FROG Chapter02 PDF

Chapter 2.
Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

Faculty Resource and Organizational Guide (FROG)
Table of Contents
Materials for Chapter 2 Activities................................................................................................5
Reagents for Chapter 2 Activities.................................................................................................6
Introduction....................................................................................................................................8
Consider This 2.1. What water-soluble and water-insoluble substances do you know? ............8
Section 2.1. Substances in Solution..............................................................................................8
Learning Objectives for Section 2.1: ...........................................................................................8
Investigate This 2.2. What is observed when substances dissolve? ...........................................8
Consider This 2.3. Are there any energy changes when substances dissolve?...........................9
Section 2.2: Solutions of Polar Molecules in Water .................................................................10
Learning Objectives for Section 2.2: .........................................................................................10
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 2.2:......................................................................................10
Investigate This 2.5. Which compound is most soluble in water?............................................10
Consider This 2.6. Which compounds are soluble in water?....................................................13
Consider This 2.10. What are the interactions of glucose with water?.....................................14
Section 2.3: Characteristics of Solutions of Ionic Compounds in Water...............................14
Investigate This 2.12. Which solutions conduct an electric current? .......................................14
Consider This 2.13. Why do some solutions conduct an electric current? ...............................16
Section 2.4. Formation of Ionic Compounds ............................................................................16
Consider This 2.20. Are attractions or repulsions stronger in a crystal? ..................................17
Section 2.5. Energy Changes When Ionic Compounds Dissolve ............................................17
Investigate This 2.22: What temperature changes occur when solids dissolve? ......................18
Consider This 2.23: What energy changes occur when solids dissolve?..................................19
Consider This 2.24: How does Figure 2.15 correlate with Investigate This 2.22?...................20
Section 2.6. Precipitation Reactions of Ions in Solution ..........................................................20
Investigate This 2.27: What reactions of ions in solution can you observe?............................20
Consider This 2.28: How do you explain the reactions of ions in solutions?...........................21
Section 2.7. Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds..................................................................22
Investigate This 2.32: Which mixtures of ionic compounds yield precipitates? ......................22
Consider This 2.33: Which ionic compounds are soluble and insoluble? ................................24
Consider This 2.35: What are solubilities for multiply-charged cations and anions? ..............26
Consider This 2.37: What might cause some exceptions to the solubility rules?.....................26
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Section 2.8. Concentrations and Moles .....................................................................................27

Investigate This 2.38: Do Co2+(aq) and PO43(aq) react to form a precipitate? .......................27
Consider This 2.39: How are concentration and amount of precipitate related?......................31
Consider This 2.40: Is there evidence for complete reaction of Co2+(aq) in these mixtures? ..32
Section 2.9. Mass-Mole-Volume Calculations ..........................................................................33
Consider This 2.54: Do the solubility rules explain the composition of seawater?..................33
Section 2.10. Reaction Stoichiometry in Solutions...................................................................34
Learning Objectives for Section 2.10: .......................................................................................34
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 2.10:....................................................................................34
Consider This 2.55: Are concentration and amount of precipitate related? .............................34
Section 2.11. Solutions of Gases in Water.................................................................................35
Investigate This 2.67: What are the properties of aqueous solutions of gases?........................35
Consider This 2.68: Why do some aqueous solutions of gas conduct electrical current? ........37
Section 2.12. The AcidBase Reaction of Water with Itself....................................................38
Consider This 2.74: Which aqueous solutions of gas are acidic? Which are basic? ................38
Consider This 2.75: How many moles of hydronium ions are present in water?.....................40
Section 2.13. Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solutions................................................................40
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 2.13:....................................................................................40
NOTE on Table 2.7:...................................................................................................................40
Section 2.14. Extent of proton-transfer reactions: Le Chatelier's principle .........................41
Consider This 2.79: What are the reactions in an aqueous solution of carbon dioxide? ..........42
Investigate This 2.81: Are CO2 solutions affected by added acids and bases?.........................43
Consider This 2.82: How are CO2 solutions affected by added acids and bases? ....................45
Consider This 2.84: What is the stoichiometry of addition of base in Investigate This 2.81? .46
Investigate This 2.85: What happens when ammonium and hydroxide ions mix? ..................48
Consider This 2.86: How do ammonium and hydroxide ions react?........................................49
Section 2.16. Extension CO2 and the carbon cycle................................................................49
Investigate This 2.89: What happens when CO2(g) is bubbled into limewater? ......................49
Consider This 2.90: What reactions occur when CO2(g) is bubbled into limewater? ..............51
Investigate This 2.94: What happens when Ca2+(aq) and HOCO2-(aq) react?.........................52
Solutions for Chapter 2 Check This Activities...........................................................................54
Check This 2.4. Exothermic energy diagram............................................................................54
Check This 2.7. Hydrogen-bonded network in watermethanol solution ................................54
Check This 2.8. Energy diagram for hexane dissolving in water .............................................54
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Chapter 2
Check This 2.9. Predict relative solubilities .............................................................................55

Check This 2.11. Predict relative solubilities ...........................................................................55
Check This 2.14. Properties of crystals ....................................................................................55
Check This 2.15. Ionic hydration layers and crystal dissolution ..............................................56
Check This 2.17. Formulas for ionic compounds .....................................................................56
Check This 2.19. Writing a balanced chemical reaction equation............................................56
Check This 2.21. Energy diagram for formation of one mole of CaCl2 ...................................56
Check This 2.26. Energy change for dissolving LiI in water ...................................................57
Check This 2.29. Electrical conductivity in Investigate This 2.27 ...........................................57
Check This 2.31. Product of a precipitation reaction and net ionic reaction ............................57
Check This 2.36. Predicting solubilities ...................................................................................57
Check This 2.41. The molar mass of cobalt chloride hexahydrate...........................................58
Check This 2.43. Mass-to-mole conversion .............................................................................58
Check This 2.45. Molarity of a solution ...................................................................................58
Check This 2.47. Volume-to-mole conversion .........................................................................58
Check This 2.49. Mole-to-mass conversion .............................................................................59
Check This 2.51. Mole-to-volume conversion .........................................................................59
Check This 2.53. Preparing a solution of known molarity .......................................................59
Check This 2.57. Moles of ions in an ionic compound solution...............................................59
Check This 2.59. Moles of Co2+(aq) required for complete reaction with PO43(aq) ................59
Check This 2.60. Limiting reactant...........................................................................................60
Check This 2.62. Mass of product formed in an ionic precipitation reaction...........................60
Check This 2.63. Limiting reactant...........................................................................................60
Check This 2.64. Illustrations of reactant mixtures ..................................................................60
Check This 2.66. Concentrations of ions in a reactant mixture ................................................61
Check This 2.70. Molarity of saturated aqueous solutions of gases.........................................61
Check This 2.72. Molarity of a saturated aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride ...................61
Check This 2.73. Compare solutions of NaCl and HCl............................................................62
Check This 2.76. Reactions of BrnstedLowry acids with water...........................................62
Check This 2.77. Structures and reactions for BrnstedLowry oxyacids and oxyanions.......62
Check This 2.78. pH of a saturated magnesium hydroxide solution ........................................63
Check This 2.80. Proton transfer from acetic (ethanoic) acid to water ....................................63
Check This 2.87. Identifying BrnstedLowry conjugate acidbase pairs ..............................64
Check This 2.88. Species that can both donate and accept protons..........................................64
Check This 2.91. Acidbase changes in carbon dioxidelimewater solutions .........................64
Check This 2.92. The net reaction for dissolving CaCO3(s) with added CO2(g) .......................64
Check This 2.93. Applying Le Chateliers principle ................................................................65
Check This 2.95. Interpreting the reaction of Ca2+(aq) with HOCO2(aq) .................................65
Samples from the Classroom: Chapter 2 Quizzes ....................................................................66
Chapter 2, Quiz 01 (Chemistry 131)..........................................................................................66
Chapter 2, Quiz Section Exercise, Week 1 ................................................................................66
Chapter 2, Quiz 4 (CH 103).......................................................................................................68
Chapter 2, Quiz 5 (CH 103).......................................................................................................68
Chapter 2, Quiz 6 (CH 103).......................................................................................................68
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Chapter 2
Chapter 2, Quiz 7 (CH 103).......................................................................................................69

