Chapter

4: Parade of the Craniates in Time and Taxa

I.

3BIO2

AGNATHA

A. Ostracoderms +

Ancient armored craniates. Oldest known craniates. Entire body was
covered with bony dermal armor consisting of broad plates and small
tile-like scales. Plates are largest in the head and they formed a bony
shield. No jaws. No paired fins. Marine

Head skeleton was a more or less flattened denticle-covered bony shield
with 4 dorsal apertures:
2 accommodated a pair of upward-staring eye
1 accommodated median or pineal eye and a small, anterior
opening was a single naris from which a NASOPHARYNGEAL
duct led to an OLFACTORY SAC

Head contained an endoskeleton of endochondral bone and
considerable CARTILAGE. HETEROCERCAL TAIL.

B. Cyclostomes (Hagfishes and Lampreys)

Prominent Notochord (serves as axis skeleton throughout life). No
paired fins. No skeleton comparable to that of jaws. No vertebral
column. No bone anywhere in the body. No bony skeleton. No
integumentary armor/ scales. No bony teeth.

They have one or 2 semicircular ducts instead of 3 found in jawed
vertebrates. Single nostril. Parasitism. Buccal funnel. Rasping tongue.

1. Hagfishes

Marine. With a shallow buccal funnel that lacks rasping
denticles. Scavengers. Eyes are vestigial and covered by opaque
skin. Myxine glutinosa (Atlantic hagfish). Eptatretus stouti
(common in coast of California). Larva stay within eggs
membranes until metamorphosis.

II.

Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

2. Lampreys

Large buccal funnel lined with horny denticles. Parasitic.
Attaches to the host wile a tongue like cartilaginous rod
covered with teeth rasps the flesh of the victim. 7 pairs of gill
pouches. Pteromyzon marinus (andromous lampreys). Adults
live in sea but migrate upstream to lay eggs. Ammocoete larva.
Vertebral elements present in the trunk. 2 semicircular ducts.
Electroreception etc.

GNATHOSTOMES

Three groups: Placoderms, Chondrichthyans, and Teleostomes.

A. Placoderms +

Bony dermal plates. Paired pectoral and pelvic fins. Basal gnathostome
group.

1. Arthrodires

Heavy bony shields covered the head and gill region, and part
of the trunk. Shield met in movable joints. Active predators.

2. Antiarchs

Small armored Placoderms. Eyes on TOP OF HEAD. Flattened
belly. MAY have been bottom feeders.

B. Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fishes)

Cartilaginous fishes. Two subclasses: Elasmobranchii, and Holocephali.
No bone in their body except their scales and teeth. Mouth is on
VENTRAL surface rather than terminal, except in Cladoselache.
PLACOID. MACROLECITHAL EGGS. Pelvic fins of males is modified to
form claspers used to transfer sperm.

1. Elasmobranchs

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Sharks, skates, rays, and sawfishes. Gill slits are EXPOSED, not
covered by an operculum, usually have 5 pairs. Hexanus have
6 pairs. Heptanchus 7 pairs. Largest number in jawed fishes.
SPIRACLE, anterior to the first gill slit, is present.
HETEROCERCAL CAUDAL FIN. PLACOID SCALE. Large livers
with buoyant oils.

i.
Squaliformes (Sharks)

Living blueprint of a generalized craniate. Fusiform
body.

ii.
Rajiformes (Rays, skates, sawfishes)

Dorsoventrally flattened. Anteriror fins are attached
all along the sides of the head and trunk. 5 gill slits are
VENTRAL. SPIRACLE at dorsal.

2. Holocephalans (Chimaeras)

Lack scales. Fleshy operculum that hides gill slits, GILL SLITS
NOT EXPOSED. SPIRACLE IS CLOSED. Upper jaw is FUSED
with cartilaginous braincase.

C. Teleostomi (Acanthodians and Osteichthyans)

Sister group of Chondrichthyans.

