Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
AND ANIMATION
Huhmann, Bruce A. (2003) “Visual Complexity in Banner Ads: The Role of Color,
Photography, and Animation,” Visual Communication Quarterly, 10 (Summer), 10-17.
I would like to thank the editor, Julianne Newton, and the three anonymous reviewers for all
their helpful comments on this manuscript.
AND ANIMATION
Abstract
Two studies investigate visual complexity in banner ads and support predictions based on
the resource-matching perspective, which suggests that processing is optimized when the
resources required to process a stimulus match the resources available. A content analysis of
actual banner ads indicates that Internet advertising tends to rely on a moderate degree of visual
complexity. This implies that advertisers’ experience may be intuitively encouraging them to
combine visual elements, such as color, line art, photography, animated text, and animated
visuals for moderate complexity, which should improve message processing. A follow-up
experiment verifies that, when processing resources are constrained, memory is better for images
with moderate visual complexity than for more simple or more complex images.
AND ANIMATION
This article focuses on one of these principles, visual complexity. Visual complexity is
determined by the elements comprising an image. Images with more elements or detail (e.g.,
colors, animation/movement, or photography instead of line art) are more visually complex.
Thus, for example, an image with even just two colors against a background is more complex
has long been of interest to scholars (e.g., Berlyne 1960, 1974; Cox and Cox 2002; Morrison and
Dainoff 1972; Rimmer 1984; Vitz 1966). Increases in the complexity of a visual stimulus have
been found to encourage a variety of desirable audience responses, such as greater attention
(Berlyne 1974; Lang, Zhou, Schwartz, Bolls, and Potter 2000; Morrison and Dainoff 1972) and
better memory (Berry 1991; Gilbert and Schleuder 1990; Lang et al. 2000).
Research on visual complexity has primarily involved print media (e.g., Gilbert and
Schleuder 1990; Micklos 1982; Morrison and Dainoff 1972) or television programming (e.g.,
Lang et al. 2000; Thorson and Lang 1988; Welch and Watt 1982). However, audience responses
to visual complexity in an Internet context are in need of exploration. Thus, the purpose of this
paper will be to investigate visual complexity in banner ads through two studies, a content
analysis that documents the visual complexity of actual banner ads and an experiment that tests
the impact of visual complexity on processing images similar to those found in banner ads.
2
Since the first banner ad spanned the top of the HotWired web site in 1994, Internet
advertising expenditures have seen triple digit growth to approximately $5.6 billion in 2002
(Boland 2002). Although limited in size to 468 by 60 pixels, banner ads are the main form of
advertising on the Web. While designed to elicit a direct response, measured by click-through
rates, banner ads also stimulate other communication effects, such as message recall and attitude
While banner ads are obviously becoming an important form of visual communication,
little is known of the role played by visual complexity in banner ads. However, there has been
some research into one visual element, animation, from which some effects of visual complexity
might be inferred. Animated banner ads often use a GIF89 file, which repeatedly cycles through
a number of still images to create the illusion of movement similar to kinetoscopes of the late
1890s (e.g., see Figure 1). Unfortunately, findings of studies on animated banner ads are
contradictory. Li and Bukovac (1999) found that animated banner ads led to quicker click-
through responses and better recall than ones without animation. However, Rae and Brennan
(1998) found that both prompted and free recall were higher for banner ads without animation.
While not much research has investigated the effects of visual complexity in an Internet
context, some implications for audience responses can be derived from research in other media
on visual complexity or elements that can be used to create visual complexity, such as color,
previously been found to encourage greater reader attention (Berlyne 1974; Lang et al. 2000;
Morrison and Dainoff 1972). Complexity can also aid the memory for visuals (Gilbert and
3
Schleuder 1990). Improved memory has also been demonstrated with research on individual
elements that could be used to create visual complexity. In comparison to monochrome images,
for example, color has been found to improve recognition of newspaper photographs (Josephson
1996) and recall of photographs (Berry 1991). Similar improvements in memory have been
observed for photographs, which are typically more visually complex, in comparison to line art
Study 1
Study 1 was conducted to determine the level of visual complexity in actual banner ads.
