Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Renewable energy management is the sum of measures planned
and carried out to achieve the objective of using the minimum possible
energy while the comfort levels (in offices or dwellings) and the
production rates (in factories) are maintained.
It can be applied to a factory, to an office building, to a sport
center, to a dwelling, and to any kind of building where energy use is
required. To make an efficient use of the energy and, as a consequence,
to save it, the actions are focused on:

Energy conservation

Energy recovery

Energy substitution
Energy is the driver of growth. International studies on human

development indicate that India needs much larger per capita energy
consumption to provide better living conditions to its citizens. But such
growth has to be balanced and sustainable. Two important concepts here
are energy management and conservation.
Planning commission of India has estimated that India has
conservation potential at 23% of the total commercial energy generated
1

in the country. India's energy requirement comes from five sectors;

agriculture, industry, transport, services and domestic, each having
considerable saving potential. For example, energy costs amount to 20
percent of the total production cost of steel in India which is much higher
than the international standards. Similarly the energy intensity per unit
of food grain production in India is 3 - 4times higher than that in Japan.
Sustainable growth also implies that our energy management and energy
conservation measures are eco-friendly and accompanied by minimum
pollution, in particular minimum carbon emission
1.2 Definition
Energy management is a process that not only manages the energy
production from different energy harvesting Resources (solar, nuclear,
fossil fuel) but also concerns optimal utilization at the consumer devices.
Another comprehensive definition is The judicious and effective use of
energy to maximize profits (minimize costs) and enhance competitive
positions.
1.3 Objective
The objective of Energy Management is to achieve and maintain
optimum

energy

procurement

and

utilisation,

throughout

the

organization and:

To minimize energy costs / waste without affecting production,

comfort and quality. To minimize the environmental effects.

Chapter 2
2.1 SOLAR POWER

Solar energy applies energy from the sun in the form of solar
radiation for heat or to generate electricity. Solar powered electricity
generation

either photovoltaics or heat

engines (concentrated

solar

power). A partial list of other solar applications includes space heating

and

cooling

through solar

architecture, day

lighting, solar

hot

water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial
purposes.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar
or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute
solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic
panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials
with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing
spaces that naturally circulate air. Solar energy capture is also being
linked to research involving water splitting and carbon dioxide reduction
for the development of artificial photosynthesis or solar fuels.

Solar energy is the engine beyond almost all renewable energy

sources. Secondary solar energy powered resources such as wind
energy, wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most
of the available renewable energy on earth. Geothermal and tidal
energy are not considered as secondary products of solar energy
because they exist even without solar radiation.

At nights and on very cloudy days solar energy is not fully available
and energy storage systems are very important to save energy when
it is available. Solar energy can be stored in many forms, but most
common are conversion to thermal energy, storing electrical energy
in rechargeable batteries and pumped storage systems pumping
water to higher elevation when solar energy is available .

Solar energy is renewable energy source because it cannot be

depleted like fossil fuels. Solar energy is also very clean source of
energy after installation because there are no harmful emissions or
pollution caused by using solar panels or solar cells.

There are three basic types of solar energy usage:

Solar panels Direct conversion of solar energy into heat. Mostly

used for water heating.

Concentrating solar power Focusing solar radiation using

arrays of mirrors to superheat some fluid. Superheated fluid is
then used to generate electricity. This is the main method used in
todays solar power plants.

Solar cells Conversion of solar energy directly into the electrical

energy

DESCRIPTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM

2.2 SOLAR CELL DESCRIPTION

Figure 2.1: Solar cell

A solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly

into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is
reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight
such as solar panels and solar cells, while the term photovoltaic cell is
used when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to
make so lar panels, solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaic is
the field of technology and research related to the application of solar
cells in producing electricity for practical use. The energy generated this
way is an example of solar energy (also known as solar power).
The highly efficient solar cell was first developed by Chapin, Fuller
and Pearson in 1954 using a diffused silicon p-n junction. In past four
decades, remarkable progress has been made. Megawatt solar power
generating plants have now been built.
Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a
module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front
(sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor
wafers from the elements (rain, hail, etc.). Solar cells are also usually
connected in series in modules, creating an additive voltage.
Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current. Modules are
then interconnected, in series or parallel, or both, to create an array with
the desired peak DC voltage and current
The power output of a solar array is measured in watts or
kilowatts. In order to calculate the typical energy needs of the
application, a measurement in watt-hours, kilowatt-hours or kilowatthours per day is often used. A common rule of thumb is that average
6