Samples from the Classroom: Chapter 2 Exams ......................................................................69
Chapter 2 Examination (Chemistry 131) ...................................................................................69
Chapter 2, Examination II (Chemistry 121) ..............................................................................71
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Materials for Chapter 2 Activities

Activity
Material
Total Quantity
2.2, 2.5, 2.22, 2.27, 2.67,

2.85, 2.89
Small (10-mL) capped

vials
3/group, 9/group,
3/group, 2/group,
5, 2,
2.5
Model kits
1/student
2.5, 2.27, 2.81
1-mL graduated-stem pipets
4, 3, 3
2.12, 2.22, 2. 27, 2.67
Electrical conductivity
tester
2.12, 2. 27, 2.32
12- or 24-well microtiter

plate
1 or 1/group
2.12
Small spatula or scoop
1/group
2.12, 2.27
Small stirring rod
2.32, 2.85
thin-stem plastic pipets
10, 1
2.38
Benchtop centrifuge
2.38
Centrifuge tubes for the

centrifuge
2.38
10-mL Graduated cylinders
2.67
6- or 12-well microtiter
plate
2.67
pH meter with a
combination electrode or
pH paper
2.81
125-mL Erlenmeyer flask
2.81
3-hole rubber stopper to fit

flask
2.81
Small balloon
2.89
400-mL beaker
2.89
Length of flexible rubber or

plastic tubing
40 cm
2.89
Hardware to connect tubing

to CO2 source and control
the gas flow
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Reagents for Chapter 2 Activities

Activity
Reagent
Total Quantity
Most
Water
Distribute in capped
containers for group
use
2.2
Urea
2g
2.2
Ethanol, CH3CH2OH
5 mL
2.5
Methanol, CH3OH
1-3 mL
2.5
1-Butanol, CH3(CH2)3OH
1-3 mL
2.5
Hexane, C6H14
1-3 mL
2.12, 2.67
Glucose, C6H12O6
small amount
2.12, 2.22
Sodium chloride, NaCl
small amount to 1
gram
2.22
Calcium chloride, CaCl2 anhydrous
1 gram
2.22
Ammonia choride, NH4Cl
1 gram
2. 27, 2.32
1 M Calcium chloride, CaCl2
11 g anhydrous salt
per 100 mL of H2O
or 22 g of
hexahydrate
2. 27
1 M Sodium sulfate, Na2SO4
14 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2. 27
1 M Sodium nitrate, NaNO3
8 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.32
1 M Sodium chloride, NaCl
6 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.32
1 M Lithium chloride, LiCl
4 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.32
1 M Barium chloride, BaCl2
21 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.32
1 M Potassium nitrate, KNO3
10 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.32
1 M Potassium bromide, KBr
12 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.32
1 M Potassium sulfate, K2SO4

(anhydrous salt)
17 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.32
1 M Potassium carbonate, K2CO3
14 g per 100 mL of
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2

(anhydrous salt)
H2O
2.32
1 M Potassium oxalate, K2C2O4

(monohydrate salt)
18 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.32
1 M Potassium phosphate, K3PO4

(anhydrous salt)
21 g per 100 mL of
H2O
2.38
Cobalt chloride hexahydrate,

CoCl2x6H2O
See activity
2.38
Sodium phosphate, Na3PO4
See activity
2.67, 2.81
Seltzer water
10 mL, 150 mL
2.67
0.1 M Ammonia, NH3, or

household ammonia
10 mL
2.67
0.1 M Hydrochloric acid, HCl
10 mL
2.81
Sodium hydrogen carbonate,

NaHOCO2
0.6 g
2.81
6 M hydrochloric acid, HCl
3 mL
2.81
6 M sodium hydroxide, NaOH
6 ml
2.81
Universal indicator
1-2 mL
2.85
Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl
0.5 g
2.85
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
0.25 g
2.89
Saturated calcium hydroxide,

Ca(OH)2(aq)
150-200 mL
2.89
Carbon dioxide, CO2(g), cylinder
2.89
Bromthymol blue acid-base

indicator
Several drops
2.94
Calcium chloride, CaCl2(aq),

saturated solution
Depends on size of
reaction vial
2.94
Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3(aq),

saturated solution
Depends on size of
reaction vial
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Introduction
Consider This 2.1. What water-soluble and water-insoluble substances do you know?
Goal:
Students distinguish between substances that dissolve in water and those that do not.
Classroom options:
Begin lecture with this activity. Working in small groups, students can discuss their answers
in about 3-5 minutes. Then, ask students to share their answers with the class.
Instructor can summarize answers on the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency.
Time for activity:
5-10 minutes.
Instructor notes:
This activity is designed to provide students a transition from Chapter 1 to Chapter 2. Chapter
1 focused on the properties of water pure water (and other compounds) and Chapter 2 will
focus on aqueous solutions and how the properties of water affect solubility.
Possible answers to substances soluble in water: Sugar, table salt, rubbing alcohol, baking soda,
food coloring, liquid fertilizers, bleach, laundry detergent, drain cleaners.
Possible answers to substances insoluble in water: Vegetable oil, gasoline, sand, plastics, egg
shells, hair, dishes, bonds, glass.
Follow-up activities:
End of chapter problems 2.1 and 2.2.
Student Report Sheet for Consider This 2.1
Name:
Names of Group Members:
Your Answers:
Additional Notes:
NOTE: This is a sample report sheet that can be adapted for both Consider This and Investigate
This activities.
Section 2.1. Substances in Solution

Learning Objectives for Section 2.1:
Use an energy diagram to characterize the basic steps in the dissolving process and give a
molecular level explanation for the direction of the individual and net energy changes.
Investigate This 2.2. What is observed when substances dissolve?
Goal:
Note the changes that occur when substances dissolve in water.
Set-up time:
5-10 minutes.
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Chapter 2
Time for activity:

10-15 minutes (includes discussion).
Materials:
Three capped or stoppered vials that hold 10-15 mL of liquid.
Reagents:
About 2 g of urea, H2NC(O)NH2.
About 5 mL of ethanol. (91% 2-propanol will also work.)
About 10 mL of water.
SAFETY NOTE
Wear safety goggles
Ethanol is flammableno flames, fire extinguisher
Procedure:
Conduct as a small group activity.
Each group has three labeled, capped vials containing (1) urea, (2) ethanol, (3) water.
Uncap the urea and water, add about half the water to the urea, recap the urea-water mixture,
and swirl to dissolve the urea.
Record your observations, including whether the solution becomes warm or cool.
Repeat this procedure with the alcohol and other half of the water.
Clean-up:
Dispose of ethanol mixture in properly labeled waste container or down the drain, if this is
permitted. Urea solution can be washed down the drain with copious amounts of water.
Anticipated results:
For urea, the dissolution is rapid and the container will get cool. The endothermic dissolution
removes thermal energy from the surroundings, including the hand holding the container.
(The enthalpy change for this dissolution will be measured in Investigate This 7.22 and
combined with the solubility of urea from Investigate This 9.61 to get the thermodynamics of
dissolution in Consider This 9.63.)
For the ethanol, the dissolution is rapid and the container will get warm. The exothermic
dissolution gives off thermal energy to the surroundings, including the hand holding the
container.
Follow-up discussion:
Use Consider This 2.3 to initiate discussion of the observations from this activity.
Check This 2.4. Exothermic energy diagram.
End of chapter problems 2.1 through 2.5.
Consider This 2.3. Are there any energy changes when substances dissolve?
Goal:
Based on the results from Investigate This 2.2, students determine if there are energy changes
when substances dissolve.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to complete this activity. Then you
can lead the discussion, summarizing answers on the chalkboard or an overhead transparency
or have the students do so.
This activity can be conducted as an open class discussion.
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Instructor's notes:
Review the results from Investigate This 2.2 before conducting this activity.
Discuss the solution process and incorporate energy changes in the dissolution process using
Figure 2.2.
Students should reason and conclude that:
(a) The ethanol-water mixture felt warm and the urea-water mixture felt cool as dissolution
occurred.
(b) Dissolving ethanol in water gives off energy to the surroundings, which we detected as
some of the energy was transferred to our skin. Dissolving urea in water took up energy from
the surroundings, which we detected because some of the energy was taken from our skin.
Check This 2.4. Exothermic energy diagram.
Section 2.2: Solutions of Polar Molecules in Water