1. Acanthodians +

Spiny fishes. Stout hollow spines were associated with the
median, and paired fins. Body is covered by bony armor
consisting of small scales. Dermal plates on head. Skeleton
consisted of bone and cartilage. Large operculum overlying
the gill slits.



2. Osteichthyans

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Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

Bony fishes. AIR SAC/ LUNG/ SWIM BLADDER. Subdivided

into Actinopterygii (ray-finned), and Sarcopterygii (lobe-
finned). Overlapping scales (ganoid, ctenoid, and cycloid)

i.
Actinopterygii

Ancient and modern bony fishes.
Membranous fins are supported by slender
FIN RAYS. Gill slits are covered by a bony
operculum. GANOIN: a form of enamel
overlaying the dermal armor and scales.
HETEROCERCAL.

a) Basal
Actinopterygii
(Chondrostei)

Paleoniscoids: fishes that flourished
from Devonian until beginning of
Mesozoic.
Polypterus
and
Clamoichtys: Large GANOID scales.
Well-ossified endoskeleton. Air sacs.
CARTILAGINOUS ENDOSKELETON.
With spiracle.

Ex: Sturgeons and Paddlefishes.
(scales lack ganoin)

b) Neopterygians

Holosteans (gars and bowfish) and
Teleosts.

Holosteans
(Gars
and
Bowfish)

GANOID scales. Ossified
endoskeleton.
Braincase
remains cartilaginous.
Teleosts

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ii.

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MODERN. Scales are in the

dermis are thin and flexible.
Jaws
and
plate
are
maneuverable.
Dermal
bones in skull are thinner
and
more
numerous.
Ossified
skeleton.
HOMOCERCAL/
PROTOCERCAL/
DIPHYCERCAL.
NO
SPIRACLE. CYCLOID AND
CTENOID SCALES!

Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned)

Bony fishes with prominent fleshy lobe at
the base of the paired fins. Gill slits are
covered by a bony operculum. 2 major
clades: Actinistians+ and Rhipidista which
includes the Dipnoans

a) Actinistians +

Extinct except Latimeria.

b) Rhipidistians

Skull is similar to the first amphibians.
Air sacs. Internal nares.

Dipnoans

TRUE LUNGFISHES. Use air
sacs for respiration. Three
living genera: Protopterus,
Lepidosiren. Neoceradotus.
Gills
are
inefficient.
Protopterus and Lepidosiren
are dependent on air for
oxygen and would suffocate

if
held
underwater.
Aestivation during dry
season. Resemblance to
Amphibians: Swim bladder
connected with pharynx
with blood supplied by a
branch from the 6th aortic
arch instead of from the
dorsal aorta as in teleosts.
Atrium of heart is partially
divided into 2 chambers, has
a larval stage with external
gills., with internal nares.

AMPHIBIA

III.

Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

AMPHIBIA

Start of tetrapods. Anthracosaurus: ancestors to amniotes. Cold blooded.
Can live in land and water. With lungs. Can respire through skin, mouth,
pharynx, and lungs.

A. Labyrinthodonts

Oldest amphibians were swamp-dwelling labyrinthodonts. Ichthyosega
was the oldest. Minute bony scales in dermis of skin. Fish-like tail
supported by dermal fin rays. Skull similar to rhipidistian fishes. Has a
sensory canal system of neuromast organs that monitored the aquatic
environment, terrestrial species lose it at metamorphosis.

B. Temnospondyls

Skeletal similarities with modern frogs and salamanders.
Lissamphibian skeletal features can be explained by the retention of
juvenile ancestral temnospondyl features (PAEDOMORPHOSIS).


C. Microsaurs

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Share a number of skeletal features with caecilians.

D. Lissamphibians

Evolved as a result of heterochronic process. Three extant groups:
Apoda, Urodela, and Anura. Monophyletic or diphyletic.

1. Apodans (Gymnophiona)

Limbless, burrowing caecilians. Circumtropical. Eyes are
small, in some species it is buried in the skull. Presence of
minute scales in the dermis. Tail is short. Terrestrial species
lay yolky eggs. Larval stage passed in the egg envelopes.