A content analysis examined the visual elements that banner ads typically use and the resultant
level of visual complexity. Complexity increases as more detail (e.g., photography rather than
line art, color rather than monochrome, or animated rather than still images or text) is added to a
banner ad visual (e.g., see Figure 2). Given that prior research in other media has found that
increased visual complexity improves audience attention and memory, it is hypothesized that:
H1: There will be a greater number of banner ads that contain a higher degree instead of
Method
A content analysis was conducted on 137 banner ads from the collection of the Banner
table from the 1,712 banner ads in the museum’s collection. These banner ads were submitted
by their designers; so, there is some self-selection bias in the sample. Only banner ads (468 by
60 pixels) were included in the sampling universe; other forms of Internet advertising in the
museum’s collection, such as microbuttons (88 by 31 pixels), half banners (234 by 60 pixels),
and square banners (125 by 125 pixels) were not included. The 137 banner ads analyzed
4
fashion, consumer electronics, home repair, pet care, etc.) While most of the banner ads were for
U.S. web sites and products, some were for web sites and products of other countries (e.g.,
Each banner ad was coded as to the image type (text only, line art, or photography), use
of color (monochrome or color), and use of animated (i.e., moving) images or texts.1 Since
visual complexity has been defined as the number of elements, such as these, used in an image,
an overall visual complexity score was created to reflect that number. In regard to image type, a
banner ad’s visual complexity score received no additional points if only text was present, one
point if a line art image was present, and two points if a photographic image was present.
Similarly, one point per element was added to a banner ad’s visual complexity score for the
presence of each of the following elements: color, animated visuals, or animated text. Thus, the
visual complexity score could range from a low of zero (i.e., a banner ad comprised of only text
in monochrome without any animated visuals or text) to a high of five (i.e., a banner ad with a
Results
Table 1 shows the number of banner ads fitting each condition. In regard to image type,
24 banner ads had text only with no visual, 49 used line art, and 64 used photography. Of banner
ads with visuals, 22 were monochrome and 91 were color. In regard to animation, 45 had
animated visuals, 35 had animated text, and 6 had both animated visuals and text.
Hypothesis 1 predicted that banner ad designers would use higher levels of visual
complexity to achieve the positive effects on audience attention and memory found in prior
research in other media contexts. Thus, more banner ads with higher visual complexity scores
5
were expected. Contrary to the prediction of hypothesis 1, designers were more likely to employ
a moderate rather than a higher or lower degree of visual complexity in the sample of banner ads
analyzed (χ2 = 12.124, df = 2, p < .001). In fact, a majority (57%) of banner ads contained a
moderate degree of visual complexity (i.e., an overall visual complexity score of two or three) as
shown in Figure 3. Lower levels of visual complexity (i.e., scores of zero or one) were found in
23% of banner ads analyzed. Higher levels of visual complexity (i.e., scores of four or five)
Discussion
While various elements can be used to create visual complexity in banner ads (e.g., see
Figure 2), a majority of banner ad visuals appear to use a moderate degree of complexity. Over
half of all banner ads analyzed had scores of two or three points out of overall visual complexity
scores that ranged from zero to five points. The mean overall visual complexity score of 2.54
points and median of three points provide further evidence that a moderate level of complexity is
Given the benefits of more visually complex stimuli for audience attention and memory
as documented in previous research, it was expected that banner ad designers would employ a
high level of visual complexity. Also, designers could have felt compelled to use color,
photography, and animation to appear technologically savvy and up-to-date, in much the same
way as newspapers feel compelled to use color photographs (Detenber and Winch 2001).
However, experimenting with the visual design of banner ads is relatively simple and
should not take as long for banner ad designers to learn how to create visual, or verbal, messages
that receive the best response in terms of click-through rates (Hanson 2000). The greater use of
6
banner ads with moderate visual complexity may imply that such banner ads are the ones best
Also, although most prior research has established a positive linear relationship between
visual complexity and processing (e.g., Berry 1991; Gilbert and Schleuder 1990; Lang et al.
2000), this linear relationship is unable to explain certain findings. For example, Welch and
Watt (1982) found that pre-schoolers’ recall for segments of the television show Sesame Street
was better when less visual complexity was present. Also, Ritchey (1982) found that, if the
items were categorized (e.g., animals), detailed drawings with labels as well as outlines with
labels were better recalled than just the labels alone. However, if the items were uncategorized,
recall of outlines with labels outperformed recall of either detailed drawings with labels or the
labels alone.
