and they can either be constructed floor by floor using
conventional formwork, or slip-formed continuously. The relative economics is dictated by speed of construction, and
slip forming is often used on tall buildings (see Commercial buildings with atria). Steel plated or composite cores
are also used where there is need to minimise the space occupied by the core and where it can be constructed in
parallel with the steel framework.
The structural design of the steel frame is therefore based on the use of simple shear resisting connections for both
the beam to column and beam to beam connections.
Lateral stability system overview

Continuous frames

Internal view of the Palestra building during construction showing the use of pairs of continuous
cellular beams
Continuous frames achieve continuity of the beams either by design of the steel structure so that they are multispan, or by use of moment-resisting connections. In the Palestra building, theprimary beams were arranged in
pairs either side of the tubular columns, and the beams were continuous across the building, being spliced only at
the quarter span positions from the internalcolumns where bending moment were low. In that way, the beamsare
stiffer due to their continuity than the equivalent simply supported beam and so that depth can be reduced. A view of
the building during construction is shown.
In buildings up to four storeys in height, it may be economic to design the steel structure as a sway frame to resist
lateral loads applied to the building. The connections between the beams and the columns are made momentresisting by use of extended end plate connections. The columns may be heavier than in simply supported design,
but the beams can be lighter, and bracing is eliminated. This may be advantageous in low-rise buildings with
highly glazed facades.

Composite construction

Services located below downstand composite beam

Composite construction consists of downstand I-section steel beams with shear connectors (studs)
welded to the top flange to enable the beam to act compositely with an in-situ composite floor slab.
The composite slab comprises profiled decking of various shapes that span 3m to 4m between secondary
beams. Floor slabs are typically 130mm to 150mm deep, depending on the deck height. The shear connectors are
normally site welded through the steel decking which then supports the wet weight of the concrete and
construction loading and later acts compositely with the concrete.
The secondary beams in the floor grid support the composite slab and are supported by primary beams.
These beams are usually designed as composite, and in the optimum floor grid the secondaries span around 50%
longer than the primaries, so that they are of similar depth. Therefore, 6m x 9m and 7.5m x 12mcolumn grids are
commonly used in composite construction.
Heating and ventilation units can be positioned between beams, but ducts will generally pass below downstand
beams. Typically, for a 7.5m x 6m floor grid, the overall floor zone is 1100mm to 1200mm allowing for a 150mm raised
floor and 400mm deep air conditioning ducts below the beams. This floor depth may reduce to 700mm in the case
without air conditioning services. A typical example of a composite beam with service routing is shown.

Long span systems

Beams with web openings

Long span composite beams are often designed with large web openings to facilitate integration of services, as
shown. In long-span construction, grids are generally arranged so that the long span secondary beams are
supported by shorter span primary beams. It may be economic to design long span primary beams that support
shorter span secondary beams, when considering the use ofcellular and fabricated sections.
The two options are:

Long span secondary beams: 10m to 15m span at 3m to 4m spacing.

Long span primary beams: 9m to 12m span at 6m to 9m spacing.

Service openings can be circular, elongated or rectangular in shape, and can be up to 70% of the beam depth. They
can have a length/depth ratio typically of up to 3.5. Web stiffeners may be required around large openings.
Elongated or rectangular openings should be located in areas of low shear, e.g. in the middle third of the span for
uniformly loaded beams. Isolated openings can be reinforced by horizontal stiffeners, as shown, which increases their
resistance to shear by local bending around the openings (Vierendeel bending).

Stiffened large web opening in a steel beam

Services located through web openings in thebeams

Cellular beams
Cellular beams are beams with openings regular spacing along their length. The beams are made by cutting and re
welding hot rolled steel sections. Openings, or cells, are normally circular, which are ideally suited to circular
ducts, but can be elongated, rectangular or hexagonal.
The full range of hot rolled steel section sizes is available from which to choose the sizes of the top and bottom
chords. For compositedesign, the top chord is generally chosen as a lighter section than the bottom chord.
Cellular beams are generally arranged as long span secondary beams, supporting the floor slab directly, as
shown.