Use an energy diagram to characterize the basic steps in the dissolving process and give a
molecular level explanation for the direction of the individual and net energy changes.
Use molecular models, Lewis structures, and other representations of molecules to show how
the three major attractions between like and unlike molecules, hydrogen bonding, dipoledipole attractions, and London dispersion forces, affect the solubility of a given molecular
solute in water.
Give a molecular level explanation for the favorable and unfavorable factors that determine
the solubility of a given molecular solute.
Predict the relative aqueous solubilities of a given set of molecular solutes.
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 2.2:
If students need extra assistance in understanding graphs and tables, please have them study the
Personal Tutor exercises for these topics.
Investigate This 2.5. Which compound is most soluble in water?
Goal:
Determine which compound (methanol, 1-butanol, or hexane) is more soluble in water, first by
building models to predict which compound(s0 will interact strongly with water, and then by
testing each compound experimentally.
Set-up time for 2.5(b):
15 minutes.
Time for 2.5(a):
Time for 2.5(b):
Equipment:
2.5(a): Molecular model kit. The instructor should bring models (built with lecture-size
models, if possible) to class for discussion after students complete the activity.
2.5(b): Three small vials or test tubes.
2.5(b): Four 1-mL graduated-stem plastic pipets.
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Chapter 2
Chemicals for 2.5(b):

1 to 3 mL of methanol.
1 to 3 mL of 1-butanol.
1 to 3 mL of hexane.
3-5 mL of water.
SAFETY NOTE
Wear safety goggles
Methanol, 1-butanol, and hexane are flammableno
flames, fire extinguisher
Procedure 2.5(a):
Before conducting this activity, the instructor should review Table 2.1 that compares
hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole attractions, and dispersion forces.
Have students work in small groups to make these models.
Then they should discuss which intermolecular attractions are present.
Using their models and a model of water, they should predict which molecules will form
strong intermolecular attractions with water.
Alternative procedure: Display molecular models (large models or pictures) to demonstrate the
interactions.
Procedure 2.5(b):
Ask students to predict and explain, on the basis of their models, whether methanol, 1-butanol
and/or hexane will be soluble in water.
Mix 1 mL of each liquid with 1 mL of water.
Observe which compounds dissolve in water. If one or more of the liquids does not seem to
dissolve, add two or three drops to 1 mL of water to find out if a small amount will dissolve.
Alternative procedure: Display results of this activity.
Clean-up:
Dispose mixtures in properly labeled waste container.
Discussion questions:
What are the differences between hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole attraction, and dispersion
forces?
How does water interact with hexane molecules?
What conclusions can students make concerning relative solubility of these compounds in
water?
Anticipated results 2.5(a):
Figure 2.3 in the text displays the maximum hydrogen bonding between a methanol molecule
and three water molecules. For 1-butanol, Figure 2.5 shows that three hydrogen bonds are
possible, but the nonpolar hydrocarbon chain decreases its solubility in water. Hexane, shown
in Figure 2.4 is a nonpolar solute and, at the level of observation in this activity, is insoluble in
water.
Anticipated results 2.5(b):
Picture of 1 ml of methanol in 1 ml of water (miscible):
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
Picture of 1 ml of 1-butanol in 1 ml of water (1 minute after shaking):
Picture of 1 ml of 1-butanol in 1 ml of water (20 minutes after shaking):
Picture of 1 ml of hexane in 1 ml of water:
NOTE: In a 5% water/95% butanol mixture or a 5% butanol/95% water mixture, the compounds

are miscible, as shown below. Therefore, after adding a drop of two of 1-butanol to 1 mL of
water, the resulting mixture will be homogeneous, a single clear, colorless liquid. If the
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Chapter 2
mixtures are a 10% water/90% butanol mixture or a 10% butanol/90% water mixture, the
compounds show immiscibility.
Check This 2.7. Hydrogen-bonded network in water-methanol solution.
Check This 2.8. Energy diagram for hexane dissolving in water.
Check This 2.9. Predict relative solubilities.
Consider This 2.10. What are the interactions of glucose with water?
Consider This 2.6. Which compounds are soluble in water?
Goal:
Based on the results from Investigate This 2.5, students determine which compounds are soluble
in water.
Classroom options:
Instructor's notes:
Review the results of Investigate This 2.5 before conducting this activity.
From the microscopic perspective, discuss how methanol and 1-butanol dissolve in water and
why hexane does not dissolve in water.
A good point to conclude this activity is "like dissolves like".
Students should reason and conclude:
(a) Students should elaborate on their predictions based on the results. This discussion should
incorporate the different types of molecular interactions.
(b) Methanol is the most soluble while hexane is the least soluble. (See results for Investigate
This 2.5.)
Check This 2.7. Hydrogen-bonded network in water-methanol solution.
Check This 2.8. Energy diagram for hexane dissolving in water.
ACS Chemistry FROG
13
Chapter 2

Goal:
Students will apply their knowledge of hydrogen bonding to determine how many water
molecules can hydrogen bond to glucose and conclude that the number of water molecules that
can hydrogen bond per carbon atom in glucose (about three) is the same as the number of water
molecules that can hydrogen bond to methanol.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer these questions. Then
you can lead the discussion, perhaps bringing in molecular models to show the differences
between hydrogen bonding in glucose versus methanol.
This activity could also be assigned as a homework problems and then discussed at the next
class session.
Time for activity:
Approximately 10 minutes.
Instructor notes:
Display the structure of glucose, Figure 2.6, as the class does this activity.
Three water molecules can hydrogen bond to one alcohol group. Therefore, methanol with
one alcohol group can make three hydrogen bonds to three water molecules.
Glucose can hydrogen bond to 18 water molecules through its alcohol groups. In addition, it
can hydrogen bond to two more water molecules at the ring oxygen atom. The high solubility
of glucose is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds to water (20 total or about 3/carbon
atom, just as in methanol).
Section 2.3: Characteristics of Solutions of Ionic Compounds in Water

Show the direction of motion of the ions in a solution being tested with an electrical
conductivity tester.
Make a drawing showing the process of dissolving a polar solute or an ionic compound that
shows how water molecules hydrate the dissolved molecules or ions.
Investigate This 2.12. Which solutions conduct an electric current?
Goal:
A conductivity apparatus is used to show that some, but not all solutions conduct an electric
current.
Set-up time:
10-15 minutes.
Time for activity:
Less than 10 minutes.
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Chapter 2
Equipment:
Electrical conductivity tester.
12- or 24-well microtiter plate (or small beakers).
Small spatula.
Small stirring rod.
Chemicals:
Glucose (small amount).
Sodium chloride (table salt, small amount).
Distilled water.
Procedure:
Use student volunteers.
Have one of them place 2-3 mL of distilled water in one well of a well plate.
Test the conductivity of pure water.
Have another student dissolve a small amount of glucose in the well and test the conductivity.
Rinse the conductivity tester with distilled water.
Repeat the procedure using table salt in another well.
Clean-up:
Discard solutions in well plate down the drain and rinse well plate with water.
Pure water does not conduct electricity. Conductivity tester light does not glow.
Glucose solution does not conduct electricity.
Table salt does conduct electricity. Conductivity tester light glows as electric current is
conducted by the solution between the wires dipping into the solution.
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Chapter 2
Check This 2.14-- Properties of crystals.
End of Chapter problems 2.17, 2.18.
Consider This 2.13. Why do some solutions conduct an electric current?
Goal:
Students interpret their results from Investigate This 2.12 to conclude that ions are needed to
conduct electrical currents in solution.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students to briefly sketch their drawings and then ask two or three
groups to present their sketches on overhead transparencies. If their drawings are not similar
to Figure 2.8, this can be a good entry point for discussion.
Time for activity:
5-10 minutes
Instructor notes:
Review the outcomes from Investigate This 2.12.
Discussion as to what is required in solutions (ions) for them to conduct electricity.
Figures 2.8 (Observed results and molecular-level interpretation of solution conductivity) and
2.9 (Model of an ionic crystal dissolving in water) are useful in explaining these concepts.
(a) The sodium chloride solution conducts electricity, whereas pure water and the glucose
solution do not. We can tell because the light glowed (electric current was going through the
circuit).
(b) You cannot distinguish between the pure water and the glucose solution. But, the sodium
chloride solution conducts because there are ions in solution.
Check This 2.14. Properties of crystals.
Section 2.4. Formation of Ionic Compounds