The resource-matching perspective, which takes into account the viewer’s limited
processing capacity, may be able to explain why some studies have found a positive impact of
visual complexity and others have found a negative impact. While the concept of limited
cognitive capacity is not new (e.g., Broadbent 1958), the resource-matching perspective suggests
that processing will be optimal when available resources match the resources required to
adequately process a stimulus. When a stimulus requires more resources (e.g., cognitive
when more resources are available than required to process a stimulus, processing will not be as
good (e.g., Anand and Sternthal 1990; Meyers-Levy and Peracchio 1995). Thus, if the
information load of a visual stimulus is less than the resources available to process that
information, the viewer is expected to devote the extra resources to some other cognitive task to
the detriment of processing. If the information load of a visual stimulus matches the resources
7
available, processing will be optimal. But if the information load of a visual stimulus is greater
than the available resources, the viewer will not be able to adequately process the visual
stimulus.
opportunity, or ability to process information (MacInnis, Moorman, & Jaworski, 1991). For
example, the less interest someone viewing a newspaper photo has in the subject matter, the less
processing faculties to understanding that photo. Also, the cognitive resources available may be
limited by someone’s opportunity to process the photo, such as when time is limited (e.g.,
someone is rushing past a newsstand and only has a second or two to view the photo) or when
distraction is present (e.g., someone is trying to comprehend the newspaper photo while riding a
busy subway, watching television, listening to someone else speak, etc.). The cognitive
resources may also be limited by one’s ability. For example, if person is very young (e.g., five
years old), they may not possess the information-processing faculties or the prior knowledge of
the subject matter needed to comprehend the newspaper photo. Alternatively, photographers or
editors can reduce the resources required to process a photo by cropping or digitally removing
These constraints on available processing resources viewed within the framework of the
resource-matching perspective can explain why increasing visual complexity has not always
been found to increase processing. For example, in Ritchey’s (1982) experiment, opportunity to
process was limited by the time viewers were exposed to the visual stimuli. Ritchey (1982)
exposed his subjects to a slide containing 54 items for a total of eight seconds. Since the
cognitive resource required to process the images was greater when the items were
8
uncategorized (i.e., had no common categorical origin), recall was higher for outlines labeled
with the names of the items, which represent a moderate level of visual complexity, than for the
more visually complex detailed drawings with labels. Whereas the resources available to
process the items within eight seconds remained the same, categorizing the items lessened the
resources required to process, which improved the recall of the more visually complex detailed
drawings. Regardless of whether or not the items were categorized, far more resources were
available than required to process the more visually simple set of labels alone; therefore, subjects
devoted excess resources to some other processing task (e.g., thinking about their weekend
Similarly, rather than Welch and Watt’s study contradicting other research on visual
memory was best when the resources required by visually simple or complex stimuli matched
the resources available as constrained by the subjects’ age. Research on how age influences
processing ability suggests that subjects aged 15 and under or 51 and older would be expected to
have more limited cognitive capacity than subjects between the ages of 16 to 50 (e.g., Maitland
et al. 2000; McGinnis and Zelinski 2000; Small et al. 1999). Thus, Welch and Watt’s (1982)
study, which was conducted on preschool children whose processing resources are not yet fully
developed, found that visual simplicity improved memory. On the other hand, research
conducted on undergraduate or graduate students (Berry 1991; Gilbert and Schleuder 1990; Lang
animated banner ads. Li and Bukovac’s (1999) used undergraduate subjects between the ages of
17 to 25 in a lab setting free of distractions. Rae and Brennan’s (1998) subjects were drawn
9
from the general population; thus, some may have been outside the peak age range for cognitive
resources. Also, their subjects participated outside a lab setting where distractions were likely
present. Given these differences in the ability and opportunity to process, animation hurt recall
by increasing resources required beyond the resources available to Rae and Brennan’s subjects,
but helped recall by increasing resources required nearer to the resources available to Li and
Bukovac’s subjects.
complexity and memory would mean that the relationship is nonmonotonic (i.e., an upside-down
U shape). Memory for visual stimuli should rise with complexity up to the point at which the
Study 2
A second study was conducted to specifically test the predictions derived from resource-
used to measure how much subjects in study 2 processed images with differing degrees of
could explain the predominate use of moderate visual complexity in banner ad design found in
study 1.