2. Urodeles (Caudata)

Tailed Amphibians.

i.
Proteidae

Necturus is the only genus. Attains sexual
maturity in about 5 years. Proteus, the
European relative, is blind and lives in dark
caves. PERENNIBRANCHIATE: retain larval
gills and one more gill slits throughout life.

ii.
Sirenidae

Siren. Lacks hind limbs. Lives in muddy
ditches. Perennibranchiate.

iii.
Plethodontidae

Plethodon. Loses gills at metamorphosis but
fails to develop lungs. Lives in most sites.
Respiration via skin. Larvae hatch with legs.


iv.
Amphiumidae

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Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

Amphiuma. Eel-like urodele. With tiny

appendages. A. pholeter has one digit. A.
means has subspecies with 2/ 3 digits.

v.
Cryptobranchidae

Cryptobranchus. Broad flat head with
wrinkled skin that conceals single gill slit is
one is present.

vi.
Hynobiidae

Hynobius. A basal urodele. Terrestrial.

vii.
Ambystomatidae

Ambystoma. Terrestrial. A. mexicanum is
aquatic perennibranchiate.

viii.
Salamandridae

Notophthalmus.
Salamandra.
Tre
salamanders.
Salamandra
artia
is
viviparous. Life history of N. viridescens:
Aquatic larva loses gills and gill slits
sprout legs EFT leaves the pond Skin
develops a thick cornified layer that blocks
the openings of the sensory canal system
and skin glands bright orange-red color
stimulation of prolactin Tail becomes
laterally compressed with dorsal and
ventral keels epidermis is shed mucus
glands are exposed and the sensory canal
system becomes olive green and light
yellow NEWT



3. Anurans (Salientia)

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IV.

V.

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Frogs. Toads. Tree toads. Tailless amphibians. Elongated

urostyle. Ranidae (frogs). Bufonidae (toads). Hylidae (tree
toads). Breath with lung and skin. Breed only after rain.
Some tree toads carry their eggs in a brood pouch.

Rana cancrivora crab eating frog in Thailand. Can tolerate salt
water.

Nectophyrynoides vivipara viviparous

Triadobatrachus earliest known anuran. Body was shortened.
Tibia and fibula not fused. Bony scales covered abdomen.

E. Anthracosaurs

Direct line to amniotes.

AMNIOTES

Possession of extraembryonic membranes. 2 sister clades: Reptilia
(Sauropsida) and Synapsida

REPTILIA (Sauropsida)

2 groups evolved: Anapsida and Diapsida. Turtles, Sphenodon, modern
lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians, crocodilians and aves. Cold blooded.
Scaly. Development of long neck + Single occipital condyle (enables reptiles
to scan the horizon). Pelvic girdle articulates with 2 sacral vertebra. Claws.
Nternal fertilization. Pentadactyl. Heart with right and left atria.
Cotylosaurs = stem reptiles.

Three extraembryonic membranes: amnion (fluid filled membranous sac),
chorion, and allantois (both are vascularized membranes that lie agains
porus eggshells, for respiration).

Body surface is covered with cornified epidermal cells organized into
plaques, shields or surface scales.

Non-avian reptiles are ectotherms. Birds are endotherms.

Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

A. Anapsids

NO FOSSAE in the temporal region of the skull (primitive condition).
No temporal arch. Cotylosaurs, Chelonia. Paraphyletic.

Cyclenis amboinensis (land turtle). Jaw lack teeth. Hard horny beaks.

Tortoise: enormous size, large head shields, limbs modified into
swimming flippers.

Chelonia sp. (Sea turtles)
Gopherus sp. (desert turtle)
Erectmochelis inbricata (hawksbill turtle)

B. Diapsids

2 temporal fossae. All living reptiles except turtles. Sub taxa:
Archosauria and Lepidosauria.

