CHAPTER 4

SOLUTIONS
Chemistry for AUSMAT
Prepared by Mr Venu (MCKL)

Formation of solution
When homogeneous mixture formed (two substances

mixed together), one substance has dissolved in another.

No distinct boundaries bet. the two substances mixed.
Dissolved substances has broken up into individual
substances.
Eg. Glucose (solid lattice) break away to mix with water

molecules.
This glucose solution = homogeneous mixture of glucose
and water molecules.

 When Heterogeneous mixture formed (adding insoluble

substance eg. Oil or sand), two phases (layers) will form.

Solvent: large amount of solution.
Solute: least amount of solution.
Eg 1g of glucose + 500ml of water. (solvent=water,
solute=glucose).
See table 4.1, pg 94.

Solution process
Stronger bond need more energy to break (the bond).

Energy released when new bond formed.

Stronger bonds, need more energy to make the bonds.
Other factors of dissolving process: entrophy (the

tendency of a system to move towards a greater state of

disorder.

Mixing polar solutes and polar solvents

Like-dissolves-like: polar solutes dissolve in polar solvent.

Eg. HCl + Water.

Methanol + Water (pg 94).

Propanone + Water (pg 95)

 The previous reasoning can also be used to explain the

solubility of polar solutes in other polar solvents apart

from water.
For example, methanol and ethanol are both soluble in

propanone because during the dissolving process, the two

alcohols form hydrogen bonds with propanone, and
hydrogen bonds and dipole dipole forces are broken.

Falkirk Wheel : Scotland

The Falkirk Wheel transports boats between the Union Canal and the Forth and Clyde
canal. It opened in 2002 and is the only rotating boat lift in the world. It completes a full
spin in 8 minutes).

Mixing a non polar solute

with polar solvent

Mixing a non-polar solute with a nonpolar solvent

Do all polar substances dissolve in water, a

highly polar solvent?
Some molecules contain a polar group, but the rest of the

molecule is essentially non-polar.

For example, the alcohol butan-1-ol, CH3CH2CH2CH2OH, has
an OH group that is polar.
However, the chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms is nonpolar
and this can have an influence on the solubility of the alcohol in
water.
*Solubility (in water) of alcohols decrease as the length of the
carbon chain increases.
even though the OH end of the alcohol molecule is able to form
a hydrogen bond with water molecules, the hydrocarbon
chain, being reasonably large compared to the water
molecules, will have to push some water molecules apart
to fit in between them.

 alcohol molecule becomes less polar as the number of

carbon and hydrogen atoms in the chain increases.

Because the molecules with the longer hydrocarbon chain
also contain more electrons, the dispersion forces between
them formed.

Prediction of solubility of polar and non-polar substances

Predictions concerning degree of solubility

polar (and ionic) solutes will dissolve in polar solvents
non-polar solutes will dissolve in non-polar solvents

the solubility of a polar solute, and an ionic compound,

decreases as the polarity of the solvent decreases

the solubility of a non-polar solute increases as the

polarity of the solvent decreases.

Predict the solubility of the following

substances in water and in petrol.
ammonia, NH3?
Water

Petrol

 methane, CH4

Water

Petrol

 calcium chloride?

Water

Petrol

 Ethanol?
Water

Petrol

 naphthalene (C10H8)?

Water

Petrol

Dissolving ionic compounds in water

When ionic compound dissolves in water:

Bonds will be broken and new bonds will form.

>>>>hydrogen bonds between the water molecules must

be disturbed
>>>>ionic bonds holding the ions in the lattice must be
broken.

Attractive forces do exist between ions and

polar molecules
This type of attractive force is called an iondipole force.

It can be stronger than hydrogen bonds (but not as strong

as the various forms of strong bonding).

Positive ions attract the partial negatively charged

end of the water molecule, the lone pairs of the oxygen

atoms.
Vice versa.

 Water molecules cluster around each ion in layers.

For smaller monatomic ions like Li, four water molecules

usually form.
But for larger ions, typically six water molecules.
*For some ions, these water molecules remain bonded to
the ion even when the solvent is evaporated.

 ions with the polar molecules around them are called

complex ions.
Other than water, other polar molecules can form

complexes

 The polar molecules that are attracted to the positive

and negative ions, during the formation of a complex ion,

are often called ligands.
A complex ion is therefore composed of a positive or
negative ion and ligands.

Review exercise 4.2

1 Which of the following substances

would you predict to be soluble in

water?
sodium phosphate
propan-1-ol, C3H7OH
turpentine, C10H16 (approximate)
zinc carbonate ZnCO3
iron(III) sulfide Fe2S3
hydrogen bromide, HBr

A sulphide is a simple
chemical combination of
an element and the
Sulphur atom e.g.
Hydrogen Sulphide,
H2S.
A sulphite is a chemical
combination of an
element and a compound
of Sulphur and Oxygen,
namely 3 Oxygen atoms
to every Sulphur atom.
E.g. Calcium Sulphite
CaSO3

 2 Draw the particles present in an aqueous solution of

potassium cyanide, labeling the bonds between and within

the particles. Identify which bonds are weak and which
are strong.

 3 Explain what bonds are broken and formed during the

dissolving of potassium bromide in water.

Include diagrams to support your answer.

The mole concept

Review exercise 4.3

Work in pairs.

Q1-Q4.

Solution concentrations
quantity of solute dissolved in a particular quantity of

solution.
commonly used to express:

mole per litre, mol L-1

gram per litre, g L-1
parts per million, ppm
percentage composition by mass.

Concentration in mole per litre, mol L-1

(molarity)

Concentration in gram per litre (g L-1)

Concentration in parts per million (ppm)

In simple terms, the concentration in parts per million can

be thought of as the
mass in grams of solute dissolved in
1 000 000 g of solution.

Concentration expressed as percentage

composition
percentage of solute in a particular solution.

Review exercise 4.4

Question 3 and 6.

Diluting and mixing solutions

When more solvent is added to a solution, the

concentration of the solution decreases.

In this dilution process, the volume of the solution is
increased, but the amount of solute remains constant.
mole of solute in concentrated solution = mole of solute in
dilute solution

 See Example 4.14