power is equal to 20% of peak power, so that each peak kilowatt of solar
array output power corresponds to energy production of 4.8 kWh per day
(24 hours x 1 kW x 20% = 4.8 kWh).
2.2.1 WORKING
To make practical use of the solar-generated energy, the electricity
is most often fed into the electricity grid using inverters (grid-connected
photovoltaic systems); in stand-alone systems, batteries are used to store
the energy that is not needed immediately.
Solar cells can also be applied to other electronics devices to
make it self-power sustainable in the sun. There are solar cell phone
chargers, solar bike light and solar camping lanterns that people can
adopt for daily use.

Figure 2.2: Working of solar cell

When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:

The photon can pass straight through the silicon this (generally)
happens for lower energy photons, The photon can reflect off the surface,
the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is higher
than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair and
sometimes heat, depending on the band structure.
When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the
crystal lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band, and is tightly
bound in covalent bonds between neighboring atoms, and hence unable
to move far. The energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into the
conduction band, where it is free to move around within the
semiconductor. The covalent bond that the electron was previously a part
of now has one fewer electron this is known as a hole. The presence of
a missing covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighboring
atoms to move into the "hole," leaving another hole behind, and in this
way a hole can move through the lattice. Thus, it can be said that
photons absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile electron-hole
pairs.
A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap
in order to excite an electron from the valence band into the conduction
band. However, the solar frequency spectrum approximates a black body
spectrum at ~6000 K, and as such, much of the solar radiation reaching
the Earth is composed of photons with energies greater than the band
gap of silicon. These higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar
cell, but the difference in energy between these photons and the silicon
band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations called phonons)
rather than into usable electrical energy.
8

2.3 AMPLIFIER
An amplifier is a device that changes and increases,
the amplitude of a signal. The relationship of the input to the output of
amplifier is expressed as a function of the input frequencyis called
the transfer function of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the transfer
function is termed the gain.
In popular use, an electronic amplifier, in which the input "signal"
is usually a voltage or a current. In audio applications, amplifiers drive
the loudspeakers used in PA systems to make the human voice louder or
play recorded music. Amplifiers may be classified according to the input
(source) they are designed to amplify (such as a guitar amplifier, to
perform with an electric guitar), the device they are intended to drive
(such as a headphone amplifier), the frequency range of the signals
(Audio, IF, RF, and VHF amplifiers, for example), whether they invert the
signal (inverting amplifiers and non-inverting amplifiers), or the type of
device used in the amplification (valve or tube amplifiers, FET amplifiers,
etc.).
A related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type
to

another

(for

example,

a light signal

in photons to

a DC signal

in amperes) is a transducer, a transformer, or a sensor. However, none of

these amplify power.

Figure 2.3: Simple circuit to show the labels of a bipolar transistor

.
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to
use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a
much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is
called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input
signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can
be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically
controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other
circuit elements.
The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are
used

in

circuit.

A bipolar

transistor has

terminals

labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal
(that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a
much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For
a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain,
and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.
10

The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a

circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals
depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and
emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop
develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The
amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made
from, and is referred to as VBE.
2.4 TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit

to

another

through

inductively

coupled

conductorsthe

transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding

creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in
the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

Figure2.4: Transformer Symbol

Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to

another form of energy like a transducer.

11

Figure2.5: Transformer

2.4.1 Basic Principle

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic
properties of an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of
course cannot increase power so that if the voltage is raised, the current
is proportionally lowered and vice versa.
Transformer refers to the static electromagnetic setting which can
transfer power from one circuit to another one. In AC circuits, AC voltage,
current and waveform can be transformed with the help of Transformers.
Each transformation is usually to transfer from one circuit to another
one by the way of electromagnetism, but it has no direct relation with
this circuit. It also can be transformed through electromagnetism
(electrical

manner).

