n simplified terms, the rotor of a stepper motor consists of permanent magnets with

poles and a stator with windings. The rotor is constructed using a single magnet mounted in
line with the rotor axis and two pole pieces with many teeth. The teeth are staggered to
produce many salient poles.
The stepper motor is easy to position and moves in steps based on pulses supplied to the
stator windings. The direction of rotation is changed by reversing the pulse sequence and
speed is controlled by the frequency of pulses or pulse rate. The "Micro Stepping Details"
below demonstrates this principle for a stepper motor using full step commutation. Just as
the rotor aligns with one of the stator poles, the second phase is energized. The two phases
alternate on and off, and also reverse polarity. There are four steps. One phase lags the
other phase by one step. This is equivalent to one fourth of an electrical cycle or
90. Stepper motors have a high holding torque but they cannot run at high speeds.

Input:

Inputs are typically pulses digital communications speed

Control:

Basic I/O for full-step and half-step control

Comparators for over-current detection

Capture/Compare/PWM for micro stepping (or half stepping)

Feedback:

Limits switches for homing and safety

Driver:

Multiple Switches (MOSFETS)

Applications

Idle speed adjust

Exhaust gas re-circulation

Duct airflow vanes

Mirror control

Telescopes

Antennas

Toys

Stepper Motor Types, Advantages &

Applications
stepper motor is an electromechanical device it converts electrical power into mechanical power.
Also it is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into an expansive
number of steps. The motors position can be controlled accurately without any feedback
mechanism, as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are similar to
switched reluctance motors.
The stepper motor uses the theory of operation for magnets to make the motor shaft turn a precise
distance when a pulse of electricity is provided. The stator has eight poles, and the rotor has six
poles. The rotor will require 24 pulses of electricity to move the 24 steps to make one complete
revolution. Another way to say this is that the rotor will move precisely 15 for each pulse of
electricity that the motor receives.

Types of Stepper Motor:

There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:
1.

Permanent magnet stepper

2.

Hybrid synchronous stepper

3.

Variable reluctance stepper

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor: Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in
the rotor and operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator
electromagnets.
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor: Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and
operate based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor
points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles.
Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Motor: Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a
combination of permanent magnet (PM) and variable reluctance (VR) techniques to achieve
maximum power in a small package size.

Advantages of Stepper Motor:

1.

The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

2.

The motor has full torque at standstill.

3.

Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an
accuracy of 3 5% of a step and this error is non cumulative from one step to the next.

4.

Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing.

5.

Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor
is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.

6.

The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor
simpler and less costly to control.

7.

It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly
coupled to the shaft.

8.

A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the
frequency of the input pulses.

Applications:
1.

Industrial Machines Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine tooling
automated production equipments.

2.

Security new surveillance products for the security industry.

3.

Medical Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found
inside digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators and blood analysis machinery.

4.

Consumer Electronics Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera focus and
zoom functions.
And also have business machines applications, computer peripherals applications.

Operation of Stepper Motor:

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to
their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple toothed electromagnets
arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an
external control circuit, for example a microcontroller.

Applications[edit]
Computer controlled stepper motors are a type of motion-control positioning system. They are
typically digitally controlled as part of an open loop system for use in holding or positioning
applications.
In the field of lasers and optics they are frequently used in precision positioning equipment such
as linear actuators, linear stages, rotation stages, goniometers, and mirror mounts. Other uses are in
packaging machinery, and positioning of valve pilot stages for fluid control systems.
Commercially, stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, flatbed scanners, computer
printers, plotters, slot machines, image scanners, compact disc drives, intelligent lighting,camera
lenses, CNC machines and, more recently, in 3D printers.

Stepper motor system[edit]

A stepper motor system consists of three basic elements, often combined with some type of user
interface (host computer, PLC or dumb terminal):

Indexers - The indexer (or controller) is a microprocessor capable of generating step pulses
and direction signals for the driver. In addition, the indexer is typically required to perform many
other sophisticated command functions.

Drivers - The driver (or amplifier) converts the indexer command signals into the power
necessary to energize the motor windings. There are numerous types of drivers, with different

voltage and current ratings and construction technology. Not all drivers are suitable to run all
motors, so when designing a motion control system the driver selection process is critical.

Stepper motors - The stepper motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital pulses
into mechanical shaft rotation. Advantages of step motors are low cost, high reliability, high
torque at low speeds and a simple, rugged construction that operates in almost any
environment. The main disadvantages in using a stepper motor is the resonance effect often
exhibited at low speeds and decreasing torque with increasing speed. [7]

Advantages/disadvantages of stepper motors

Advantages

Low cost for control achieved

High torque at startup and low speeds

Ruggedness

Simplicity of construction

Can operate in an open loop control system

Low maintenance

Less likely to stall or slip

Will work in any environment

Can be used in robotics in a wide scale.

High reliability

The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized)

Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an
accuracy of 3 5% of a step and this error is non-cumulative from one step to the next.

Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.

Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor
is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.

The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor
simpler and less costly to control.

It is possible to achieve very low-speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly
coupled to the shaft.

A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the
frequency of the input pulses.

Disadvantages

Require a dedicated control circuit

Use more current than D.C. motors

Torque reduces at higher speeds

Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.

Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

What is a Stepper Motor?

A stepper motor (also referred to as step or stepping motor) is an
electromechanical device achieving mechanical movements through
conversion of electrical pulses. Stepper motors are driven by digital pulses
rather than by a continuous applied voltage. Unlike conventional electric
motors which rotate continuously, stepper motors rotate or step in fixed
angular increments. A stepper motor is most commonly used for position
control. With a stepper motor/driver/controller system design, it is assumed
the stepper motor will follow digital instructions. One important aspect of
stepper motors is the lack of feedback to maintain control of position, which
classifies stepper motors as open-loop systems.