Cognitive resources available for processing banner ad visuals may be limited by the
time someone looks at a banner ad before clicking on another web link or scrolling down past
the banner ad, the alternative task (i.e., most people do not go to a particular web page to view
banner ads, but to perform some other task), or the existence of distractions (e.g., music listening
or television viewing while surfing the Internet). Thus, according to the resource-matching
10
perspective, optimal processing will occur when the resources required to process an image
H2: Under conditions of limited cognitive resources, images with a moderate degree
Also, whereas gender should not affect the resources available for processing, the
subject’s age may constrain processing ability since subjects aged 15 and younger or 51 and
older may possess more limited cognitive resources than subjects aged 16 to 50 (e.g., Maitland et
al. 2000; McGinnis and Zelinski 2000; Small et al. 1999). Therefore:
H3: Recall should be lower for subjects aged 15 and younger or 51 and older than for
other subjects.
Method
complexity -- monochrome line art, line art with two colors, line art with four colors, and full-
color photographs. Since adding colors to an image or switching from line art to photography
from monochrome line art to line art with two colors to line art with four colors to full-color
photographs.
Fifty subjects were shown four sets of ten computerized images. Set order was rotated to
avoid order effects. Each set of images appeared against a plain white background without any
11
accompanying text or other elements on the page. Subjects viewed the stimuli in the same
laboratory setting.
To constrain resources available, opportunity to process each set was limited to fifteen
seconds. Fifteen seconds was chosen because Web users typically view Web site home pages
for an average of 10-15 seconds (Young 1996). After viewing a page, subjects had one minute
were not used. The subjects ranged in age from pre-teens to 70 years of age. Sixteen of the
subjects were under 16 years of age. Six subjects were between 16 and 30 years of age.
Twenty-one subjects were between 16 and 50 years of age. Seven subjects were over the age of
50. Of the subjects, 28 were male and 22 were female. Subjects were recruited from a variety of
Results
Because subjects were asked to recall the images in all four conditions, the responses are
related. Hence, a repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to
test hypothesis 2 with two levels of gender and three levels of age. If responses fit with the
which would reflect a non-monotonic, curvilinear relationship between recall and visual
complexity. If the resource-matching perspective does not apply to this data, a monotonic
relationship should exist between visual complexity and recall, resulting in a linear pattern.
Figure 3 shows the mean recall for each of the four conditions and the tests of the linear,
quadratic pattern of contrasts in the mean number of images recalled was observed, which
supports hypothesis 2.
Paired comparisons show that recall of line art with two colors is significantly higher
than of monochrome line art (t = -2.385, df = 49, p = .021). No difference was observed in recall
of line art with two or four colors (t = 0.732, df = 49, p = .467) or between monochrome line art
and line art with four colors (t = -0.990, df = 49, p = .327). Full-color photos were recalled
significantly less than line art with either two colors (t = 3.344, df = 49, p = .002) or four colors
(t = 2.319, df = 49, p = .025), but not monochrome line art (t = 1.516, df = 49, p = .136).
Tests of the effects of gender and age showed that the mean number of images recalled
did not differ significantly by gender (F1, 43 = 0.002, p = .966) nor by the interaction between
gender and age (F2,43 = 1.139, p = .330). However, in support of hypothesis 3, the mean number
of images recalled did differ by age (F3,43 = 3.616, p = .021). The best recall occurred in the 16
Multiple comparisons show that the number of images recalled by subjects in the 16 to 30
age group (mean = 6.458) did not differ from the number recalled by the 31 to 50 age group
(mean = 6.2024; p = 0.629). But subjects in both the 16 to 30 age group and the 31 to 50 age
group recalled more images than those in the 15 and under age group (mean = 5.063, p’s < .02)
and marginally more images than those in the 51 and older age group (mean = 5.357; p’s < .10).