Write the chemical formula of any ionic compound, given the charges on the cation and anion.
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Chapter 2
Draw an energy diagram for the formation of an ionic crystalline compound from its
elemental gas phase atoms and give a molecular level explanation for the direction of the
energy changes of the individual steps.
NOTE: Laura Eisen, The Mount Vernon College of George Washington University,
Washington, DC, does Investigate This 2.22 before having students think about energy
diagrams associated with solutions. This provides students with concrete examples of reactions
that require energy and reactions that produce energy (in the form of heat, energy transfer into
or out of the reactiondissolution.) She drew several of the diagrams (Figures 2.12, 2.14, and
2.15) on the board side by side, so they could see the relationships more clearly. When students
saw the diagrams side by side (with correlated colored arrows), they could observe that the
lattice energy in Figure 2.15 is the same length as the corresponding arrow in Figure 2.14, etc. It
also is important to complete Investigate This 2.22 before talking about favorable and
unfavorable factors for solubility because it provides the students with evidence that energy
cannot be the only factor affecting solubility.
Consider This 2.20. Are attractions or repulsions stronger in a crystal?
Goal:
Using the dependence of coulombic attraction/repulsion on distance between charges, students
analyze Figure 2.13 and determine that attractions are stronger than repulsions in a crystal.
Classroom options:
Instructor notes:
Display Figure 2.13 as this activity is conducted.
The magnitude of the attractive energy is larger than the magnitude of the repulsive energy.
Consider only next-door-neighbor interactions like those shown in Figure 2.13. The distances
between the ions attracted to one another is smaller than the distances between the ions that
repel each other. The attractions are stronger than the repulsions because both inversely
proportional to the distance between the charges. The result for the crystal as a whole is
more attraction than repulsion and formation of a stable array.
Check This 2.21. Energy diagram for formation of one mole of CaCl2.
Section 2.5. Energy Changes When Ionic Compounds Dissolve

Make a drawing showing the process of dissolving a polar solute or an ionic compound that
shows how water molecules hydrate the dissolved molecules or ions.
Draw an energy diagram for the dissolution of an ionic crystalline compound in water and
give a molecular level explanation for the direction of the energy changes of the individual
steps.
Use lattice and hydration energies to determine whether a given ionic compound will dissolve
exothermically or endothermically in water.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2

If students need extra assistance in understanding graphs and tables, please have them study the
Personal Tutor exercises for these topics.
Investigate This 2.22: What temperature changes occur when solids dissolve?
Goal:
Students find experimentally that the dissolution of some ionic compounds is endothermic
(require energy from the surroundings, including the experimenter) and for others is exothermic
(give off energy to the surroundings, including the experimenter).
Set-up time:
10 minutes minimum. (If students do the activity in small groups, more set up time is needed
to prepare the requisite number of samples, which can be done by eye, once you know how
much 1 g of each compound is.)
Time for activity:
Equipment:
Three vials with caps (small zip-closure bags may be used as well) for each group.
Small capped bottle for water for each group.
Distilled water, beaker and wipes for rinsing tester wires.
Balance to determine the size of 1 g samples of the solutes.
Chemicals:
1 g ammonia chloride, NH4Cl.
1 g calcium chloride, CaCl2 (must be anhydrous).
1 g sodium chloride, NaCl.
About 15 mL water.
Procedure:
SAFETY NOTE
Wear safety goggles.
Place approximately 1 g of each salt in each vial (before class).
While one student holds one of the vials near the bottom, another student adds about 5 mL of
room temperature water to the vial (during class).
Feel the temperature of the vial and agree on whether it gets cooler, warmer, or stays the same
temperature as the added water.
Gently shake its contents while continuing to observe additional changes.
Uncap the vial and check the conductivity of the solution. If students do the activity in small
groups test the conductivity of the solution for one or two of the groups.
Repeat this procedure for the other two samples.
Alternative procedure: Semi-quantitative observations can be made if a thermometer (liquid-inglass, digital, or computer-interfaced probe) monitors the change in temperature as shown in the
photo. A clear container should be used, so that the dissolution can be seen as well as any
changes in temperature recorded.
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One set of results for this alterative procedure:

Room temperature water: 22C
Ammonium chloride solution: 16C
Calcium chloride solution: 28C
Sodium chloride solution: 22C
Clean-up:
Discard solutions down the drain, rinsing vials with generous amounts of water.
Consider This 2.24. How does Figure 2.15 correlate with Investigate This 2.22?
Worked Example 2.25. Energy change for dissolving CaCl2 in water.
Check This 2.26. Energy change for dissolving LiI in water.
Consider This 2.23: What energy changes occur when solids dissolve?
Goal:
Students conclude that energy is involved in dissolving ionic solids in water and that some
dissolution reactions are endothermic (require energy from the surroundings, including the
experimenter) and others are exothermic (give off energy to the surroundings, including the
experimenter).
Classroom options:
Allow students, working in small groups, 3-5 minutes to complete this activity.
Instructor notes:
Review the temperature changes that occur when ionic solids dissolve, as observed in
Investigate This 2.22. Have students relate the observed temperature changes to energy
transfers to or from the dissolution reactions.
Discussion should involve the interplay between lattice energy and hydration energy as an
ionic solid dissolves in water. Energy diagrams, such as Figure 2.15, can be displayed to
provide a graphical representation of these energies. Emphasize that dissolution is a real
chemical reaction that requires energy to break bonds in the crystal (the lattice energy) and
gives off energy when new bonds are made in the solution (hydration energy).
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2

(a) The three solids were ionic because all resulting aqueous solutions conducted electricity.
(b) The solution of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, became cooler, so the dissolution is
endothermic. The solution of calcium chloride, CaCl2, became warmer, so the dissolution is
exothermic. The solution of sodium chloride, NaCl, felt about the same as the water that was
added, so it is impossible to tell by touch whether the dissolution is exothermic or
endothermic.
(c) It might be surprising that, depending on the compound that dissolves, ionic dissolution
can be either endothermic or exothermic. (Sometimes, the net energy involved is so small
that it cannot be observed: e.g., sodium chloride dissolving in water.)
Consider This 2.24. How does Figure 2.15 correlate with Investigate This 2.20?
Consider This 2.24: How does Figure 2.15 correlate with Investigate This 2.22?
Goal:
Students find the small net energy change shown in Figure 2.15 consistent with their observation
that no temperature change was observed when salt dissolved in Investigate This 2.22.
Classroom options:
Allow students, working in small groups, 3-5 minutes to complete this activity.
Instructor notes:
Review the results from Investigate This 2.22 and display Figure 2.15 as this activity is
conducted. This discussion is an opportunity to reinforce the meaning of the arrows on an
energy diagram and their particular meaning for the dissolution of an ionic compound.
Yes, the small net energy change, Ediss, for dissolving solid NaCl is consistent with the
observation in Investigate This 2.22 that little or no temperature change was observed.
Section 2.6. Precipitation Reactions of Ions in Solution