Block Diagram for Stepper Motor System

Physical Properties of a Stepper Motor

The main components of a stepper motor are the shaft, rotor and stator
laminations, magnets, bearings, copper wires and lead wires, washers, and
front and end covers. The shaft of a stepper motor is typically made of
stainless steel metal, while the stator and the rotor laminations are comprised
of silicon steel. The silicon steel allows for higher electrical resistivity which
lowers core loss. The various magnets available in stepper motors allow for
multiple construction considerations. These magnets are ferrite plastic, ferrite
sintered and Nd-Fe-B bonded magnets. The bearings of a stepper motor vary
with size of the motor. The housing materials are composed of various other
metals like aluminum, which allow for high resistance to heat.
How Does a Stepper Motor Work?
The main use of stepper motors is to control motion, whether it is linear or
rotational. In the case of rotational motion, receiving digital pulses in a correct
sequence allows the shaft of a stepper motor to rotate in discrete step
increments. A pulse (also referred to as a clock or step signal) used in a
stepper motor system can be produced by microprocessors, timing logic, a
toggle switch or relay closure. A train of digital pulses translates into shaft
revolutions. Each revolution requires a given number of pulses and each
pulse equals one rotary increment or step, which is only a portion of one
complete rotation. There are numerous relationships between the motors shaft
rotation and input pulses. One such relationship is the direction of rotation and
the sequence of applied pulses. With proper sequential pulses being delivered

to the device, the rotation of the shaft motor will undergo a clockwise or
counterclockwise rotation. Another relation between the motor's rotation and
input pulses is the relationship between frequency and speed. Increasing the
frequency of the input pulses allows for the speed of the motor shaft rotation
to increase.
Basic Types of Stepper Motors
A stepper motor varies per application by construction and functionality. The
three most common stepper motor types are Variable Reluctance, Permanent
Magnet, and Hybrid Stepper Motors.
Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor
VR stepper motors are characterized as having multiple soft iron rotors and a
wound stator. VR stepper motors generally operate on the basic principle of
the magnetic flux finding the lowest reluctance pathway through a magnetic
circuit. In general operation, VR stepper motors have relatively high step rates
of 5 to 15 degrees and have no detent torque. The step angles taken in VR
stepper motors are related to the number of teeth the stator and rotor have.
The equation relating these two variables can be found in the formula section
of this guide.
How Does a Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor Work?
Referring to Figure 1 on Page 2, the poles become magnetized when the
stator windings are energized with DC current. With the poles becoming
magnetized, the rotor teeth are now attracted to the energized stator poles
and rotate to line up. With the windings around stator A becoming energized
the rotor teeth become attracted allowing the poles to line up. When A's
windings become de-energized and B's windings become energized, the rotor
rotates to line its teeth with the stator teeth. This process continues in
sequence with C, followed by D being energized allowing for the rotor to
rotate.

Brief Summary of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors:

The rotor has multiple soft iron rotors with a wound stator
Least complex, therefore least expensive stepper motor
Large step angles
No detent torque detected in hand rotation of a de-energized
motor shaft

Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motor

PM stepper motors are comprised of permanent magnet rotors with no teeth,
which are magnetized perpendicular to the axis of rotation. By energizing the
four phases in sequence, the rotor rotates due to the attraction of magnetic
poles. The stepper motor shown in Figure 2 on page 3 will take 90 degree
steps as the windings are energized in clockwise sequence: ABAB. PM
stepper motors generally have step angles of 45 or 90 degrees and step at
relatively low rates. However, they exhibit high torque and good damping
characteristics. Anaheim Automation carries a wide selection of PM stepper
motors, ranging from 15 to 57mm in diameter.

Brief Summary of Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motors:

The rotor is a permanent magnet
Large to moderate step angle
Often utilized in computer printers as a paper feeder

Hybrid Stepper Motors

Hybrid stepper motors incorporate the qualities of both the VR and PM
stepper motor designs. With the Hybrid stepper motor's multi-toothed rotor
resemblance of the VR, and an axially magnetized concentric magnet around
its shaft, the Hybrid stepper motor provides an increase in detent, holding and
dynamic torque. In comparison to the PM stepper motor, the Hybrid stepper
motor provides performance enhancement with respect to step resolution,
torque, and speed. In addition, the Hybrid stepper motor is capable of
operating at high stepping speeds. Typical Hybrid stepper motors are

designed with step angles of 0.9, 1.8, 3.6 and 4.5; 1.8 being the most
commonly used step angle. Hybrid stepper motors are ideally suited for
applications having stable loads with speeds under 1,000 rpm. There are key
components which are influential with respect to the running torque of a
Hybrid stepper motor; laminations, teeth and magnetic materials. Increasing
the amount of laminations on the rotor, precision and sharpness of the rotor
and stator teeth, and strength of magnetic material are all factors taken into
consideration in designing for optimal torque output for Hybrid stepper motors.
Brief Summary of Hybrid Stepper Motors:
Smaller step angles in comparison to VR and PM stepper
motors
Rotor is made of a permanent magnet with fine teeth
Increase in detent, holding and dynamic torque
1.8 is the most common step angle
NOTE: At Anaheim Automation, the 1.8 degree Hybrid stepper motor is the
most widely stocked stepper motor type, ranging in size from NEMA 08 to 42.
The Hybrid stepper motor can also be driven two phases at a time to yield
more torque, or alternately one then two then one phase, to produce halfsteps or 0.9 degree increments.
Stepper Gearmotors
The primary difference between individual Stepper Gearmotors is their
performance characteristics. The main function of a Stepper Gearmotor is to
convert the input of a Stepper Motor into an output, with high torque and low
RPM. Anaheim Automation carries both Planetary and Spur Stepper
Gearmotors offering various gear ratios, stack lengths and torque outputs.

Stepper Motors with Spur Gearboxes

Stepper motors integrated with spur gearboxes are readily available, compact

and efficient. Anaheim Automation's Stepper Gearmotors are available with

gear ratios ranging from 3:1 to 150:1. Stepper Motors with Spur Gearboxes
are widely used in applications requiring either an increase or reduction in
speed, and high output torque. When considering Spur Gearboxes, it is
important to take into consideration the bore and shaft diameter and the gear
center, in order to meet specific application needs.
Stepper Motors with Planetary Gearboxes
Stepper Motors integrated with Planetary Gearboxes are compact in size,
efficient, and are offered in various stack lengths. The word "planetary"
derives from the gearbox's resemblance to the solar system. This system
consists of three main components: the sun gear, ring gear, and two or more
planet gears. The sun gear is the located in the center, the ring gear is the
outermost gear, and the planet gears surround the sun gear inside the ring
gear. The Planetary Gearbox is utilized in applications for low backlash,
compact size, high efficiency, resistance to shock, high torque to weight ratio,
and improved lubrication.
How are Stepper Motors Controlled?