1. Lepidosaurs

2 Extant groups: Rhynchocephalians, and Squamates. Extinct:
Plesiosaurs and Ichthyosaurs.

i.
Rhynchocephalians

Sphenodon. Primitive lizard-like reptiles. Different scales,
teeth, and internal morphology.

ii.
Squamates

Modern lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians.

(sO Lacertilla) Lizards have well-developed appendicular
muscles. SPECTACLES: transparent eyelids. NICTITATING
MEMBRANE: third eyelid. Teeth are in sockets. Draco rizalis
(flying dragon). Iguana (Arboreal, vegan). Komodo Dragon
(largest lizard). Phyrnosoma (horned toad). 2 pairs of
pendactyl limbs. Hemlphyllodactylus sp. (house lizard).
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Gecko gecko (tree lizards, nocturnal, loud vocalization,

adhesive toe pads). Varanus sp. (Giant monitor lizard)

(sO Ophidia) Snakes evolved from lizards. Lost limbs.
Acquired a model of locomotion including a unique set of
muscles that connects the ribs with the large ventral scales,
or scutes. Eyelids are immovably fused.

Amphisbaenians: subterranean lizards, limbless, annulated
bodies, eardrum is covered with opaque skin.

iii.
Plesuiosaurs (Sauropterygia)+ and Ichtyosaurs+

Marine reptiles. Euryapsid skull (dorsal temporal fossa on
each side). Euryapsid condition was due to evolutionary
convergence .

2. Archosaurs

Group of all descendants from the common ancestors for crocodiles
and birds. Crocodilians, Pterosaurs and dinosaurs.

i.
Crocodilans

Alligators, crocodiles, caimans, gavials. Modifies
descendants of a group of bipedal archosaurs. Giants of
living reptiles.

Crocodylus sp. Infest rivers, lakes in tropical region. Snout is
narrow and pointed. 4th tooth of the lower jaw is exposed
when mouth is closed. Aggressive.

Alligator sp. Snout is broad and blunt. 4th tooth of lower jaw
fits into a pit in the upper jaw. Passive.





ii.
Pterosaurs
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Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

iii.

iv.

Flying archosaurs. Pneumatic bones. Wings resemble bats.

Saurischian and Ornithischian Dinosaurs

Ornithischians ischial and pubic bones are parallel to each
other as opposed to Saurischians (herbivores). Bird like
pelvis

Saurischians (carnivores)

Both bipedal

Aves

Endothermic saurischian dinosaurs with feathers.
Endothermic (Warm-blooded). Descendants of Bipedal
archosaur. Scales on their beak, legs, and feet. Single
occipital condoyle and diapsid skull. Diapsid skull is
modified by partial or complete loss of zygomatic arch.

Keratinized integumentary appendages. Feathers also
insulate against seasonal heat ang high-altitude cold.
Uropygial gland. Forelimbs for flying. Crop storage.
Stomach is gizzard. Only LEFT ovary and oviduct. External
incubation.

Reduced body weight. Slender long bones with air cavities.
No teeth. Has large external keel (carina) for attachment of
flight muscle. Presence of air sacs. Reduced wrist bones and
palm digits. Fusion of bones (SYNSACRUM). No urinary
bladder. Large intestine is shortened.

a) Archaeornithes

Paraphyletic.

Archaeopteryx (first birds). Long reptilian tail.
Thecodont teeth on both jaws. Forward nostrils. No
beak. Braincase had not expanded to accommodate and
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enlarged brain. Synsacrum not well developed. Skull wa

more reptilian than avian. Smaller wings.

b) Neornithes

Odontognaths: toothed marine birds, Hesperornis
(covered with small hairlike feathers. Vestigial wings.
Stout legs for wading. Good diver) and Ichthyornis
(active flier).

Palaeognaths: ratites. No teeth. Small incompetent
wings. Have powerful leg muscles that enable them to
run. Descendants of active fliers. Rheas, ostrich, emus,
and cassowaries.

Neognaths: birds that have a large carina. No teeth.
Andrean condor, Teratorn, Penguins (although having
large carina, forelimbs became flippers, so they cannot
fly.)