Long span cellular beams with regular circular openings

Fabricated beams
Fabricated beams are made from three steel plates whose sizes can be selected for the particular loading case.
Openings for services can be cut into the web, and the sizes of the openings can be designed depending on the
forces acting at a point in the span. An example of fabricated beams with circular elongated-circular and rectangular
openings is shown.
One of the advantages of the use of fabricated beams is that they can de designed to support relatively heavy loads
when used as long spanning primary beams.

Fabricated beams with large web openings of various shapes

Other types of long span beams

Tapered beams can be designed so that the depth of the beam is tailored to broadly match the bending moment
applied to it. In this way, the depth of the tapered section is normally in the form of a single linear variation from midspan to the supports, and the minimum depth at the supports is sized only to provide the required shear resistance.
Relatively wide zones for services are provided near to the supports. An example of a pair of tapered beams is
shown.

Tapered fabricated beams provide for service zones next to the columns

Shallow floor beams

Shallow floor beams such as asymmetric slim floor beams (ASBs) may be used to support composite
slabs using deep decking in theSlimdek system. ASBs are hot rolled steel beams with a wider bottom flange than
top. The section has embossments rolled into the top flange and acts compositely with the concrete encasement
without the need for additional shear connectors. The deep deckingspans between the bottom flanges of the beams
and supports the loads during construction.
Span arrangements are normally based on a 6m to 9m grid, with a slab depth of 280 to 350mm. The deep
decking requires propping during the construction stage for spans of more than 6m. Reinforcing bars (16 to 25mm
diameter) placed in the ribs of the slab give sufficient fire resistance to ensure that no protection to the deck is
necessary.
ASB sections are generally approximately 300mm deep. The sections may be rolled with relatively thick webs (equal
to or thicker than the flanges), which offer a fire resistance of 60 minutes without additional protection (for normal
office loading) when used as part ofSlimdek.
Services can be integrated by forming elongated openings in the webs of the beams, and by locating ducts between
the ribs of thedeep decking, as illustrated. An even higher level of service integration can be achieved by placing
chilled beams and lighting between the ribs of the deep decking to minimise the overall floor depth to around
500mm.
Edge beams can be Slimflor beams utilising a rectangular hollow section, or downstand beams. Ties,
normally Tees with the leg cast in the slab, are used to restrain the columns internally in the direction at right angles
to the main beams.

Components in the Slimdek system

Services located in the Slimdek system

Floor systems

Deck profiles used in composite construction

The three generic forms of flooring systems which are most commonly used in steel framed office buildings are:

Shallow composite slabs using steel deck profiles typically of 50 to 80mm depth. The slab depth
is usually 130 to 160mm, depending on the deck depth and fire insulation requirement. Typical
spans are 2.5 to 4.5m depending on the deck spanning capabilities.

Shallow floor construction with deep composite slabs using steel decking of 210 to 225mm
depth in which the typical slab depth is 280 to 350mm. Deep composite slabs are mainly used
in shallow floor construction for spans of 5 to 9m.

Precast concrete slabs generally in the form of hollow-core units of 150 to 300mm depth with an
in-situ concrete slab of 60 to 100 mm depth. Typical spans are 5 to 10m depending on the depth of
the hollow-core units.