The number of images recalled by the 51 and older age group did not differ from the number
Since the task of recalling 10 images that appeared for only 15 seconds is cognitively
demanding itself, it is not surprising that the greatest differences between the age groups with
more available cognitive resources (16 to 30 and 31 to 50 year olds) and less available cognitive
13
resources (15 and younger and 51 and older) occurred with the least complex and, hence, least
cognitive demanding images (i.e., monochrome and two-color line art) as shown in Table 2.
Univariate tests showed no significant difference in the mean number of images recalled
in any of the four conditions by gender or the gender by age interaction. However, as shown in
Table 2, age had an effect on the mean number of images recalled for monochrome and two-
color line art. With regard to monochrome line art, paired comparisons show that subjects age
16 to 30 recalled more images than subjects 15 and under (p = .001), but only marginally more
than subjects 51 and older (p = .087). There was no significant difference in the recall of
recalled more monochrome line art than subjects 15 and under (p < .001), but not those 51 and
older (p = .158). With regard to two-color line art, subjects 16 to 30 recall marginally more
images than those 15 and under (p = .067) or 51 and older (p = .061). There was no difference in
the recall of two-color line art between subjects 16 to 30 and those 31 to 50 (p = .860). Subject
31 to 50 recalled more two-color line art than those 15 and under (p = .018) or 51 and older (p =
.029).
Discussion
as recall increased as visual complexity increased up to a point and then began to decrease. The
simplest images, monochrome line art, were not recalled as well as moderately complex line art
with two colors. Recall decreased as visual complexity increased from line art with two or four
colors to full-color photos, since opportunity to process limited available resources. Also,
subjects whose ability to process was not yet fully developed or whose processing speed was
beginning to decline, did not perform as well overall as subjects with peak processing ability.
14
In study 2, memory for images from the four sets was used to measure information
processing. For almost 75 years, memory has been used as a surrogate for attention and depth of
processing (e.g., Starch 1923). And, in fact, previous research suggests better remembered
information has been more extensively processed information (Anderson 1985). If the memory
for images does, in fact, translate into better processing of banner ad visuals, it is not surprising
that designers were found to be more likely to use moderate visual complexity in study 1.
General Discussion
As with print and television media visuals, the use of color, photography, and animation
undoubtedly benefit the processing of banner ads. However, increasing visual complexity by
adding more detail or more elements increases the ability of a banner ad to communicate only up
to the point at which the resources required to process the message match those available to the
audience. This point at which the resources required match those available depends not only on
the visual complexity of the banner ad, but also on the individual audience member’s motivation,
opportunity, and ability to process the banner ad. As indicated in study 2, if the processing
demands of a visually complex banner ad surpass or the processing demands of a visually simple
banner ad fall short of the processing resources available to the audience then processing appears
to be hindered. Study 1 suggests that banner ad designers are, at least, intuitively aware of this
through their experience and tend to design banner ads with moderate visual complexity. Since
experimenting with the elements that comprise banner ads is simple and inexpensive, banner ad
designers quickly learn how to create successful banner ads (Hanson 2000).
Many in the Internet community view the Internet as a unique medium in which mass
communication principles developed from past research on print, radio, and television do not
apply (e.g., Sustain-Ability.net’s (2002) Web Users Design Guide). Such a view is not limited to
15
practitioners; some researchers have also expressed similar opinions (e.g., Grossman 1994;
Leong, Huang, and Stanners 1996). However, other researchers are beginning to demonstrate
that many communication principles can be successfully applied to the Internet. For example,
Gallagher, Foster, and Parsons (2001) demonstrated that traditional mass media principles apply
information from print and Internet texts. The current two studies demonstrate that visual
processing principles developed for traditional mass media can likely be applied to new media,
such as the Internet, as well. These studies support in an Internet banner ad context hypotheses
derived from previous research on visual complexity in other media. The nonmonotonic
(upside-down U-shaped) relationship between visual complexity and unaided recall of the
(i.e., the number of cuts, edits, pans, dollies, zooms, etc.) in television images (e.g., Gunter 1987;
Thorson and Lang 1988). Unlike the previous studies, this study makes an added contribution of
theoretically explaining the nonmonotonic relationship between visual complexity using the
Since the current studies represent preliminary investigations into responses to visual
complexity in banner ads, a variety of other avenues for future research are also suggested.