A stepper motor performs the conversion of logic pulses by sequencing power

to the stepper motor windings; generally, one supplied pulse will yield one
rotational step of the motor. This precise control is provided by a stepper
driver which controls speed and positioning of the motor. The stepper motor
increments a precise amount with each control pulse, converting digital
information into exact incremental rotation without the need for feedback
devices, such as tachometers or encoders. Since the stepper motor and

driver is an open-loop system, the problems of feedback loop phase shift and
resultant instability, common with servo motor systems are eliminated.
How to Select a Stepper Motor
There are several important criteria involved in selecting the proper stepper
motor:
1. Desired Mechanical Motion
2. Speed Required
3. Load
4. Stepper Mode
5. Winding Configuration
With appropriate logic pulses, stepper motors can be bi-directional,
synchronous, provide rapid acceleration, run/stop, and can interface easily
with other digital mechanisms. Characterized as having low-rotor moment of
inertia, no drift, and a noncumulative positioning error, a stepper motor is a
cost-effective solution for many motion control applications. Generally, stepper
motors are operated without feedback in an open-loop fashion and sometimes
match the performance of more expensive DC Servo Systems. As mentioned
earlier, the only inaccuracy associated with a stepper motor is a
noncumulative positioning error which is measured in % of step angle.
Typically, stepper motors are manufactured within a 3-5% step accuracy.
Motion requirements, load characteristics, coupling techniques, and electrical
requirements need to be understood before the system designer can select
the best stepper motor/driver/controller combination for a specific application.
While not a difficult task, several key factors need to be considered when
determining an optimal stepper motor solution. The system designer should
adjust the characteristics of the elements under his/her control, to meet the
application requirements. Anaheim Automation offers many options in its
broad line of stepper motor products, allowing for the maximum amount of
design flexibility. Although it may appear overwhelming to choose, the result of
having a large number of options is a high-performance system that is costeffective. Elements needed to be considered include the stepper motor, driver,
and power supply selections, as well as the mechanical transmission, such as
gearing or load weight reduction through the use of alternative materials.
Some of these relationships and system parameters are described in this
guide.
Inertial Loads
Inertia is a measure of an object's resistance to a change in velocity. The

larger an object's inertia, the greater the torque is required to accelerate or

decelerate it. Inertia is a function of an object's mass and shape. A system
designer may wish to select an alternative shape or low-density material for
optimal performance. If a limited amount of torque is available in a selected
system, then the acceleration and deceleration times must increase. For most
efficient stepper motor systems, the coupling ratio (gear ratio) should be
selected so the reflected inertia of the load is equal to, or greater than, the
rotor inertia of the stepper motor. It is recommended that this ratio not be less
than 10 times the rotor inertia. The system design may require the inertia to be
added or subtracted by selecting different materials or shapes of the loads.
NOTE: The reflected inertia is reduced by a square of the gear ratio, and the
speed is increased by a multiple of the gear ratio.
Frictional Loads
All mechanical systems exhibit some frictional force. The designer of a
stepper motor system must be able to predict elements causing friction within
the system. These elements may be in the form of bearing drag, sliding
friction, system wear, or the viscosity of an oil filled gear box (temperature
dependent). A stepper motor must be selected that can overcome any system
friction and still provide the necessary torque to accelerate the inertial load.
NOTE: Some friction is desired, since it can reduce settling time and improve
performance.
Positioning Resolution
The positioning resolution required by the application may have an effect on
the type of transmission used, and/or selection of the stepper motor driver. For
example: A lead screw with 5 threads per inch on a full-step drive provides
0.001 inch/step; half-step provides 0.0005 inch/step; a microstep resolution of
25,400 steps/rev provides 0.0000015 inch/step.

Stepper Motor Modes

Stepper motors are driven by waveforms which approximate to sinusoidal
waveforms. There are three excitation modes commonly used with stepper
motors: full-step, half-step and microstepping.

Stepper Motor - Full-Step (Two Phases are on)

In full-step operation, the stepper motor steps through the normal step angle,
e.g. with a 200 step/revolution the motor rotates 1.8 per full step, while in
half-step operation the motor rotates 0.9 per full step. There are two kinds of
full-step modes which are single-phase full-step excitation and dual-phase fullstep excitation. In single-phase full-step excitation, the stepper motor operates
with only one phase energized at a time. This mode is typically used in
applications where torque and speed performances are less important,
wherein the motor operates at a fixed speed and load conditions are well
defined. Typically, stepper motors are used in full-step mode as replacements
in existing motion systems, and not used in new developments. Problems with
resonance can prohibit operation at some speeds. This mode requires the
least amount of power from the drive power supply of any of the excitation
modes. In dual-phase full-step excitation, the stepper motor operates with two
phases energized at a time. This mode provides excellent torque and speed
performance with minimal resonance problems.
NOTE: Dual excitation provides about 30 to 40 percent more torque than
single excitation, but does require twice the power from the drive power
supply. Many of Anaheim Automation's microstepping drivers can be set to
operate at full-step mode if necessary.
Stepper Motor - Half-Step
Stepper motor half-step excitation mode alternates between single and dualphase operations resulting in steps that are half the normal step size.
Therefore, this mode provides twice the resolution. While the motor torque
output varies on alternate steps, this is more than offset by the need to step
through only half the angle. This mode had become the predominately used
mode by Anaheim Automation beginning in the 1970's, because it offers
almost complete freedom from resonance issues. The stepper motor can
operate over a wide range of speeds and drive almost any load commonly
encountered. Although half-step drivers are still a popular and affordable
choice, many newer microstepping drivers are cost-effective alternatives.
Anaheim Automation's BLD75 series is a popular half-step driver and is
suitable for a wide range of stepper motors. With this driver, the customer only
needs a transformer, as the other power supply components are built into the
driver itself.

Stepper Motor - Microstepping

In the stepper motor microstepping mode, a stepper motor's natural step
angle can be partitioned into smaller angles. For example: a conventional 1.8
degree motor has 200 steps per revolution. If the motor is microstepped with a
'divide-by-10,' then each microstep moves the motor 0.18 degrees, which
becomes 2,000 steps per revolution. The microsteps are produced by
proportioning the current in the two windings according to sine and cosine
functions. This mode is widely used in applications requiring smoother motion
or higher resolution. Typical microstep modes range from 'divide-by-10' to
'divide-by-256' (51,200 steps per revolution for a 1.8 degree motor). Some
microstep drivers have a fixed divisor, while the more expensive microstep
drivers provide for selectable divisors. For cost-effective microstep drivers,
see Anaheim Automation's MBC and MLA Series.
NOTE: In general, the larger the microstep divisor provided, the more costly
will be the stepper motor driver. Should you prefer, Anaheim Automation also
manufactures a series of Integrated Stepper Motors/Drivers, meaning the
stepper motor and driver are in one unit. This design approach takes the
guesswork out of motor and driver compatibility. For more information, please
see the 17MD, 23MD and 34MD Series.
Motor Windings Configuration
Stepper motors are wound on the stator poles in either a unifilar or bifilar
configuration. The term unifilar winding refers to the winding configuration of
the stepper motor where each stator pole has one set of windings; the stepper
motor will have only 4 lead wires. This winding configuration can only be
driven from a bipolar driver. The term bifilar winding refers to the winding
configuration of a stepper motor where each stator pole has a pair of identical
windings; the stepper motor will have either 6 or 8 lead wires, depending on
termination. This type of winding configuration simplifies operation in that
transferring current from one coil to another, wound in the opposite direction,
will reverse the rotation of the motor shaft. Unlike the unifilar winding which
can only work with a bipolar driver, the bifilar winding configuration can be
driven by a unipolar or bipolar driver.