Predict whether a precipitate will form when two ionic solutions are mixed.
Draw a molecular-level diagram and/or explain in words the reactions occurring in a reacting
system (dissolution and precipitation in this case) at equilibrium.
Investigate This 2.27: What reactions of ions in solution can you observe?
Goal:
Students find that some combinations of ionic solutions produce a precipitate.
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Set-up time:
10 minutes minimum. (If students do the activity in small groups, more set up time is needed
to prepare the requisite number of samples.)
Time for activity:
Equipment:
24-well microtiter plate or two small vials.
Three 1-mL graduated stem plastic pipets.
Small stirring rod if well plate is used.
Chemicals:
About 5 mL of 1 M CaCl2.
About 5 mL of 1 M Na2SO4.
About 5 mL of 1 M NaNO3.
Procedure:
Use student volunteers to carry out the activity, if it is done as a class activity.
Use an electrical conductivity tester to test the conductivity of the aqueous solutions of CaCl2,
Na2SO4, and NaNO3 in separate wells of a well plate.
Project the image of the well plate with an overhead projector, and place about 1 mL of the
CaCl2 solution into two empty wells.
Add about 1 mL of the Na2SO4 solution to one of the wells containing CaCl2 solution. Gently
stir the mixture and have the class record any changes observed.
Add 1 mL of the NaNO3 solution to the second well containing CaCl2 solution. Gently stir the
mixture and have the class record any changes observed.
Use the electrical conductivity tester to test the conductivity of the two mixtures that have
been made.
NOTE: Instead of using a well plate, two small vials can be used.
Clean-up:
Discard solutions down the drain, rinsing well plate with generous amounts of water.
Check This 2.29. Electrical conductivity in Investigate This 2.25.
Worked Example 2.30. Product of a precipitation reaction and net ionic reaction.
Check This 2.31. Product of a precipitation reaction and net ionic reaction.
End of chapter problems 2.38 and 2.39.
Consider This 2.28: How do you explain the reactions of ions in solutions?
Goal:
Reasoning from the contents of the mixtures in Investigate This 2.27, students should be able to
identify the precipitated ionic compound as well as the ions remaining in solution.
Classroom options:
Allow students, working in small groups, about 5 minutes to discuss their answers to the
questions.
Time for activity:
10-15 minutes.
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Instructor notes:
This activity should be conducted immediately after completing Investigate This 2.27, while
the observations are still fresh.
Focus on the observation that some ions, when they are mixed together, form a precipitate and
other ions do not. Students often think that they have learned nothing about the possible
precipitation reactions if nothing happens, that is, no precipitate forms. Lead them to realize
that the information gained from such a result helps to eliminate possibilities in those cases
where precipitates do form. This reasoning will be very important in the next section when
they determine simple solubility rules.
Move students toward understanding and writing net ionic reactions.
The two mixtures are the same in that they both conducted an electric current, indicating that
ions were present in both solutions.
The mixtures are different in that the CaCl2/Na2SO4 mixture produced a white precipitate
while the CaCl2/NaNO3 mixture remained clear and colorless, just like the original solutions.
Apparently some of the ions in the CaCl2/Na2SO4 mixture react to form an insoluble ionic
compound. Not all the ions leave the solution, since it still conducts and electric current.
Discuss how students can develop the strategy for identifying CaSO4 as the precipitate.
Check This 2.29. Electrical conductivity in Investigate This 2.25.
Worked Example 2.30. Product of a precipitation reaction and net ionic reaction.
Check This 2.31. Product of a precipitation reaction and net ionic reaction.
Section 2.7. Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds

Give a molecular level explanation for the favorable and unfavorable factors that determine
the solubility of a given ionic compound.
Predict whether a precipitate will form when two ionic solutions are mixed.
Investigate This 2.32: Which mixtures of ionic compounds yield precipitates?
Goal:
Determine which mixtures of pairs of ionic compounds produce a precipitate.
Set-up time:
60 minutes. This includes preparing solutions and transferring solutions to plastic thin stem
pipets for dispensing in class.
Time for activity:
At least 20 minutes (including discussion).
NOTE: One 50-minute class period can be devoted to completing and discussing this activity.
Alternative procedures are provided as suggestions for taking less class time for the activity.
Equipment (for each group that will do the activity):
24-well microtiter plate.
10 plastic thin-stem pipets.
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Chemicals (requires about 5 mL per group doing the activity):

1 M NaCl.
1 M CaCl2.
1 M LiCl.
1 M BaCl2.
1 M KNO3.
1 M KBr.
1 M K2SO4.
1 M K2CO3.
1 M K2C2O4.
1 M K3PO4.
SAFETY NOTES
Wear safety goggles
Barium salts are toxichandle with gloved hands and
dispose of in a properly labeled waste container
Procedure:
Prepare the above solutions and use or dispense in thin-stem pipets.
Place the 24-well plate on a white sheet of paper, labeling the rows and columns as shown
here.
KNO 3 KBr
NaCl
CaCl 2
LiCl
BaCl 2
K2SO4 K2CO3 K2C 2O4 K3PO4

3
Add about 0.5 mL of each specified solution to the appropriate wells. The wells will be about
1/3 full of liquid.
Observe and record which pairs produce a precipitate.
One set of results:
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
Precipitates: CaSO4, CaCO3, CaC2O4, Ca3(PO4)2, BaSO4, BaCO3, BaC2O4, Ba3(PO4)2.

Ions that always remained in solution: Na+, K+, (Li+), Cl, Br-, NO3.
Cations remaining in solution when paired with a mono-negatively charged anion: Ba2+, Ca2+.
NOTE: In this determination, Li3PO4 did not precipitate, although its solubility is quite low. It
may be that the precipitate forms slowly or that an error was made. In most cases Li3PO4 will
precipitate. Check your solutions to be sure they give the expected results before using in class.
Alternative procedures:
Instead of conducting the entire activity, a few key rows and columns can be chosen (those
that form precipitates). The problem with this procedure is that it reinforces the notion that
there is no information in the mixings that produce no precipitate.
Students can perform this activity as a laboratory exercise and discuss the results there or in
lecture.
The mixings can be performed before class and then presented and discussed in class.
Use Consider This 2.33 to initiate discussion of the results from this activity.
The discussion should lead to students providing solubility trends based upon the results
observed in this activity. These trends are listed above.
Students should be able to write net ionic equations for the mixtures. The net ionic equations
are:
Worked Example 2.34. Solubility trends for alkali metal ions, halides, and nitrate.
Consider This 2.35. What are solubilities for multiply-charged cations and anions?
Check This 2.36. Predicting solubilities.
Consider This 2.37. What might cause some exceptions to the solubility rules?
Consider This 2.33: Which ionic compounds are soluble and insoluble?
Goal:
Students apply the strategy from Section 2.6 to identify the precipitates formed in Investigate
This 2.32 and write net ionic equations for their formation.
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Class options:
Time for activity:
Will vary depending on how well the class understands the strategy for figuring out the
precipitates and how to write net ionic equations.
Instructor notes:
This activity allows you to work towards determining solubility trends, by figuring out which
combinations of cations and anions produce precipitates.
You may find it prudent to start with a review of Worked Example 2.30 to demonstrate the
strategy for determining the identity of the precipitates.
To identify the precipitate and write all the net ionic equations for each precipitate may take at
least 50 minutes. The instructor should use judgment on how much time will be allotted to
complete this activity. If Investigate This 2.27 was conducted and thoroughly discussed in the
laboratory, it may only be necessary to remind students of the results, so they will be
comfortable with Worked Example 2.34 and Check This 2.35.
(a) If no precipitate forms, all of the possible ionic compounds that can be formed are
soluble. The following ionic compounds are soluble in water: KCl, NaNO3, Na2SO4,
Na2CO3, Na2C2O4, Na3PO4, Ca(NO3)2, CaBr2, LiNO3, Li2SO4, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, Ba(NO3)2,
BaBr2. (Although Li3PO4(s) was not observed in the results shown above, it is likely to form
in most cases.)
(b) In all those reactions that produce a precipitate, two of the ions are K+ and Cl. We know
from part (a) that KCl is a soluble ionic compound, so it is the other two ions that must form
the precipitate; K+ and Cl are spectator ions. The net ionic equations are:
Ca2+(aq) + SO42(aq) CaSO4(s)
Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s)
Ca2+(aq) + C2O42-(aq) CaC2O4(s)
3Ca2+(aq) + 2PO43-(aq) Ca3(PO4)2(s)
3Li+(aq) + PO43-(aq) Li3PO4(s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
Ba2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) BaCO3(s)
Ba2+(aq) + C2O42(aq) BaC2O4(s)
3Ba2+(aq) + 2PO43-(aq) Ba3(PO4)2(s)
Discuss the solubility trends and use Consider This 2.35 to lead to the simple set of rules
following that activity.
Worked Example 2.34. Solubility trends for alkali metal ions, halides, and nitrate.
Consider This 2.35. What are solubilities for multiply-charged cations and anions?
Check This 2.36. Predicting solubilities.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
Consider This 2.35: What are solubilities for multiply-charged cations and anions?
Goal:
Develop solubility trends for multiply-charged cations and anions.
Class options:
This activity can be conducted as an open class discussion, especially following Consider This
2.33.
This activity could also be assigned as a homework problem following Consider This 2.33 and
then discussed at the next class session.
Instructor notes:
Focus discussion on organizing students' solubility observations in order to derive general
solubility trends.
(a) When alkaline earth cations (Ca2+ and Ba2+) combine with mononegative anions, the
resulting ionic compound is soluble. When these cations combine with multiply-charged
anions, the resulting ionic compound is insoluble.
(b) When multiply-charged anions combine with monopositive cations, the resulting ionic
compound is soluble. (The exception is Li3PO4.) When these anions combine with multiplycharged cations, the resulting ionic compound is insoluble.
(c) If both cation and anion are multiply charged, then the resulting ionic compound is most
likely insoluble.
Check This 2.36. Predicting solubilities
Consider This 2.37: What might cause some exceptions to the solubility rules?
Goal:
Given the data in the activity and in Table 2.3, students decide why the silver halides are
exceptions to the solubility rules.
Class options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer these questions before
discussing their answers. Then, have them summarize and discuss their answers.
Time for activity:
5-15 mintues.
Instructor notes:
Review lattice and hydration energy when conducting this activity.
(a) Ag+ and K+ are about the same size, so we would expect that, when dissolved, both ions
would have about the same effect on the reorganization of water molecules. Any difference
between the solubility of silver and potassium ionic solids is likely to be a result of a
difference in their dissolution energies, Edissolving.
(b) The data in Table 2.3 show that the K+ halides (except KI(s)) dissolve endothermically.
This unfavorable effect for KCl(s) and KBr(s) is relatively small, less than 20 kJmol1, and
the potassium halides are quite soluble. The silver halides also dissolve endothermically, but
the unfavorable energy effect is a good deal larger, 66 to 84 kJmol1, and the silver halides
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Chapter 2
are insoluble. This substantial energy requirement apparently greatly limits the solubility of
the silver compounds.
Section 2.8. Concentrations and Moles