VI.

VII.

3BIO2

SYNAPSIDS

Lineage began with Pelycosaurs (transitional between amphibians and
later members of the group). Pelycosaurs were succeded by Therapsids
from within which mammals evolved.

Mammals retain primitive Therapsid features: 2 occipital condyles,
secondary palate, heterodont dentition with incisors, canines, grinding
molars.

MAMMALIA

A subgroup of Therapsids.

Oviparous
Protheria (monotremes). Lays egg and with cloaca.
Viviparous
Metatheria (Marsupials). Yolk sac as placenta.
Eutheria (Placentals). With chorioallantoic placenta.
Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

Amniotes with synapsid skull. Hair. Mammary gland (except monotremes).
Nipples. Single dentary bone articulating with the squamosal bone. 3
middle ear bones. Muscular diaphragm. Sweat glands. Absence of cloaca
(except monotremes). Heterodont dentition. 2 sets of teeth. Biconcave,
non-nucleated RBC. Ear with pinna. Specialized voice box. Developed
cerebral cortex. Loss of right 4th aortic arch.

2 major groups: Prototheria and Theria. Living prototherians are placed in
Monotremata.

Therians are subdivided into 2: Metatheria (with yolk sac placenta), and
Eutheria (chorioallantoic placenta).

A. Monotremata

Cloaca has a single opening to the exterior. No nipples. Modified sweat
glands sucked by young. No scrotal sac. No pinna of ear. Macrolecithal
eggs. Brain lacks corpus callosum. Endothermic.

Platypus (ductbill). Webbed feet.

Echidna (spiny anteater). Long sticky tongue. Stout claws. Armed with
sharp quills. Roll into a ball for protection.

B. Marsupialia

Marsupuim (maternal abdominal puch). Yolk sac serves as placenta.
Geographically isolated in Australia.

Kangaroo. Koala. Wallaby. Opossum. Phalanger. Tasmanian wolf.

C. Insectivora

Generalized mammals. Diet consisting of worms, insects, and other
small vertebrates.

Primitive traits: plantigrade, five toes, smooth cerebral hemispheres,
poorly differentiated premolars, large allantois and yolk-sac, shallow
cloaca. Sharp pointed teeth with incisors.
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Shrews, hedgehogs, moles.

D. Xenarthra

Insectivorous. None have incisors or canine. Anteaters are completely
toothless. Enlarged front claws used for digging. Armadillos always
give birth to identical quadruplets. Only mammals that develop a true
bony dermal armor.

Armadillos, sloths, and South American anteaters.

E. Edentata

Advance insectivorous. Toothless. Armored mammals. Nocturnal. Can
roll into a ball. Armadillos!

F. Tubulidentata

Elongated snout. Long sticky tongue. Strong clawson front feet. Teeth
are peg-like, lack enamel, and have shallow roots. Digitigrade Devrived
from ungulate lineage. Last surviving ancient line of hoofed mammals.
AARDVARKS.

G. Pholidota

Toothless, scaly anteaters. Overlapping horn scales. Scales made of
Keratin. Skull is conical without zygomatic arch. Jaw muscles are weak.
Grinding of food assisted by pebbles (gizzard of birds). Only one genus:
Manus.

H. Chiroptera

BATS. Derived from basal insectivore. Patagium (wing). With keeled
sternum. Pectoral muscles are strong. With pinna. Can fly.
Insectivorous. Frugivurous (fruit eaters). Sanguinivorous. (blood of
mammals). Incisor teeth occur only in upper jaw, only one pair. Bones
are slender but not pneumatic.


3BIO2

Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

I.

Primates

Arboreal mammals. Opposable thumbs. Presence of nails. Large
cerebral hemisphere. Duplex uterus. Plantigrade. Big toe is also
opposable in most primates. 2 sub-orders: Prosimii, and Anthropoidea.