Formulas for a Stepper Motor

Step angle calculation:

= Step Angle
Ns = Number of teeth on stator
Nr = Number of teeth on rotor
Steps per second = (rpm * steps per revolution )*60
Advantages of a Stepper Motor

Cost-effective*
Simple designs
High reliability

 Brushless construction
Maintenance-free
If windings are energized at standstill, the motor has full torque
No feedback mechanisms required
High acceleration and power rate
A wide range of rotational speeds can be attained as the speed is
proportional to the frequency of the input pulses
Known limit to the dynamic position error
*Stepper motor products vary in cost based on the criteria for each
application. Some criteria include options of 0.9, 1.8, 3.6 and 4.5 step
angles, torque ranging from 1 to 5,700 oz-in, and NEMA frame sizes of 08 to
42. Additional attachments such as cables and encoders can be purchased
separately for an additional cost. With our friendly customer service and
professional application assistance, Anaheim Automation often surpasses
customer expectations for fulfilling specific stepper motor and driver
requirements, as well as other motion control needs.
Disadvantages of a Stepper Motor
Low efficiency (Motor attracts a substantial amount of power
regardless of the load)
Torque drops rapidly with speed (torque is inversely
proportional of speed)
Prone to resonance* (Microstepping allows for smooth motion)
No feedback to indicate missed steps
Low torque-to-inertia ratio
Cannot accelerate loads very rapidly
Motor gets very hot in high performance configurations
Motor will not "pick up" after momentary overload
Motor is noisy at moderate to high speeds
Low output power for size and weight

*Resonance-is inherent in the design and operation of all stepping motors and
occurs at specific step rates. It is the combination of slow stepping rates, high
rotor inertia, and elevated torque which produce ringing as the rotor
overshoots its desired angular displacement and is pulled back into position
causing resonance to occur. Adjusting either one of the three parameters
inertial load, step rate, or torque- will reduce or eliminate resonance. In
practical practice, the torque parameter is more controllable using
microstepping. In microstepping mode, power is applied to the stator windings

incrementally which causes torque to slowly build, reducing overshoot and

therefore reducing resonance.
Where are Stepper Motors Used?
Although the stepper motor has been overshadowed in the past by servo
systems for motion control, it has emerged as the preferred technology in
more and more areas. The major factor in this trend towards the stepper
motor is the prevalence of digital control, the emergence of the
microprocessor, improved designed (i.e. high-torque models), and lower cost.
Today, stepper motor applications are all around us: they are used in printers
(paper feed, print wheel), disk drives, clocks and watches, as well as used in
factory automation and machinery. A stepper motor is most often found in
motion systems requiring position control.
Anaheim Automation's cost-effective stepper motor product line is the wise
choice for both OEM and user accounts. Anaheim Automation's customers for
the stepper motor product line is diverse: industrial companies operating or
designing automated machinery or processes involving food, cosmetics or
medical packaging, labeling or tamper-evident requirements, cut-to-length
applications, assembly, conveyor, material handling, robotics, special filming
and projection effects, medical diagnostics, camera tracking, inspection and
security devices, aircraft controls, pump flow control, metal fabrication (CNC
machinery), and equipment upgrades.
Anaheim Automation, Inc. stepper motor product line integrates a matched
stepper motor, driver and controller in one unit. This design concept makes
selection easy, thus reducing errors and wiring time. With friendly customer
service and professional application assistance, Anaheim Automation often
surpasses the customer's expectations for fulfilling specific stepper motor and
driver requirements, as well as other motion control needs.
Stepper Motors are Used in Many Industries
Stepper motors have become an essential component to applications in many
different industries. The following is a list of industries making use of stepper
motors:
Aircraft In the aircraft industry, stepper motors are used in aircraft
instrumentations, antenna and sensing applications, and equipment scanning
Automotive The automotive industry implements stepper motors for
applications concerning cruise control, sensing devices, and cameras. The

military also utilizes stepper motors in their application of positioning antennas

Chemical The chemical industry makes use of stepper motors for mixing
and sampling of materials. They also utilize stepper motor controllers with
single and multi-axis stepper motors for equipment testing
Consumer Electronics and Office Equipment In the consumer
electronics industry, stepper motors are widely used in digital cameras for
focus and zoom functionality features. In office equipment, stepper motors are
implemented in PC-based scanning equipment, data storage drives, optical
disk drive driving mechanisms, printers, and scanners
Gaming In the gaming industry, stepper motors are widely used in
applications like slot and lottery machines, wheel spinners, and even card
shufflers
Industrial In the industrial industry, stepper motors are used in automotive
gauges, machine tooling with single and multi-axis stepper motor controllers,
and retrofit kits which make use of stepper motor controllers as well. Stepper
motors can also be found in CNC machine control
Medical In the medical industry, stepper motors are utilized in medical
scanners, microscopic or nanoscopic motion control of automated devices,
dispensing pumps, and chromatograph auto-injectors. Stepper motors are
also found inside digital dental photography (X-RAY), fluid pumps, respirators,
and blood analysis machinery, centrifuge
Scientific Instruments Scientific equipment implement stepper motors in
the positioning of an observatory telescope, spectrographs, and centrifuge
Surveillance Systems Stepper motors are used in camera surveillance

Environmental Considerations for a Stepper Motor

The following environmental and safety considerations must be observed
during all phases of operation, service and repair of a stepper motor system.
Failure to comply with these precautions violates safety standards of design,
manufacture and intended use of the stepper motor, driver and controller.