Be able to carry out these interconversions: grams moles of a compound and volume of a
solution of known concentration moles (grams) of solute in that volume.
If students need extra assistance in understanding the mole concept, mass relationships, and/or
graphs and tables, please have them study the Personal Tutor exercises on these topics.
Investigate This 2.38: Do Co2+(aq) and PO43(aq) react to form a precipitate?
Goal:
Observe and record the appearance (including colors and relative amounts of precipitates) of
four different mixtures of cobalt chloride hexahydrate, CoCl2x6H2O and sodium phosphate,
Na3PO4 solutions before and after mixing.
Set-up time:
20-30 minutes.
Time for activity:
Varies, depending on how much you wish the class to discuss the individual mixings as they
are done, from less than 10 minutes to 20-30 minutes.
Equipment:
Two small graduated cylinders.
Four small centrifuge tubes. (15-mL is about optimal for conserving reagents that require
heavy-metal disposal while getting results that are easy to interpret.)
Benchtop centrifuge to accommodate the centrifuge tubes.
Chemicals:
Cobalt chloride hexahydrate, CoCl2x6H2O
Sodium phosphate, Na3PO412H2O.
Stock solution preparation:
SAFETY NOTES
Wear safety goggles
Cobalt compounds are toxic and sodium phosphate is
causticwear gloves
Prepare little more than the minimum amounts of solution you need. The directions here are
for an activity in which the final mixtures each have a total volume of 12 mL.
For the 36 g CoCl26H2O in 1 L solution, dissolve 1.8 g CoCl26H2O in about 25 mL of
distilled water in a small beaker. Pour this solution into a clean 50-mL graduated cylinder and
use small aliquots of water to rinse the beaker, adding the rinses to the cylinder until the final
volume is 50. mL. Use a stirring rod to mix the contents of the cylinder well.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
For the 18 g CoCl26H2O in 1 L solution, pour 20. mL of the solution you just made into a
clean 50-mL graduated cylinder, add water to bring the solution volume to 40. mL, and stir
with a stirring rod to mix the contents well.
For the 24 g Na3PO4 in 1 L solution, dissolve 2.8 g of Na3PO412H2O in about 25 mL of
distilled water in a small beaker. Pour this solution into a clean 50-mL graduated cylinder and
use small aliquots of water to rinse the beaker, adding the rinses to the cylinder until the final
volume is 50. mL. Use a stirring rod to mix the contents of the cylinder well. (Anhydrous
Na3PO4 is not readily available, so we use the more common dodecahydrate, the principal
ingredient in TSP, which is sold as a laundry builder in supermarkets.)
For the 12 g Na3PO4 in 1 L solution, pour 20. mL of the solution you just made into a clean
50-mL graduated cylinder, add water to bring the solution volume to 40. mL, and stir with a
stirring rod to mix the contents well.
Procedure:
Do this as a class investigation, but have students work in small groups to discuss and analyze
the results. Because of the toxicity of cobalt, it is better to have the instructor (with gloves) do
the experimental manipulations.
In four small centrifuge tubes, prepare the equal-volume mixtures indicated in the table in the
text.
Students should record their observations on the appearance of the original solutions, what
occurs during mixing, and the final appearance of the mixtures. It is good practice to have one
or two students tell the class what they are observing, as a check to see that everyone agrees
on the observations.
Centrifuge the four mixtures to bring they precipitates to the bottom of the tubes.
After centrifugation, note and record the appearance of the liquid and solid in each tube and
the relative amounts of solid in each tube. These results will be used and discussed throughout
this section and further in Section 2.10.
Instructor's notes:
This system has several advantages.
The parent solutions are clear, one pink and the other colorless, but the precipitate is bright
blue, which adds visual interest and may pique some curiosity. (See R. W. Ramette,
Exocharmic reactions, J. Chem. Educ, 1980, 57, 68; reprinted in revised form in B. Z.
Shakhashiri, Chemical Demonstrations, vol. 1, (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison,
1983), pp. xiii-xvi.) Well see the contrasting colors of the cobalt(II) cation again in aqueous
and alcoholic (or 6 M HCl) solutions in Section 9.1.
A good quantity of precipitate is formed in all cases. The precipitate is relatively flocculent
and takes days to settle out on its own; centrifugation is imperative.
The amount of each solution used and hence the amount of precipitate formed will depend on
the size of the centrifuge tubes that fit whatever benchtop centrifuge is available.
Under the specified conditions, the more concentrated solutions of the reagents are both about
0.15 M and the more dilute solutions about 0.076 (Co2+) and 0.073 (PO43) M. Cobalt is the
limiting reactant in Mixtures 1, 3, and 4, as evidenced by the clear colorless supernatant
solutions after centrifugation. Phosphate is the limiting reactant in Mixture 2 and the
supernatant solution is light pink (lighter than the initial reagent, since much of the cobalt has
been precipitated).
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Chapter 2
These photos show samples 1 through 4, from left to right. The left-hand photo is the cobalt
solutions before clear and colorless phosphate solution is added. The center photo shows the
mixtures shortly after the phosphate has been added. The right-hand photo shows the results
after the tubes were centrifuged.
Discuss and decide upon the relative amounts of precipitate formed in each mixture and the
appearance of the supernatant solution in each mixture.
The activities listed below present a step-by-step guide to understanding the reaction
stoichiometry of each mixture.
Consider This 2.39. How are concentration and amount of precipitate related?
Consider This 2.40. Is there evidence for complete reaction of Co2+(aq) in these mixtures?
Check This 2.41. The molar mass of cobalt chloride hexahydrate
Worked Example 2.42. Mass to mole conversion
Check This 2.43. Mass to mole conversion
Worked Example 2.44. Molarity of a solution
Check This 2.45. Molarity of a solution
Worked Example 2.46. Volume to moles conversion
Check This 2.47. Volume to moles conversion
Alternative procedure and/or laboratory:
Philip Bays, Saint Marys College, Notre Dame, IN, contributed the following alternative
procedure, written as a laboratory exercise. The original experiment comes from Inquiries Into
Chemistry, 3rd ed., M. R. Abraham and M. J. Pavelich (Waveland Press, Long Grove, IL, 1999).
Chemistry 121 Laboratory Fall 2002
How much do I need to get how much I want?
Purpose:
Examine mass and mole relationships
Questions:
1. What causes a reaction to stop?
2. What is the reaction between Co(NO3)2 and Na3PO4?
3. Is all of each reactant consumed in a reaction? Why or Why not?
Pre-Lab: This experiment has more experimental detail than previous experiments.
However, you need to pay attention to what occurs in each step along the way. There are
some questions embedded in the procedure that you need to answer before continuing on to
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
the next step. These should be answered in your lab notebook, as they will help you with
your discussion later. The questions are indicated in bold type. Be sure to answer all of
them as you go.
Experiment:
Part I: A Qualitative look
1. Dissolve a small amount of cobalt (II) nitrate, Co(NO3)2, in about 20 mL of distilled
water. Dissolve a similar amount of sodium phosphate, Na3PO4, in a second 20 mL of
water. Describe the appearance of each solution.
2. Pour half of each solution into a third beaker and mix thoroughly. (Save the mixture
and two solutions for later use.) Describe the appearance of the mixture.
3. Assuming the reaction involves the coming together of dissolved ions, what are the
possible identities of the solid formed in the mixture? Think up and carry out
experiments that would distinguish among all of the possibilities. Describe the results of
these experiments.
4. Write a chemical equation that represents the reaction and is consistent with the
data obtained so far. Briefly explain your reasoning.
5. Separate the mixture by filtration. Note the characteristics of the liquid, called the
supernatant. Predict all of the materials that might be dissolved in the liquid.
6. Divide the supernatant in half and test each half with the remaining Co(NO3)2 and
Na3PO4 solutions. Describe the results.
7. What conclusions can be drawn from these data concerning the chemicals present
in the supernatant? (e.g., How might changing the original amounts of Co(NO3)2 and
Na3PO4 affect the composition of the supernatant?)
Part II: Quantitative
1. Obtain 90 mL of stock Co(NO3)2 solution in a clean, labeled beaker. Obtain 60 mL of
stock Na3PO4 solution in a second labeled beaker. Record the concentrations of the
solutions in your notebook.
2. Clean and distilled-water rinse four 100 mL beakers and label them 1-4. Into each
beaker measure 20.0 mL of stock Co(NO3)2 solution. Measure various amounts of stock
Na3PO4 into each beaker. The suggested amounts are: 5.0, 10.0, 15.0, and 20.0 mL
3. Record the volumes of each solution you added in your table. Mix each solution
thoroughly and allow it to stand for at least 10 minutes. Calculate the masses of salts
added to each beaker and record these amounts in the table in your notebook.
4. Set up four filter funnels with filter papers and labeled collection beakers. Mix and
filter each reaction mixture from part II.2 through a separate funnel, collecting its
supernatant in a labeled beaker. You are to collect at least 20 mL of each supernatant,
clean of any precipitate. When this is done, move on to part 4.
5. Describe the appearance of each of your supernatants. Divide each of the
supernatants into two parts. Test one part with a dropperful of Co(NO3)2 and the other with
a dropper full of Na3PO4 solution. Summarize the results of these tests in your
notebook.
Calculations and Discussion:
1. Explain the result of this testing of the supernatants. That is, explain what these results
show must have happened in each reaction mixture. (For example, why can you form more
precipitate from a supernatant? Why don't all four supernatants give the same test results?)
2. Mental Model-Draw a picture showing how the reaction can give both the precipitate
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and the supernatant seen in one of your reaction mixtures. In other words, illustrate your
reasoning in question 1 using a picture of the reaction.
3. Predict what the limiting reactant should have been in each reaction mixture. Do this
by assuming the chemical equation you wrote in part I.4, is correct and then calculating
which reactant should run out first. Record the results of your calculations in the last
column of the data table in your notebook. Show the calculations in your notebook.
4. Summarize the data for and against the chemical equation you wrote for the reaction
between Co(NO3)2 and Na3PO4 in aqueous solution. In particular, explain how calculations
involving weight data can be used as evidence for or against a given reaction idea. Finally,
do you feel your equation reflects what nature is really doing? Briefly explain.
Consider This 2.39: How are concentration and amount of precipitate related?
Goal:
Begin an analysis of the results from Investigate This 2.38 by comparing the relative amounts of
precipitate that might be expected from the net ionic equation written in Check This 2.36 with
those observed. Begin a consideration of the information that the color of the supernatant
solutions can provide.
Classroom options:
Allow students, working in small groups, about 5 minutes to answer these exercises and then
have them present their conclusions and reasoning to the class.
Time for activity:
About 15 minutes or longer if you want to extend the discussion to include different ways of
expressing concentration.
Instructor notes:
Investigate This 2.38 and Consider This 2.39 serve as an introduction to limiting reactants,
molarity, and the conversion strategies that follow in this and the next two sections.
The activity reviews solubility rules and writing net ionic equations.
(a) Yes, the results from Investigate This 2.38 confirm the prediction made in Check This
2.36. We predicted that Co3(PO4)2 would form an insoluble precipitate. The net ionic reaction
is: 3Co2+(aq) + 2PO43-(aq) Co3(PO4)2(s)
(b) Mixture 1 formed the most precipitate. Mixtures 3 and 4 formed the least precipitate and
the amount in each appears the same. The net ionic equation suggests that the more of each
reactant we have the more precipitate will form in a mixture. Mixture 1 has the most
Co2+(aq) and PO43-(aq) in the mixture, so it makes sense that this mixture can form the most
precipitate. It also makes sense that Mixture 4 should have the least precipitate, because it
has the least Co2+(aq) and PO43-(aq) in the mixture. It doesnt seem to make sense that
Mixtures 3 and 4 would have the same amount of precipitate, since there is more PO43-(aq) in
Mixture 3, so we might expect more precipitate.
(c) The supernatant solution in mixture 2 appears light pink. Since Co2+(aq) is pink, this
result suggests that this supernatant solution contains Co2+(aq). The other supernatants are
clear and colorless, so they do not seem to contain Co2+(aq). This result suggests that all of
the Co2+(aq) added to Mixtures 1, 3, and 4 has reacted to form precipitate.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
Discuss concentration leading into Consider This 2.40.
Consider This 2.40. Is there evidence for complete reaction of Co2+(aq) in these mixtures?
Consider This 2.40: Is there evidence for complete reaction of Co2+(aq) in these mixtures?
Goal:
Students conclude that there is evidence for a complete reaction of Co2+(aq) in Mixtures 3 an 4.
Classroom options:
Allow students, working in small groups, 3-5 minutes, depending on class size, to complete
this exercise and then present their conclusions and reasoning.
Time for activity:
5-15 minutes.
Instructor notes:
The reasoning here has already begun in Consider This 2.39.
(a) The evidence for complete precipitation of the cobalt ion is the lack of color in the liquid
after centrifugation. Solutions containing cobalt ion (as in those we started with) are pink.
The pink has disappeared in Mixtures 3 and 4, so we may conclude that there is no longer
enough cobalt ion in the solution to give it a pink color.
(b) As in part (a), if unreacted cobalt is left in solution, the solution should be pink. Note that
the solution in Mixture 2 after centrifugation is light pink, which suggests that not all the
cobalt has reacted in this mixture. It may be that all the phosphate has reacted and there is
still some cobalt left over.
(c) Mixtures 1 and 4 contain the same ratio of cobalt to phosphate. The difference is that
Mixture 1 is twice as concentrated as Mixture 4; there is more of each reactant in Mixture 1.
If all the cobalt reacts in Mixture 4, we would expect all the cobalt to react in Mixture 1 as
well, since the concentrations of both cobalt and phosphate are doubled in Mixture 1. We
would expect that the liquid after centrifugation of Mixture 1 would be colorless, as it is, if
all the cobalt precipitated. We would also expect that about twice as much precipitate would
form in Mixture 1 compared to Mixture 4 and this appears to be the case in the photos shown
above under Investigate This 2.38.
Discuss moles and molarity as the appropriate units to use to analyze reaction stoichiometry.
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Section 2.9. Mass-Mole-Volume Calculations