Composite floors using shallow decking

The generic shallow deck profiles used in composite floors are illustrated. During the construction stage, and prior to
composite action of the decking and concrete being fully achieved in the normal stage, the decking alone will need to
support the load due to wet concrete and construction live loads. Pattern loading due to the construction sequence
should also be considered during the construction stage. During construction, propping to the decking may allow
longer spans to be achieved in the normal stage. Propping may be seen as impacting on access and programme and
to whether or not to prop the decking should be discussed early in the design process. Props should be left in place
until the concrete has reached its design strength.
Modern composite slabs contain re-entrant portions to facilitate attachment of wires for suspended services and
ceiling. Trapezoidal profiles are based on a 300mm rib spacing, and often the cross-section is highly stiffened to
improve its bending and composite properties.
Mesh reinforcement in the slab provides up to 120 minutes fire resistance, but for longer periods of fire resistance
(which are unusual in the UK), reinforcing bars may be placed in the deck ribs.
Steel decking is installed by craning onto the primary steelwork in bundles and usually man-handling into position.
A fall arrest systemis installed immediately after the steelwork is erected and before the decking is placed.
Completed and decked floors may be used as a safe working platform for subsequent installation of steelwork. For
this reason, the upper floor in any group of floors (usually three floor levels) is often concreted first.
Composite floors using deep decking
The cross-section through a shallow floor slab using deep decking is shown; this is the Slimdek system.

Cross-section through a deep composite slab Slimdek

The deep decking is supported on end diaphragms which provide stability to the web of the decking and also prevents
loss of concrete when it is poured on the decking. Reinforcing bars of 12 to 20mm are placed in the deck ribs, mainly
for fire resistance purposes, and mesh reinforcement is placed in the topping. Un-propped spans of up to 6m can be

achieved. Slimdek is used in many sectors and often in mixed-use buildings and in basements or car parks to multistorey buildings where minimising of the floor depth has economic value. Deep decking can also be used with Slimflor.

Precast concrete slabs

Precast concrete slabs are proprietary products that are manufactured in standard depths and widths. They are prestressed to increase their spanning capabilities and stiffness which also means that they have some negative
curvature when unloaded. Hollow-core slabs have regular circular openings and in some cases, elongated openings
along their length to reduce their weight. Precast slabs are widely used in smaller offices, but less so in large building
projects. They are also used in Slimflor construction.

Key issues in the design of commercial buildings

Procurement
Procurement in the commercial building sector is often different from other sectors, depending on whether the building
is a speculative development, or is intended for a single client.
In major city centre projects, the concept of shell and core was established in the late-1980s. In this fast track
approach to design and procurement, the main fabric of the building is let as the first stage contract, and then a
second stage fit-out contract is managed by the team acting on the tenants behalf. This two stage process means that
the hand-over between architects and contractors in the two stages has to be carefully managed to avoid division of
responsibilities. The second stage fit-out can involve as little as internal partitioning and decoration, but can include
complex installation of services and specialist IT systems.
This lead to the concept of loose fit structures giving maximum flexibility in servicing and internal space use, for
which long span steel and composite construction is ideally suited.
For single clients, the procurement process is more straightforward in that the client brief will define the functional and
spatial requirements, and then the whole construction process falls under one contract. There are three generic
contractual systems that may be used for commercial buildings depending on their scale and the type of client:

Traditional contracts, in which the contractor is appointed by competitive tender based on

detailed drawings and specifications. The architect often takes a more formal role in project
management on behalf of the client.

Design and build contracts, in which the contractor bids for the project, based on a more general
scope of work, and is involved in much of the detailed design work. The architect involved in the

early stages of the design development with the client is often novated to the design and build
contractor.
In management contracts, the management contractor organises the project as a series of

relatively large packages and is paid a fee by the client. In this process, the supply of the steel
frames and floors is a key package, as is the detailed design and supply of the faade system etc.

For large commercial projects, management contracts are efficient in that the management fee are offset by the gains
that are possible by competitive tendering of the various packages of work. Smaller commercial building projects are
often procured by design and build.
A recent important innovation is that of Building Information Management (BIM) systems in which the design team,
contractor and specialist suppliers share in a common design and drawing system so that interface and scheduling
problems are minimised. The BIM system is generally managed and controlled by the main contractor and requires an
early involvement of specialist suppliers in the design process.