This

transformer. Transformer

electromagnetism

plays

an

is

important

known
role

in

as

auto-

electronic

equipment. AC and DC voltage in Power supply equipment are almost

achieved by transformers transformation and commutation. At the same
time the electrical parameters transformed by transformer are not one
but a few ones.Most of the isolation, matching and impedance in the
12

circuit carry out by transformer. Most of isolation, matching and

impedance in the circuit carry out by transformer, two windings and AC
power supply. The winding is called the primary winding; another
winding is connected with load, and it is called secondary windings.

Figurere2.6: Basic Principle

2.4.2 Transformer Working

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked
by an iron core, as shown in figure below. There is no electrical
connection between the coils; instead they are linked by a magnetic field
created in the core.

13

Figure2.7: Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to

another with minimal loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating
current) because they require a changing magnetic field to be created in
their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce
voltage (step-down).
Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a
continually changing magnetic field in the iron core. This field also
passes through the secondary (output) coil and the changing strength of
the magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If
the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage will make
an induced current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage is
'induced electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated to induced
e.m.f.
The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the
core. These are currents produced by the alternating magnetic field
inducing a small voltage in the core, just like that induced in the
secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the
core but they are reduced to a negligible amount by laminating the iron

14

because this increases the electrical resistance of the core without

affecting its magnetic properties.
Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of
changing voltage:
They provide total electrical isolation between the input and
output, so they can be safely used to reduce the high voltage of the
mains supply.
Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high
efficiency (power out / power in) of 95% or more.

2.4.3 Classification of Transformer

Step-Up Transformer

Step-Down Transformer

2.4.4 Step-Down Transformer

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage.
Their primary voltage is greater than their secondary voltage. This kind
of transformer "steps down" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step
down transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a country with a
220v supply.
Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or
phase configuration usually down to a lower level. They can include
features for electrical isolation, power distribution, and control and
15

instrumentation applications. Step down transformers typically rely on

the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage
and/or current levels.
Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of
insulated wire wound around a core made of iron. When voltage is
applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or input) it magnetizes
the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently called
the secondary or output). The turns ratio of the two sets of windings
determines the amount of voltage transformation.

Figure 2.8: Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50

turns on the secondary, a ratio of 2 to 1.
Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage
ratio device.
With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary
and secondary will mirror the "turns ratio" (except for single phase
smaller than 1 kva which have compensated secondary). A practical
16

application of this 2 to 1 turns ratio would be a 480 to 240 voltage step

down. Note that if the input were 440 volts then the output would be 220
volts. The ratio between input and output voltage will stay constant.
Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than the
nameplate rating, but may be operated at lower voltages than rated.
Because of this it is possible to do some non-standard applications using
standard transformers.
Single phase step down transformers 1 kva and larger may also be
reverse connected to step-down or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase
step up or step down transformers sized less than 1 KVA should not be
reverse connected because the secondary windings have additional turns
to overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If reverse connected,
the output voltage will be less than desired.)
2.4.5 Step-Up Transformer
A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary
coil, which makes a larger induced voltage in the secondary coil. It is
called a step up transformer because the voltage output is larger than
the voltage input.
Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one whose secondary
voltage is greater than its primary voltage. This kind of transformer
"steps up" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step up transformer is
needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v supply.
A step up transformer 110v 220v converts alternating current (AC)
from one voltage to another voltage. It has no moving parts and works on
a magnetic induction principle; it can be designed to "step-up" or "step17

down" voltage. So a step up transformer increases the voltage and a step

down transformer decreases the voltage.
The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up
transformer core and coil. The insulation is placed between the turns of
wire to prevent shorting to one another or to ground. This is typically
comprised of Mylar, nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or other materials. As a
transformer has no moving parts, it will typically have a life expectancy
between 20 and 25 years.

Figure 2.9: Step-Up Transformer

Applications
Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industrial
applications only.

2.5 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A

voltage

regulator

is

an

electrical

regulator

designed

to

automatically maintain a constant voltage level. It may use an

electromechanical

mechanism,

or
18

passive

or

active

electronic

components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or

more AC or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.

Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx:
78 indicate the positive series and xxindicates the voltage rating.
Suppose 7805 produces the maximum 5V.05indicates the regulator
output is 5V.
79xx:
78 indicate the negative series and xxindicates the voltage rating.
Suppose 7905 produces the maximum -5V.05indicates the regulator
output is -5V.
These regulators consists the three pins there are
Pin1: It is used for input pin.
Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure 2.10: Regulator

19

2.6 INVERTER

Figure 2.11: Inverter

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC)

to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required
voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers,
switching, and control circuits.
Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range
of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to
large electric

utility high-voltage

direct

current

applications

that

transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power

from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so
named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work
in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.

20

2.6.1 Detailed operation

The simplified description above neglects several practical factors,
in particular the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in
the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the
secondary circuit.
Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of
negligible reluctance with

two

windings

of

zero resistance. When

voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows,

driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core. The current required
to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core
has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current
is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field.
The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF)
across each winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they
have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages V P and VS measured
at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding
EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary
voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF". This is due to Lenz's
law which states that the induction of EMF would always be such that it
will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.

2.7 RECHARGEABLE BATTERY

21

Figure 2.12: Rechargeable battery

A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more

electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their
electrochemical

reactions

are

electrically

reversible.

Rechargeable

batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything

from a button cell to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an
electrical

distribution

network.

Several

different

combinations

of

chemicals are commonly used, including: lead-acid, nickel cadmium

(NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion
polymer (Li-ion polymer).
Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and
environmental impact than disposable batteries. Some rechargeable
battery types are available in the same sizes as disposable types.
Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost, but can be recharged very
cheaply and used many times.
Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable
consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf

22

carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, and uninterruptible

power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and
electric vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and
increase lifetime.
Normally, new rechargeable batteries have to be charged before
use; newer low self-discharge batteries hold their charge for many
months, and are supplied charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.
Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load
leveling, where they store electric energy for use during peak load
periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing power generated
from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging
batteries during periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid
during periods of high electrical demand, load-leveling helps eliminate
the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost
of generators over more hours of operation.
The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has
estimated that U.S. demands for rechargeable batteries is growing twice
as fast as demand for non rechargeable.
2.7.1 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING
During charging, the positive active material is oxidized,
producing electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming
electrons.

These

electrons

constitute

the current flow

in

the

external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for ion flow
between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it

23

may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in leadacid cells.

Figure 2.13:

Charging of a secondary cell battery.

Figure 2.14: Battery charger

Figure 2.15: A solar-powered charger for rechargeable batteries

24

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually

comes from a battery charger using AC mains electricity. Chargers take
from a few minutes (rapid chargers) to several hours to charge a battery.
Most batteries are capable of being charged far faster than simple battery
chargers are capable of; there are chargers that can charge consumer
sizes of NiMH batteries in 15 minutes. Fast charges must have multiple
ways of detecting full charge (voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging
before onset of harmful overcharging.
Rechargeable multi-cell batteries are susceptible to cell
damage due to reverse charging if they are fully discharged. Fully
integrated battery chargers that optimize the charging current are
available.
Attempting to recharge non-rechargeable batteries with
unsuitable equipment may cause battery explosion Flow batteries, used
for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte
liquid.
Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC;
this is volts per cell, and refers to the individual secondary cells that
make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6
cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the
battery's terminals.
Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc-carbon cells output 1.5V when
new, but this voltage gradually drops with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA
batteries rate their cells at 1.2 V, and can usually be used in equipment
designed to use alkaline batteries up to an end-point of 0.9 to 1.2V

25

2.7.2 Reverse charging

Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which
tends to discharge it further, rather than charge it, is called reverse
charging; this damages cells. Reverse charging can occur under a
number of circumstances, the two most common being:

When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong

way round.

When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply

discharged.

When one cell completely discharges ahead of the rest, the live cells
will apply a reverse current to the discharged cell ("cell reversal"). This
can happen even to a "weak" cell that is not fully discharged. If the
battery drain current is high enough, the weak cell's internal resistance
can experience a reverse voltage that is greater than the cell's remaining
internal forward voltage. This results in the reversal of the weak cell's
polarity while the current is flowing through the cells. This can
significantly shorten the life of the affected cell and therefore of the
battery. The higher the discharge rate of the battery needs to be, the
better matched the cells should be, both in kind of cell and state of
charge. In some extreme cases, the reversed cell can begin to emit smoke
or catch fire.
In critical applications using Ni-Cad batteries, such as in
aircraft, each cell is individually discharged by connecting a load clip
across the terminals of each cell thereby avoiding cell reversal, then
charging the cells in series
26

2.8 UNIDIRECTIONAL CURRENT CONTROLLER

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of
the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow.
Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually
called valves.