Carry out these interconversions: grams moles of a compound and volume of a solution of
known concentration moles (grams) of solute in that volume.
Prepare (give step-by-step instructions for preparing) an aqueous solution of a specified
molarity in some solute.
If students need extra assistance in understanding the mole concept, mass relationship and/or
graphs and tables, please have them study the Personal Tutor exercises on these topics.
Consider This 2.54: Do the solubility rules explain the composition of seawater?
Goal:
Students apply their knowledge of solubility rules to explain the composition of seawater.
Classroom options:
discussing their answers. An option would be to assign part (a) to one half of the class and
part (b) to the other half.
This activity could also be assigned as a homework problems and then discussed at the next
class session.
Time for activity:
5-15 minutes depending on how much time you want to take for this review.
Instructor notes:
This activity reviews, applies, and extends students' knowledge of ionic compound solubility.
(a) Yes, the solubility rules help explain the ionic composition of sea water. The highest
concentrations are those of a monocation, Na+, and monoanion, Cl. Ionic compounds of
alkali metals and halogens are generally soluble. The multiply charged cations and anions are
at least 10-fold lower in concentration, as we would expect, because their compounds are
generally less soluble. We might have expected the concentration of K+ to be higher, but it
may be that there are fewer sources of K+ to end up in the sea.
(b) To sum the moles (molarities) of positive and negative charge, the number of charges on
each ion has to be accounted for. For example, the 0.010 M Ca2+ ion contributes 0.020 M to
the sum of positive charges, because each ion contributes two charges.
[Na+] + 2[Mg2+] + 2[Ca2+] + [K+] = 0.468 M + 0.108 M + 0.020 + 0.010 M
= 0.606 M positive charge
[Cl] + 2[SO42] + [HCO3] = 0.545 M + 0.056 + 0.002 = 0.603 M negative charge
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
The amount of positive and negative charge is the same (within the uncertainties of the data).
The ocean is electrically neutral.
Section 2.10. Reaction Stoichiometry in Solutions