While the results of study 1 indicate that banner ads often use moderate visual complexity, which
suggests that advertisers may be experiencing better direct response (i.e., click-throughs) with
these ads, a specific test of this variable for banner ads with different levels of visual complexity
would be valuable. Study 2 measured the recall of sets of images. While memory is an outcome
of processing and, therefore, has often been used as a surrogate for processing; research is
researchers and practitioners alike (e.g., attention, comprehension, etc.). Also, the number of
subjects in the 51 and older group of study 2 was small. More research investigating the
response of this age group to visuals of various degrees of complexity is sorely needed. This is
the fastest growing age group in the overall population; yet, almost all studies of visual
complexity focus on subjects 25 years of age or younger. The experiment also did not test
reactions to the use of animated images or texts in creating visual complexity; this is an area
worthy of further research given the frequent use of animation in banner ads. Finally, while the
design of the experiment created four sets of images that increased in visual complexity (and,
hence, the resources required to process), it did not allow for the individual effects of color and
photography on the visual complexity and processing resources required to be teased out. This
According to an article in New Media Age (2002), the web advertising industry tends to
have few guidelines in regard to designing successful banner ads. The current studies should
assist designers in more confidently identifying the types of visuals and visual elements (e.g.,
color or animation) to include in a banner ad. As an additional benefit, banner ads with
moderate visual complexity should not require as much computer download time as banner ads
with high visual complexity; thus, reducing web user frustration at slow download times. These
studies also provide some research to support designers in convincing clients who may request a
banner ad that will be too simple or too complex to opt for a potentially more successful one
with moderate visual complexity. To enhance recall and processing, the processing requirements
of a banner ad should match the web user’s available resources. Otherwise, a lack of attention,
frustration, or annoyance may result. Perhaps, the high visual complexity of rich media ads with
“such a mass of moving, singing, beeping images you can get motion sickness sitting at your
17
desk” is partially responsible for the greater level of annoyance these ads engender (cf. Schorow
2002, 34). User frustration and annoyance stemming from the added complexity of Java applets,
Shock, Flashware, or interactive features is part of the reason online newspapers do not use or
have discontinued their use (Dibean and Garrison 2001; Thompson and Wassmuth 2001).
While the results of studies reported here suggest that moderate visual complexity
generally results in the best processing of a banner ad, exceptions undoubtedly exist. The goal
for a banner ad designer, or indeed any communicator using visual images, should be to create a
match between the resources required to process a visual image and the resources available to
the audience. In cases in which the audience’s available resources are even more constrained
than in the experiment reported here, such as a web page teaming with a multitude of banner ads
or other visual images competing for attention, visual simplicity (which requires fewer resources
to process) should communicate better than even moderate visual complexity. In other cases,
such as when frequent repetition or numerous exposures increase the opportunity to process,
higher visual complexity may lead to better processing in the long run as the audience might
quickly tire of simpler images. As with any type of communication, it is important for the
estimate the processing resources available to the audience and design one’s message
accordingly.
18
Footnotes
2. According to the National Park Service website “All photographs and images on this web page are ‘public domain’ images. You are free to
use these images without a release from the National Park Service” (see http://photo.itc.nps.gov/storage/images/help.html for more information).
The line art image (i.e., the lower complexity banner ad) is my own creation.
19
References
Anand, Punam and Brian Sternthal (1990), “Ease of Message Processing as a Moderator of
353.
Anderson, John R. (1985), Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications, New York: Freeman.
Berry, Louis H. (1991), “Visual Complexity and Pictorial Memory: A Fifteen Year Research
Communications and Technology, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 92-102.