1. Prosimians

Arboreal. Mostly nocturnal. Long axis of head is in line with
vertebra. Lemurs. Lorises (no tail).

Tarsiers: resemble anthropoids, head is more nearly balanced at
right angles to the vertebral column, snout is truncated, fingers
have nails, eyes are close together and oriented forward. Deciduate
placenta (fetal membrane becomes rooted into the wall of the
maternal uterus)

2. Anthropoids

2 groups: Platyrrhines, and Catarrhines. Grouped on the basis of
the direction that the nostrils open.

i.
Platyrrhines

Monkeys, marmosets. Capuchins. Spider monkeys. Howler
monkeys. Nostrils open to the side. Enlarged pharynx and
hyoid bone.

ii.
Catarrhines

Apes, humans. Babboons, macaques.

No tail. Well developed tail in fetuses. 32 teeth. Deciduate
placenta. Highly developed cerebral hemispheres. Nostrils
are close together and open downward.

Humans: S-curve in vertebral column (erect). Smaller
canines. Enlarged frontal lobes of cerebral hemisphere.
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J.

K.

L.

M.

N.

3BIO2

Larger brain case. Nose became more prominent. Shorter

arms. Big toe not opposable. Opposable thumbs.
Lagomorpha

Herbivores. Split upperlip. Strong hind legs. 2 pairs of incisors.

2 Families:

Hares and rabbits: Rabbits differ from hares in being born in gur-lines
nest, blin, virtually hairless, and helpless.

Pikas: smaller body, shorter ears, fore and hind limbs of about equal
length.

Rodentia

Largest mammalian order. Single pair of curved incisors. No canines.
Diastema: stretch of toothless jaw. Cellulose eaters. Plantigrade.
Clawed feet.

Carnivora

Flesh eaters. Terrestrials. Long sharp canines. Powerful jaws. Feet with
tori. 42 PERMANENT TEETH. Tricuspid premolars. Reduced clavicles
or vestigial. Retractable claws. With large scent glands near the anus.

Eight families: cats, civets, hyenas, canines, bears, pandas, raccoons,
mongooses, and mustelids.

Pinnipedia

Carnivores that adapted to an aquatic life. No pinna. Flippers.
Anadromous organisms. Usually lack claws.

Ungulates

Mammals that walk on the tips of their toes, protected by hoofs. No
more than 4 toes on each foot. Horses only have 1 toe.


Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

1. Perissodactyla

Horses, Horselike mammals, tapirs, and rhinoceros.

Unguligrades. MEXASONIC FOOT: walk on single digit.

2. Atriodactyla

PARAXONIC FOOT: walks on 2 toes. Ungulates. Most diverse.
Chambered stomachs. RUMINANTS (except pigs).

Pigs, hippopotamuses, cattles, camels, peccary, deer, antelopes,
giraffe.

O. Subungulates

1. Hyracoidea

Hyraxes. 4 digits on forefeet and 3 on hind feet. Hunchback when at
rest. Harelip. Plantigrade. With small flat hoofs. Crowned teeth.

2. Proboscidea

With proboscis. Incisors form tusks. Scanty hair on thick wrinkled
skin. Molar are grinders. Bulky animal. Subungulates. 5 toes ending
hoof-like nails. No canine.

Elephants. Matodons.

3. Sirenia

Vegan. Fresh water or marine. Few hairs. Paddle-like forelimbs.
No hindlimbs (vestiges present internally, attached to pelvic
girdle). Naked skin. Vestigial nails. Snout is covered with coarse
bristles.

Manatees and dugongs. Also known as sea cows.

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P. Cetacea

Permanently marine mammals. With tail fin similar to fishes. Flippers.
One nostril (dorsal). Hind limbs and girdles are either mere vestiges
embedded in the body wall or missing in some species. Blubber (heavy
layer of subcutaneous fat). Echolocation. No sense of smell.
Communication: whistles, snapping the jaws, and slapping the water
with flukes.

Whales, dolphins, and porpoises.

END

























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Chapter 4: Parade of the Craniates

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