Please note that even with a well-built stepper motor, products operated and
installed improperly can be hazardous. Precaution must be observed by the
user with respect to the load and operating environment. The customer is
ultimately responsible for the proper selection, installation, and operation of
the stepper motor system.
The atmosphere in which a stepper motor is used must be conducive to good
general practices of electrical/electronic equipment. Do not operate the
stepper motor in the presence of flammable gases, dust, oil, vapor or
moisture. For outdoor use, the stepper motor, driver and controller must be
protected from the elements by an adequate cover, while still providing
adequate air flow and cooling. Moisture may cause an electrical shock hazard
and/or induce system breakdown. Due consideration should be given to the
avoidance of liquids and vapors of any kind. Contact the factory should your
application require specific IP ratings. It is wise to install the stepper motor,
driver and controller in an environment which is free from condensation, dust,
electrical noise, vibration and shock.
Additionally, it is preferable to work with the stepper motor/driver /controller
system in a non-static, protective environment. Exposed circuitry should
always be properly guarded and/or enclosed to prevent unauthorized human
contact with live circuitry. No work should be performed while power is
applied. Don't plug in or unplug the connectors when power is ON. Wait for at
least 5 minutes before doing inspection work on the stepper motor system
after turning power OFF, because even after the power is turned off, there will
still be some electrical energy remaining in the capacitors of the internal circuit
of the stepper motor driver.
Plan the installation of the stepper motor, driver and/or controller in a system
design that is free from debris, such as metal debris from cutting, drilling,
tapping, and welding, or any other foreign material that could come in contact
with circuitry. Failure to prevent debris from entering the stepper motor system
can result in damage and/or shock.
Note: Anaheim Automation supplies IP65 Rated Sealed Motors, available for
use in harsh environments.
Lifetime for a Stepper Motor
The typical lifetime for a stepper motor is 10,000 operating hours. This
approximates to 4.8 years; given the stepper motor operates one eight-hour

shift per day. The lifetime of a stepper motor may vary in regards to user
application and how rigorous the stepper motor is run.
Required Maintenance for a Stepper Motor?
Since stepper motors are brushless, they require no maintenance for wear
and tear on brushes and commutators.
Stepper Motor Glossary
Bifilar Winding refers to the winding configuration of a stepper motor where
each stator pole has a pair of windings; the stepper motor will have either 6 or
8 lead wires, depending on termination. This wiring configuration can be
driven from a unipolar or bipolar driver.
Clock a pulse generator, which controls the timing of switching circuits that
control the speed of the step motor.
Closed-Loop a system with a feedback type of control, such that the output
is used to modify the input.
Controller (Stepper Motor) a regulating mechanism; essentially a DC
power supply plus power switching with associated circuits for controlling the
switching in the proper sequence.
Detent Torque is the holding torque when no current is flowing in the motor.
The maximum torque which can be applied to the shaft of an unenergized
step motor without causing continuous rotation. The minimal torque present in
an unenergized motor. The detent torque of a step motor is typically about 1%
of its static energized torque.
Driver (Stepper Motor) often referred to as a translator, drives a step motor
based on pulses from a clock, pulse generator, or computer. Translates the
train of pulses and applied power to the appropriate step motor windings.
Dynamic Torque the torque developed by a motor while stepping at low
rates.
Encoder often called a pulse generator, is a feedback device for step
motors. It consists of a disc, vane, or reflector attached to a step motor shaft
to provide digital pulses, which are provided to a translator and /or counters.
This provides positional information if fed into a counter. Speed information

may be derived if the time between successive pulses is measured and

decoded.
Holding Torque the maximum torque that can be externally applied to the
step motor shaft without causing continuous rotation when one or more
phases of the motor are energized.
Inertia is a measure of an object's resistance to a change in velocity.
Maximum Running Torque the maximum torque load that the motor can
drive without missing a step. This typically occurs when the windings are
sequentially energized at approximately 5 pps.
Open-Loop refers to a motion control system where no external sensors
are used to provide position or velocity correction signals.
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor a step motor having permanent magnet
poles.
Pole the part of a magnetic circuit where a magnetic pole is generated
either by a permanent magnet or by windings.
Pulse an electrical signal or voltage of short duration, used in conveying
intelligence.
Rated Torque the torque-producing capacity of a motor at a given speed.
This is the maximum torque the motor can deliver to a load and is usually
specified with a torque/speed curve.
Resolution the smallest positioning increment that can be achieved. It is
frequently defined as the number of steps required for a motor's shaft to rotate
one complete revolution. The reciprocal of the number of steps per revolution
of the motor.
Rotor the rotating part of the motor (the shaft may be included).
Stator the stationary magnetic parts of the motor including the windings.
Step movement of the rotor from one energized position to the next.
Step Angle the nominal angle through which the shaft of a step motor turns

between adjacent step positions. It depends upon the motor and driving
sequence (mode of drive).
Step Increment an indication of step or motion size. Usually this is specified
in degrees for a rotary motor and inches or millimeters for a linear motor.
Step (Stepping, Stepper) Motor a digital actuator, which operates from
discrete pulses (input signals) and produces motion in discrete increments.
May be rotary or linear increment.
Step Position the angular position that the shaft of an unloaded step motor
assumes when energized. The step position is not necessarily the same as
the detent position.
Teeth projections on both rotor and stator such that when aligned they
produce a low reluctance magnetic path.
Torque a force or couple tending to, or producing, rotation. Common step
motor torque units are oz-in, N-m, or mNm.
Train Pulse a series of spaced pulses.
Unifilar Winding refers to the winding configuration of the stepper motor
where each stator pole has one set of windings; the stepper motor will have
only 4 lead wires. This winding configuration can only be driven from a bipolar
driver.
Variable Reluctance Step Motor a step motor having only soft iron poles.
Troubleshooting a Stepper Motor
Problem: Intermittent or erratic stepper motor or stepper driver function.
Solution: This is the most common cause of failure and one of the most
difficult to detect. Start by checking to ensure all connections are tight
between the stepper motor and the stepper driver and controllers. Evidence of
discoloration at the terminals/connections, may indicate a loose connection.
When replacing a stepper motor, stepper driver or driver pack, or controller in
a motion control system, and be sure to inspect all terminal blocks and
connectors. Check cabling/wiring for accuracy. Stress stepper motor wiring
and connections for poor conditions and check with an ohmmeter. Whenever
possible, use Anaheim Automation's shielded cables for stepper motor