Boland, Mary Ann (2002), “Jupiter Research Reports that Classified Growth and Increased
Briggs, Rex and Nigel Hollis (1997), “Advertising on the Web: Is There Response Before Click-
Cox, Dena and Anthony D. Cox (2002), “Beyond First Impressions: The Effects of Repeated
Detenber, Benjamin H., Robert F. Simons, and Gary G. Bennett, Jr. (1998), “Roll ‘Em! The
---------- and Samuel P. Winch (2001), “The Impact of Color on Emotional Responses to
Dibean, Wendy and Bruce Garrison (2001), “How Six Online Newspapers Use Web
Gallagher, Katherine, K. Dale Foster, and Jeffrey Parsons (2001), “The Medium is Not the
Message: Advertising Effectiveness and Content Evaluation in Print and on the Web,”
Gilbert, Kathy and Joan Schleuder (1990), “Effects of Color and Complexity in Still Photographs
Gunter, Barrie (1987), Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News,
Josephson, Sheree (1996), “Questioning the Power of Color,” Visual Communication Quarterly,
Lang, Annie, Shuhua Zhou, Nancy Schwartz, Paul D. Bolls, and Robert F. Potter (2000), “The
Effects of Edits on Arousal, Attention, and Memory for Television Messages: When an
21
Edit is an Edit Can an Edit Be Too Much?” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic
Leong, Elaine K. F., Xueli Huang, and Paul-John Stanners, (1998), “Comparing the
Effectiveness of the Web Site with Traditional Media,” Journal of Advertising Research,
38 (September/October), 55-51.
Li, Hairong and Janice L. Bukovac (1999), “Cognitive Impact of Banner Ad Characteristics: An
341-353.
MacInnis, Deborah J., Christine Moorman, and Bernard J. Jaworski (1991), “Enhancing and
Maitland, Scott B., Robert C. Intrieri, K. Warner Schaie, and Sherry L. Willis (2000), “Gender
Differences and Changes in Cognitive Abilities Across the Adult Life Span,” Aging,
McGinnis, Debra and Elizabeth M. Zelinski (2000), “Understanding Unfamiliar Words: The
Meyers-Levy, Joan and Laura A. Peracchio (1995), “Understanding the Effects of Color: How
Micklos, David (1982), “Visual Complexity and the Function of Graphics in Scientific American
and Science 81,” paper presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Association for
Morrison, Bruce John and Marvin J. Dainoff (1972), “Advertisement Complexity and Looking
Rae, Nathan and Mike Brennan (1998), “The Relative Effectiveness of Sound and Animation in
Rimmer, Tony (1984), “Visual Complexity in Television News: A Time Series Analysis of
presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and
Ritchey, Gary H. (1982), “Pictorial Detail and Recall in Adults and Children,” Journal of
Schorow, Stephanie (2002), “It’s an Ad, Ad, Ad, Ad World When You Log onto the Web,”
Small, Brent J., Roger A. Dixon, David F. Hultsch, and Christopher Hertzog (1999),
11, 2002]
Thompson, David R. and Birgit L. Wassmuth (2001), “Few Newspapers Use Online Classified
Thorson, Esther and Annie Lang (1988), “The Effects of Videographic Complexity on Memory
Tversky, Barbara and Daphna Baratz (1985), “Memory for Faces: Are Caricatures Better than
Vitz, Paul C. (1966), “Preference for Different Amounts of Visual Complexity,” Behavioral
Welch, Alicia J. and James H. Watt, Jr. (1982), “Visual Complexity and Young Children’s
Young, Scott (1996), “Measuring the Value of Web Site Visits Relative to Other Marketing
Total 63 39 29 6 137
25
Table 2. Mean Number of Images Recalled From Each Ten-Image Set By Age Group
Note: This line-art banner ad with animated visuals and text was composed of 30 still frames.
To conserve space, only 20 are presented here. Designed by Angelina Barreras.
27
Note: The addition of other elements, such as color, animated (i.e., moving) visuals, or animated
text would also increase a banner ad’s visual complexity. Photo: National Parks Service.2
Figure 3. Results of the Content Analysis of Banner Ads by Overall Visual Complexity Score
Number of
Banner Ads
60
50 48
40
30
30
23
20 18
14
10
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Note: The overall visual complexity score was computed by giving one point each for the use of line art, color, animated visuals, or
animated texts; two points were given for the use of photography.
2
6.4
6.18
6.2
6
5.94
5.8
5.6 5.66
5.4
5.2 5.22
4.8
4.6
Monochrome line art Two-color line art Four-color line art Full-color photo
Note: Linear contrast F1, 43 = 1.959, p = .169; Quadratic contrast F1, 43 = 11.112, p = .002; Cubic contrast F1, 43 = 0.210, p = .649.