Figure 2.16: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in

one direction. In this direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased'
and the only effect on the signal is that there will be a voltage loss of
around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the diode is said to be 'reversebiased' and no current will flow through it.
2.9RECTIFIER
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC
waveform (OR) Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current
or voltage. There are two different rectification circuits, known as 'halfwave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components called diodes to
convert AC into DC.

27

2.9.1 The Half-wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only
uses one diode, as shown in figure.

Figure 2.17: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2.8.1 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the
resulting output. As you can see, when the AC input is positive, the
diode is forward-biased and lets the current through. When the AC
input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let
any current through, meaning the output is 0V. Because there is a 0.7V
voltage loss across the diode, the peak output voltage will be 0.7V less
than Vs.

28

Figure 2.18: Half-Wave Rectification

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it

would not be suitable as a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output
voltage continually varies between 0V and Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half
the time there is no output at all.
2.9.2 The Bridge Rectifier
The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems
since at no time is the output voltage 0V. This time four diodes are
arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of the AC waveform
are converted to DC. The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.

29

Figure 2.19: Bridge Rectifier

Figure 2.20: Bridge Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased,

while diodes C and D are reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative,
the opposite is true - diodes C and D are forward-biased, while diodes A
and B are reverse-biased.
While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave
rectifier, its output still isn't suitable as a power supply for most circuits

30

since the output voltage still varies between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if you
put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.
2.10 POWER MOSFET
A Power MOSFET is a specific type of metal oxide semiconductor
field-effect transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle significant power
levels.

Compared

to

the

other

power

semiconductor

devices

(IGBT,Thyristor...), its main advantages are high commutation speed and

good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the IGBT an isolated gate
that makes it easy to drive.
It was made possible by the evolution of CMOS technology,
developed for manufacturing Integrated circuits in the late 1970s. The
power MOSFET shares its operating principle with its low-power
counterpart, the lateral MOSFET.
The power MOSFET is the most widely used low-voltage (i.e. less
than 200 V) switch. It can be found in most power supplies, DC to DC
converters, and low voltage motor controllers.

Figure 2.21: Power MOSFET

2.10.1 BASIC STRUCTURE

31

Power MOSFETs have a different structure than the lateral

MOSFET: as with all power devices, their structure is vertical and not
planar. In a planar structure, the current and breakdown voltage ratings
are both functions of the channel dimensions (respectively width and
length of the channel), resulting in inefficient use of the "silicon estate.
With a vertical structure, the voltage rating of the transistor is a function
of the doping and thickness of the Nepitaxial layer (see cross section),
while the current rating is a function of the channel width. This makes
possible for the transistor to sustain both high blocking voltage and high
current within a compact piece of silicon.Power MOSFET 2It is worth
noting that power MOSFETs with lateral structure exists. They are
mainly used in high-end audio amplifiers. Their advantage is a better
behaviour in the saturated region (corresponding to the linear region of a
bipolar transistor) than the vertical MOSFETs. Vertical MOSFETs are
designed for switching applications, so they are only used in On or Off
states.

Figure 2.22: Basic Structure

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2.11 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

The longer lead is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode
(&minus). In the schematic symbol for an LED (bottom), the anode is on
the left and the cathode is on the right. Light emitting diodes are
elements for light signalization in electronics.

Figure 2.23: light emitting diode

2.11.1 Principle & Mechanism

The essential portion of the Light Emitting Diode is the
semiconductor chip. Semiconductors can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the electrical behavior is
based on the electronic structure inherent to the pure material. When
the electrical characteristics are dictated by impurity atoms, the
semiconductor is said to be extrinsic. This chip is further divided into
two parts or regions which are separated by a boundary called a
junction. The p-region is dominated by positive electric charges (holes)
and the n-region is dominated by negative electric charges (electrons).
The junction serves as a barrier to the flow of the electrons between the p
and the n-regions. This is somewhat similar to the role of the band-gap
33

because it determines howmuch voltage is needed to be applied to the

semiconductor chip before the current can flow and the electrons pass
the junction into the p-region.