Circular Slab

Uses of Circular Slabs:

1. Roof of a room or hall circular in plan

2. Floor of circular water tanks or towers
3. Roof of pump houses constructed above tube wells
4. Roof of a traffic control post at the intersection of roads
5. In circular slab, Bending takes place in distinctly two perpendicular directions along the two spans.
6. Reinforcement is provided in the form of a mesh of bars having equal area of cross section in both
the directions, the area being equal to that required for the bigger of the radial and circumferential
moments.
7. However, if the stresses near the edge are not negligible, or if the edge is fixed, radial and
circumferential reinforcement near the edge becomes essential.
8. Circular slabs are more commonly used in the design of circular water tank containers with flat
bottom and raft foundations.
9. The analysis of stresses in these slabs is generally based on elastic theory. Under uniformly
distributed loads, these slabs deflect in the form of a saucer and develop radial and circumferential
stresses. Tensile stresses develop on the convex surface and compressive stresses develop on the
concave surface.
10. Tensile stresses must be provided in the radial and circumferential directions near the convex
surface.

11. Alternatively, reinforcing bars can be provided in two mutually perpendicular directions instead of in
the radial and circumferential directions.
12. Normally, near the Centre of the slab, reinforcement is provided in the form of mutually right angle
mesh; and near the edge of the slab, in the form of radial and circumferential bars.

Beams
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending.
The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own
weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads
(i.e., loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns,
walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In
light frame construction the joists rest on the beam.

Types of beams
Generally beams are of five types: that is given below:
1. Simply supported beam
A simple beam is supported by a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other end.
2. Fixed beam
A beam with a laterally and rotationally fixed support at both the ends is called a fixed beam.
3. Over hanging beam
A beam simply supported at two points and having one end or both ends extended beyond the
supports is called an overhanging beam.
4. Continuous beam
Continuously supported beams are supported by three or more support points. They deflect less
than simple beams of the same span because the positive and negative bending cancels each
other out. Generally a continuous span is 20% more efficient than a simple span as it is able to
span longer distances.
5. Cantilever beam
A beam with a laterally and rotationally fixed support at one end with no support at the other end
is called a cantilever beam.

Beams are characterized by their profile (the shape of their cross-section), their length, and their
material. In contemporary construction, beams are typically made of steel, reinforced concrete,
wood, composites, or cased fluids (inflatable beams). One of the most common types of steel
beam is the I-beam or wide-flange beam (also known as a "universal beam" or, for stouter
sections, a "universal column"). This is commonly used in steel-frame buildings and bridges. Other
common beam profiles are the C-channel, the hollow structural section beam, the pipe, and the
angle.
Beams are also described by how they are supported. Supports restrict lateral and/or rotational
movements so as to satisfy stability conditions as well as to limit the deformations to a certain
allowance.

Structural characteristics
Moment of inertia
The moment of inertia of an object about a given axis describes how difficult it is to change its
angular motion about that axis. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much mass the object has
overall, but how far each bit of mass is from the axis. The farther out the object's mass is, the
more rotational inertia the object has, and the more force is required to change its rotation rate.
Stress in beams
Internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads
applied to them. Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced
to enclose a smaller radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same
original beam length at the bottom of the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc,
and so is under tension. The same original length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway
between the top and bottom, is the same as the radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither
compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the
supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams in which
the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams
are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression more
than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched
while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly
released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates

an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are
commonly used on highway bridges.

General shapes
Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular cross sections, but a more efficient
cross section for a beam is an I or H section which is typically seen in steel construction. Because
of the parallel axis theorem and the fact that most of the material is away from the neutral axis,
the second moment of area of the beam increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.
An I-beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of bending: up and down looking at the
profile as an I. If the beam is bent side to side, it functions as an H where it is less efficient. The
most efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a box (a square shell) however the most efficient
shape for bending in any direction is a cylindrical shell or tube. But, for unidirectional bending, the
I or wide flange beam is superior.
Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area (volume of beam per length) subjected to
the same loading conditions, the beam deflects less.
Other shapes, like L (angles), C (channels) or tubes, are also used in construction when there are
special requirements.