wiring.
Problem: Poor system performance.
Solution: Check to see if the wire/cables are too long. Keep stepper motor
wire/cables less than 25 feet in length. For applications where the wiring from
the stepper motor to the stepper driver exceeds 25 feet, please contact the
factory for instructions, as it is likely that transient voltage protection devices
will be required. Another possibility is the stepper motor lead wires are of a
gauge too small. Do not match your cable wires to the gauge size of the
stepper motor lead wires, this is a common mistake. To avoid this mistake,
Anaheim Automation suggests using its shielded cable for such wiring
purposes (purchased separately). Additionally, check the age of your stepper
motor, as with time and use, stepper motors lose a portion of their magnetism
which affects performance. Typically one can expect 10,000 operating hours
for stepper motors (approximately 4.8 years, running a one eight-hour shift per
work day). Also, make certain your stepper motor and driver combination is a
good match for your application. Contact the factory should you have any
concerns.
Problem: The stepper motor is stalling.
Solution: In some cases, stalling of a stepper motor causes a large voltage
spike that often damages the phase transistors on the driver. Some drivers
are designed to protect themselves from such occurrences. If not, Transient
Suppression Devices can be added externally. Consult the factory for further
information.
Problem: Stepper motor wires were disconnected while the driver was
powered up.
Solution: Avoid performing any service to the stepper motor, driver or
controller while the power is on, especially in regard to the motor connections.
This precaution is imperative for both the driver and the technician/installer.
Problem: The stepper motor has a shorted winding or a short to the motor
case.
Solution: It is likely you have a defective stepper motor. Do not attempt to
repair motors. Opening the stepper motor may cause the motor to lose its
magnetism, causing poor performance. Opening of the stepper motor case
will also void your warranty. The motor windings can be tested with an
ohmmeter. As a rule of thumb, if the stepper motor is a frame size of NEMA
08, 11, 14, 15, 17, 23, or 34 and the warranty period has expired, it is not costeffective to return these stepper motors for repair. Contact the factory if you

suspect a defective stepper motor that is still under warranty, or if the stepper
motor is a NEMA frame size 42 or a K-series motor.
Problem: Environmental factors are less than ideal.
Solution: Environmental factors such as welding, chemical vapors, moisture,
humidity, dust, metal debris, etc., can damage the electronic components and
the stepper motor. Protect drivers, controllers and stepper motors from
environments that are corrosive, contain voltage spikes, or prevent good
ventilation. Anaheim Automation offers products in several line voltage ranges,
as well as splash-proof, IP65 rated stepper motors. For wash-down or
explosion-proof motors, contact the factory directly. For AC lines containing
voltage spikes, a line regulator (filter) will likely be required.
NOTE: If your application requires welding, or if welding is done in the same
work environment, contact the factory for advice on how to protect the stepper
motor driver and controller.
Problem: The stepper motor is back-driving the stepper driver.
Solution: A stepper motor being turned by a load creates a back EMF voltage
on the driver. Higher speeds will produce higher voltage levels. If the rotational
speed gets excessively high, this voltage may cause damage to the driver.
This is especially dangerous when the motor is back-driven while the driver is
still on. Place a mechanical stop or brake in applications which may be subject
to these phenomena.
PLEASE NOTE: Technical assistance regarding its Stepper Motor product
line, as well as all the products manufactured or distributed by Anaheim
Automation, is available at no charge. This assistance is offered to help the
customer in choosing Anaheim Automation products for a specific application.
However, any selection, quotation, or application suggestion for a Stepper
Motor, or any other product, offered from Anaheim Automation's staff, its'
representatives or distributors, are only to assist the customer. In all cases,
determination of fitness of the custom Stepper Motor in a specific system
design is solely the customers' responsibility. While every effort is made to
offer solid advice regarding the Stepper Motor product line, as well as other
motion control products, and to produce technical data and illustrations
accurately, such advice and documents are for reference only, and subject to
change without notice.
Contact Us: Anaheim Automation has applications engineers readily

available and happy to help with most troubleshooting issues. Contact us for
detailed assistance.
Stepper Motor Wiring:
The following information is intended as a general guideline for wiring of the
Anaheim Automation stepper motor product line. Be aware when you route
power and signal wiring on a machine or system; radiated noise from the
nearby relays, transformers, and other electronic devices can be introduced
into the stepper motor and encoder signals, input/output communications, and
other sensitive low-voltage signals. This can cause system faults and
communication errors.
WARNING Dangerous voltages capable of causing injury or death may be
present in a stepper motor system. Use extreme caution when handling,
wiring, testing, and adjusting during installation, set-up, tuning, and operation.
Don't make extreme adjustments or changes to the stepper motor system
parameters, which can cause mechanical vibration and result in failure and/or
loss. Once the stepper motor is wired, do not run the stepper driver by
switching On/Off the power supply directly. Frequent power On/Off switching
will cause fast aging of the internal components, which will reduce the lifetime
of the stepper motor system.
Strictly comply with the following rules:
Follow the wiring diagram for each stepper motor
Route high-voltage power cables separately from low-voltage power cables
Segregate input power wiring and stepper motor power cables from control
wiring and motor feedback cables as they leave the stepper motor driver.
Maintain this separation throughout the wire run
Use shielded cable for power wiring and provide a grounded 360 degree
clamp termination to the enclosure wall. Allow room on the sub-panel for wire
bends
Make all cable routes short as possible
NOTE: Factory-made cables are recommended for use in our stepper motor
and driver systems. These cables are purchased separately, and are designed
to minimize EMI. These cables are recommended over customer-built cables
to optimize system performance and to provide additional safety for the
stepper motor system and the user.
WARNING To avoid the possibility of electrical shock, perform all mounting

and wiring of the stepper motor and driver system prior to applying power.
Once power is applied, connection terminals may have voltage present.
NOTE: Always read the specification sheet/user's guide accompanying each
product.
Stepper Motor FAQs
Q: Why is the stepper motor size important? Is it possible to just choose
a large motor size?
A: The stepper motor size is important because if the motor's rotor inertia
predominately consists of the load, resonance increases and poses issues.
Also, larger rotors require more time to accelerate and decelerate and
therefore it is important to choose a motor size dependent on the criteria for
user applications.
Q: While increasing speed, why do stepper motors lose torque?
A: Inductance is the leading cause for motors losing torque at high speeds.
The electrical time constant, , is the amount of time it takes a motor winding
to charge up to 63% of its rated value given a resistance, R, and inductance,
L. With = R/L, at low speeds, high inductance is not an issue since current
can easily flow through the motor windings quickly. However, at high speeds,
sufficient current cannot pass through the windings quick enough before the
current is switched to the next phase, thereby reducing the torque provided by
the motor. Therefore, it is the current and number of turns in the windings
which determines the maximum output torque in a motor, while the applied
voltage to the motor and the inductance value of the winding will affect on the
speed at which a given amount of torque can be produced.
Q: Why does increasing the voltage increase the torque if stepper
motors are not voltage driven?
A: Voltage can be viewed as forcing current through the coil windings. By
increasing voltage, pressure to force current through the coil also increases.
This in turn causes the current to build faster in the winding and is able to
produce a larger magnetic field. This larger magnetic field is what produces
more torque.
Q: What temperatures are stepper motors able to run at?
A: Most stepper motors include Class B insulation. This allows the motor to
sustain temperatures of up to 130 C. Therefore, with an ambient temperature
of 40 C, the stepper motor has a temperature rise allowance of 90 C

allowing for stepper motors to run at high temperatures.