Figure 2.24: working of LED

In general, to achieve higher momentum states (with higher

velocities), there must be an empty energy state into which the electron
may be excited. (In other words, to achieve a net flow of electrons in one
direction, some electrons must change their wave vectors thereby
increasing their energy.) Band-gaps determine how much energy is
needed for the electron to jump from the valence band to the conduction
band. As an electron in the conduction band recombines with a hole in
the valence band, the electron makes a transition to a lower-lying energy
state and releases energy in an amount equal to the band-gap energy.
This energy is released in photons. Normally the energy heats the
material. In a LED this energy goes into emitted infrared or visible light.
34

Figure 2.25: LED

They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For

their low price, low consumption and simple use, they have almost
completely pushed aside other light sources- bulbs at first place.
It is important to know that each diode will be immediately
destroyed unless its current is limited. This means that a conductor
must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order to correctly determine
value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diodes voltage drop in
forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of
and what colors it is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes
are shown in table below: As seen, there are three main types of LEDs.
Standard ones get full brightness at current of 20mA. Low Current
diodes get full brightness at ten times lower current while Super Bright
diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.
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Chapter 3
WORKING PROCEDURE

The kit is provided with two sources i.e. one renewable source
through the solar panel and the other non-renewable energy
source through power connection
36

Now when the kit is connected to either of the sources the

rechargeable battery will start charging and the charge is stored in
the battery

When the kit is connected to the non renewable energy source then
firstly the voltage is decreased with the help of step down
transformer

After that the voltage passes through the bridge rectifier where the
AC is converted to pulsating DC and the it passes through the
capacitor filter where the output is filtered and send to the
regulator

Regulator then converts unregulated output to regulated output

Now here we are provided with another ceramic filter for proper
filtering

Then a LED(light emitting diode) is given to just find whether the

kit is working or not if the kit is proper then the LED will glow
otherwise not

Just before the LED a resistor is connected to protect the LED from
getting damaged

Now this output which is DC is send to the inverter

And if we are connecting the kit to a renewable source of energy

then the energy is stored into the battery

37

And here to prevent the kit from bidirectional current flow a diode
id connected in the way to inverter .this diode acts as a
unidirectional current controller

Now this power is given to the inverter

Inverter consists of power MOSFETS, Step up transformer,RLC

circuit

Power MOSFET amplify the power and here the DC is converted to

AC and then it is given to step up transformer which increases the
voltage and now the output is given to RLC for smoothing f the
output now this output is a partial square wave.

Now the output is given to the load i.e. CFL lamp

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Chapter 4
ADVANTAGES OF THE PROJECT

Renewable and Non conventional Energy consumption

Works in Day and Night

Fit and Forget system

Low cost and reliable circuit

AC Charge provision

Durability

Convenience to operate

Low maintenance

Low power consumption

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Chapter 5
APPLICATIONS OF THE PROJECT

Office / Home

Hotels / Shops and house hold applications

Industries

Housekeeping Power

Solar power packs

Solar LED street lights have been in business in introducing new

lighting technology. Our primary focus is to improve efficient energy
use for all of humankind.

Solar garden illuminating

Solar lanterns

Solar LED garden lights

Solar light flashers

Solar LED lighting luminar

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Chapter 6
CONCLUSION

This project presents a solar based lighting system with inverter and
CFL lamp load.

Set up on the solar charging system, the battery used to store the
energy. The proposed solar inverter system can convert the sun light
into electrical energy and stores in the rechargeable battery.

The result shows that higher generating power efficiency is indeed

achieved using the solar inverter system.

The proposed method is verified to be highly beneficial for the solar

power generation.

The recent success in solar lighting has created

an international

focus on solar lighting technologies and experts are looking at many

applications that can take advantages of all the benefits

41

REFERENCE

Text Books:
[1] Working with Solar Energy by Cruise Leonardo

[2] Electrical Applications By Morris Hamington

Website:

[3] www.howstuffworks.com
[4] www.answers.com
[5] www.radiotronix.com

Magazines:

[6] Electronics for you

[7] Let us go Solar
[8] Electrikindia

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