Q: Is it possible to get more torque by running the stepper motor at
double its rated current?
A: It is possible to increase torque by increasing the current but by doing so, it
weakens the motor's ability to run smoother.
Q: What is the difference between four, six and eight leads in motors?
A: Stepper motors have the capability to run in either parallel or series modes.
In a parallel mode, only a four lead motor can be run while in a series mode a
six lead motor can be run. Eight lead motors can run in either parallel or series
configurations. In applications where more torque is required at higher
speeds, a lower inductance value given from a four lead motor is better
choice.
Q: What is the difference between Unipolar and Bipolar motors?
A: A unipolar wound motor has six lead wires with each winding having a
center tap. Most applications implementing unipolar wound motors require
high speed and torque. On the other hand, a bipolar wound motor has four
lead wires with having no center tap connections. Most applications
implementing bipolar wound motors require high torque at low speeds.
Q: What is the difference between a closed-loop stepper motor
controller and an open-loop stepper motor controller?
A: In an open-loop stepper motor controller, no feedback is going from the
motor to the controller. This type of controller is effective when the motor is
carrying a constant load at a steady speed. A closed-loop motor controller is
more applicable in applications where load or speed varies. In comparison to
the closed-loop controller, the open-loop controller lacks complexity and is
more affordable.
Q: When should I use microstepping?
A: Microstepping is typically used in applications which require the motor to
operate at less than 700 pulses per second.
Q: What do brakes do on a Stepper Motor?
A: Brakes do not slow the shaft of a motor, they only hold it in place. If 24V is
supplied to the brake, the brake is "released" and the motor shaft is free to
spin. If 24V is not supplied to the brake, it locks position, and holds the motor
shaft in place.

Q: What is the difference between a round and square stepper motor?

A: A round (D and W series) motor is an older style design with a flatter T/S
curve. They offer more torque at a higher RPM than the square (Y or L
series) motors. The square motors offer more torque at lower RPM.
Q: What is the recommended cable distance between Anaheim
Automation stepper motors and drivers?
A: We recommend that the wiring between stepper motors and drivers not
exceed 25 feet. Although it is not required, we suggest using Anaheim
Automation shielded motor cable. This cable is ideally suited to handle all
driver and motor combinations that we offer. We can also add connectors to
the cables. Please contact an Applications Engineer for more details.
Q: I have a motor with 4 leads plus a ground wire. Can I hook it up to
Anaheim Automation products?
A: If the motor is a true 4 lead motor, you must look at specific models that
accommodate 4-lead motors. If it is a 6 or 8 lead motor that was modified to
be used as a 4 lead motor, the ground wire is not required if the motor is
grounded to the machine.
Q: If I apply too much load to a stepper motor which causes the shaft to
stop rotating, will I damage the motor?
A: No. The stepper motor will just stall. However, damage can be done to
drivers if this stall condition lasts for long periods.
Q: Does Anaheim Automation sell encoders for stepper motors?
A: Yes. We supply encoders for any size orders for customers that require a
complete motor/encoder assemble ready to mount. We can assemble the
encoder to the motor for a nominal charge. Ask a Customer Service
representative for more details.
Q: What is the life expectancy of Anaheim Automation Stepper Motors?
A: Anaheim Automation stepper motors have a 10,000 hour life expectancy
under normal operating conditions. Anaheim Automation's warranty is 12
months after the invoice date. See the "Environmental Conditions" sections of
the stepper motor guide for more details.
Q: What gauge wire should be used for a NEMA 34 stepper motor @ 10
feet of distance?
A: Anaheim Automation motor cable is ideal. It is 16 gauge, 8 conductor with
matching color code for the stepper motors carried by Anaheim Automation.

We can also add connectors for you if you prefer. See the Accessories section
of our web site for more details.
Q: How can I change the direction of my six-lead 23D309S standard
round stepper motor without changing the logic?
A: Reverse the Phase 1 (red wire) with the Phase 3 (red/white wire) and the
motor will run in the opposite direction.
Q: Is there any damage caused by a stepper motor that is
disassembled?
A: Yes! Up to 60% magnetizing loss can be the result if the rotor is pulled
apart. If all parts are replaced properly, the motor can be remagnetized at the
factory, but the charge is substantial. If you have a motor failure, or are
concerned about the performance, contact Anaheim Automation. Please note
that the warranty period is 12 months from the date of invoice.
Q: Does Anaheim Automation have Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors?
A: Yes. In size ranging from 15 to 57 mm in diameter, with torque ranges of 1
to 23 oz.-in. (model dependent). See PM Stepper Motors under the Stepper
Motor category on our web site for more details and product specifications.
Q: Can I order a stepper motor with 3% accuracy instead of 5%?
A: Because almost all of our 5% rated stepper motors fall into the 3%
accuracy category, we usually recommend that you order our standard
motors. If you require a "guarantee" for the 3% accuracy, contact the factory
for assistance.
Q: Are stepper motors with optional conduit box, keyway, encoder-ready
features considered "special"?
A: Yes, they are considered a "special", non-stock item and may require a
NRE or SET-UP charge. There is an additional cost for some changes as well.
Many stepper motor series already have shaft-flat and encoder-ready
provisions. Check the specification sheet for more details. Some stepper
motor series include a conduit (terminal) box. The shaft flat and encoder-ready
motors do not incur an extra cost (if it's already a feature of that series).
Motors with conduit boxes will cost more than the standard motors. See
individual dimension drawings for details.
Q: I need a stepper gearmotor. Does Anaheim Automation offer these
motors?
A: Yes. Anaheim Automation offers stepper motors with Planetary Gearboxes

in NEMA sizes 11, 17 and 23. We also have stepper motors with Spur
Gearboxes in NEMA sizes 23 and 34, and PM stepper gearmotors in sized 24
to 42 mm diameters. Visit the Stepper Gearmotor section of our web site for
more details. Please Note: We also offer gearboxes and motors separately,
should you not find the size or gear ratio you require.
Q: Does Anaheim Automation make stepper motors with drivers
attached?
A: Yes. Anaheim Automation offers a line of Integrated Stepper Motors with
Drivers and/or Controllers, in NEMA sizes 17, 23 and 34.Check our 17MD,
23MD, and 34MD series for Integrated Motor/Drivers, and our 17MDSI and
23MDSI series for our Integrated Motor/Driver/Controller product lines.
Q: Does Anaheim Automation have stepper motor-based linear
actuators?
A: Yes, in many different types. Anaheim Automation offers Hybrid NonCaptive Linear Actuator in NEMA sizes 11, 17, 23 and 34, Hybrid Threaded
Shaft Linear Actuators in NEMA 17 size, PM Non-Captive Linear Actuators in
sizes 20 57 mm diameters, and PM Captive Linear Actuators in sizes 20
42 mm diameters.
Q: Can I purchase an IP65 rated Stepper Motor?
A: Yes. Anaheim Automation offers a IP65 version for NEMA sizes 17, 23, 34
and 42 frame stepper motors, torque ranges from 35 to 5,700 oz.-in.(model
specific). Visit our web site under Stepper Motors, and search IP65 motors.
Stepper Motor QUIZ
How does a stepper motor move?
A. Electrical Pulse
B. Continuous Applied Voltage
C. Alternates from A and B

A pulse can be produce by which means?

A. Microprocessor
B. Timing Logic
C. Toggle Switch
D. All of the above

Which of the following is not a type of stepper motor?

A. Variable Reluctance
B. Hybrid
C. Magnetic
D. Lead-Screw

Which of the following is not a component of a stepper motor?

A. Windings
B. Rotor and Stator
C. Commutator
D. Brush
E. Both C and D

What is the difference between full-step and half-step?

A. In full-step two phases are on and in half-step only one phase is on.
B. More resonance is evident in half-step
C. More power required for full-step
D. Half-step offers better resolution

What criteria's are necessary to consider when selecting a stepper

motor?
A. Mechanical Motion
B. Inertial Load
C. Speed Requirements
D. All of the above

Which of the following is NOT an advantage of stepper motors?

A. Cost-efficient
B. Maintenance-free
C. No feedback
D. More complex circuitry

With a stator having 8 teeth and a rotor having 6 teeth, what step angle
will an application be able to achieve?
A. 15
B. 51
C. 20
D. 105

If an application using a stepper motor required feedback, which device

would be needed to accomplish this?
A. Counter
B. Encoder
C. Linear Guide
D. Commutator

Accessories
Along with stepper motors, Anaheim Automation carries a comprehensive line
of drivers and controllers, power supplies, gear
motors, gearboxes, stepper motor linear actuators and integrated
stepper motor/driver packages. Additionally, Anaheim Automation
offers encoders, brakes, HMI, couplings, cables and connectors, linear
guides and X-Y tables. If stepper motors are not ideal for your application,
you might consider brushless DC, brush DC, servo, or AC motors, and
their compatible drivers/controllers.
- See more at: http://www.anaheimautomation.com/manuals/forms/steppermotor-guide.php#sthash.nf22ovjJ.dpuf

Addition to other answers:

The main purpose is that having at least three phases allows your motor to start
in expected direction. For one-phase induction motors some workarounds are

necessary (like putting additional wiring with a capacitor used during the startup). It was correctly explained in previous answers.
Why not more? Simply - it is not necessary and it generates costs. It's not only
the problem of wires (so use of copper, insulation) but also construction
problem. Can you imagine a tower for overhead lines having nine phases? Well,
probably you can - sometimes one can meet towers that hold two 3-phase lines,
or even more:

(pic from Wikipedia)

The main problem here is to secure proper insulating distance between
conductors and conductors and ground (or tower structure), which requires
large use of materials.
Also, if you have more phases, the chance of failure is higher. Of course, in this
case (say - a broken conductor) the total asymmetry will be lower, but a risk of
necessity of switching off the entire line will be higher.
Building a generator for more phases is also complicated. Typically, hydro
generators, with small speed, do have many pole pairs, so it would be ok not to
give 24 pole pairs, but one or two (for example, for 12 phases), but it is

complicated for thermal generator-turbine units. There is usually one pole pair,
sometimes two. This leads to speed 3000 rpm (for 50 Hz network). It is
necessary for the stator to receive power from such a machine with the lowest
risk possible, so less phases means less in-turn short-circuits chance.
Introducing more phases would require much more expensive stator
construction.
Please also note, that even if today it is no problem to have a power electronics
frequency converter, also multiplying phases, rectifying etc., it was a problem
only 30 years ago, and more of course. Then people decided to use three
phases, and now it is impossible to switch.

Why only 3 phases? Well if we need more phases we can convert 3 phase easily
into 6 phase/12 phase etc using a transformer wired to do so. The main
application of more phases is for less ripple voltage into a full bridge rectified
capacitor bank. I've never seen one but learned about them from an ancient
lecturer at university while doing electrical engineering.
Also lets say we had a delta configuration of 3 matched resistors connected to a
3 phase connection. The power used over time will be identical to a DC powered
resistor because when one phase is at 0% the other two phases will be at
66.66% & 33.33% if I remember correctly. This relationship also means that the
power from one phase will return down the other phases. Isn't 3 phase
awesome!
So to summarize, there's no need for additional phases because you can very
easily convert it to more phases at your end. It's typically not done though as 3
phase is already awesome.
Hope this helps.

Many of the other answers erroneously state that you need 3 phases for a
motor to start reliably or turn in a specific direction, and to use constant

power. Actually, this could be done with two phases, 90 off from each other.
You still get defined direction and constant power draw over a cycle.
However, such a two phase system would require a minimum of three wires,
but the current thru the three wires would not be symmetric for a constantpower load. So if you need three wires anyway, what's the best way to use
these three wires as efficiently and flexibly as possible? The answer is the
three-phase system we actually use. Instead of one common and two "hot"
lines 90 out of phase, you have three symmetric hot lines, each 120 out of
phase from the other two. Note that the average voltage (and current for a
balanced load) is always 0 for a symmetric 3 phase system. This is not true of
a 2 phase system.
More phases doesn't give you any additional desirable properties, so would
just add complexity and cos