Carry out these interconversions: grams moles of a compound, volume of a solution of
known concentration moles (grams) of solute in that volume, and moles (grams) of
reactant moles (grams) of product in a stoichiometric reaction.
Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction mixture (solution), the amount of precipitate
formed, and the concentrations of all species remaining in the solution when the reaction is
complete.
If students need extra assistance in understanding the mole concept, mass relationships, and/or
graphs and tables, please have them study the Personal Tutor exercises for these topics.
Consider This 2.55: Are concentration and amount of precipitate related?
Goal:
Comparing moles of reactants in the mixtures in Investigate This 2.38 reinforces some of the
answers given in Consider This 2.39(b) and can lead to more quantitative insights.
Classroom options:
This activity can be conducted as an open class discussion that serves as a review of what is
known about the mixtures from Investigate This 2.38 before going on to more quantitative
analysis in the rest of the section.
Time for activity:
10-30 minutes depending on how much of the material in succeeding activities (see Follow-up
activities) you wish to incorporate in this discussion.
Instructor notes:
The answers in Consider This 2.39(b) are fundamentally correct in their explanation for which
mixture should have the most and which the least amount of precipitate.
With the numbers of moles (or molarity) from Table 2.5, a more quantitative answer might be
given, because the ratio of the numbers of molecules of each reactant is known (from the
ratio of moles). We are on firmer ground to suggest that the amount of precipitate in Mixture
4 should be half of that in Mixture 1, since the numbers of moles is half.
Review net ionic equation (2.10) as an introduction to the series of activities that takes up the
rest of this section. It is particularly important to focus student attention and discussion on the
limiting reactant concept at both the molecular level represented by Figure 2.22 and the
symbolic/numerical level represented by the activities from Worked Example 2.58 through
Check This 2.66.
Worked Example 2.56. Moles of ions in an ionic compound solution.
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Check This 2.57. Moles of ions in an ionic compound solution.

Worked Example 2.58. Moles of PO43(aq) required for complete reaction with Co2+(aq).
Check This 2.59. Moles of Co2+(aq) required for complete reactions with PO43(aq).
Check This 2.60. Limiting reactant.
Worked Example 2.61. Mass of product formed in an ionic precipitation reaction.
Check This 2.62. Mass of product formed in an ionic precipitation reaction.
Check This 2.63. Limiting reagent.
Check This 2.64. Illustrations of reactant mixtures.
Worked Example 2.65. Concentrations of ions in a reactant mixture.
Check This 2.66. Concentrations of ions in a reactant mixture.
Section 2.11. Solutions of Gases in Water

Use electrical conductivity and pH data to characterize solutions of gases in water and their
possible acid-base reaction(s) with water.
Investigate This 2.67: What are the properties of aqueous solutions of gases?
Goal:
Discover the characteristics of solutions of gases dissolved in water including the electrical
conductivity and pH of the solutions.
Set-up time:
20 minutes.
Time for activity:
10 minutes.
Materials:
6- or 12-well microtiter plate or five small beakers/vials.
Plastic transfer pipets.
pH meter and combination pH electrode or pH paper.
Distilled water, beaker and wipes for rinsing electrodes.
Vials for storing solutions.
Chemicals:
Distilled or de-ionized water (dissolved nitrogen, N2(g), and O2(g) from the air)
Carbon dioxide, CO2(g), dissolved in water. Seltzer water (with no added salts or other
ingredients) from the supermarket is the most convenient source.
Ammonia, NH3(g), dissolved in water. A 0.1 M ammonia solution. Household ammonia
(without soap or detergent) could be used.
Hydrogen chloride, HCl(g), dissolved in water. A 0.1 M hydrochloric acid solution.
Glucose, C6H12O6(s), dissolved in water (provides a reference to previous discussions).
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
SAFETY NOTES
Wear safety goggles
Hydrochloric acid is corrosive to skin--wear gloves
Hydrochloric acid and ammonia vapors are eye irritants-avoid holding them near your face
Ammonia has an unpleasant and strong odor--wellventilated room and low concentration
Procedure:
Use student volunteers to carry out this activity. Make sure they are wearing safety goggles.
Transfer solutions to a 6- or 12-well plate or small beakers. Place well plate on a piece of
paper or overhead transparency that has been labeled to identify each solution's well.
One student can test for the conductivity of each solution and report findings to class. Another
student can assist in rinsing the electrodes with distilled water after each solution is tested.
The students can switch roles to measure each solution's pH and report these values to the
class.
Clean-up:
Solutions can be poured down the drain. Rinse well plate with generous amounts of water,
concluding with a final de-ionized water rinse. Allow well plate to air dry.
Conductivity:
Distilled or de-ionized water does not conduct an electric current.
Selzer water weakly conducts an electric current.
Ammonia solution conducts an electric current.
Hydrochloric acid solution does conduct an electric current.
Glucose solution does not conduct an electric current.
pH: (These results will be used for discussing Consider This 2.62, Section 2.12)
pH of distilled or de-ionized water is 7.
pH of selzer water is 5.
pH of ammonia solution is 12.
pH of hydrochloric acid solution is 1.
pH of glucose solution is 7.
This is a photo showing the pH results. The pH paper is shown in the solutions only for
photographic purposes. pH paper should never be dipped in the solution to be tested, but
rather a drop of the solution transferred to the paper with a stirring rod (or toothpick would
work for these samples).
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Chapter 2
Use Consider This 2.68 to initiate discussion of the results of this activity.
Discussion should lead to the conclusion that water can dissolve gases just like it does solids
and liquids and that some of the solutions have different properties than pure water. Display
or refer to Table 2.6 to facilitate discussion.
This activity serves as an introduction to acids and bases as the reaction of some of these
gases with water is explored in the remainder of the chapter.
NOTE: There is no pure water sample in this activity, since the distilled water contains
dissolved nitrogen and oxygen from the air (as well as a bit of carbon dioxide, which may give
it a slightly acidic pH). The distilled water and glucose solution have the same pH and do not
conduct an electric current, which is in contrast to the other three solutions in which some
reaction(s) must be going on.
Worked Example 2.69. Molarity of saturated aqueous solutions of gases.
Check This 2.70. Molarity of saturated aqueous solutions of gases.
Worked Example 2.71. Molarity of a saturated aqueous solution of ammonia.
Check This 2.72. Molarity of a saturated aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride.
Check This 2.73. Compare solutions of NaCl and HCl.
Consider This 2.68: Why do some aqueous solutions of gas conduct electrical current?
Goal:
Students conclude that the aqueous solutions of gases that conduct electricity contain ions.
Classroom options:
Allow students, working in small groups, 3-5 minutes to discuss their answers. Then,
summarize and discuss responses.
Time for activity:
5-10 minutes.
Instructor notes:
Focus the discussion on the idea that solutions that conduct an electric current must contain
ions, so some of the gases form ions when they dissolve in water.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
(a) The solutions that conduct an electric current contain ions formed when the gases
dissolved in water.
(b) No. The electrical conductivity of the solution of HCl(g) is quite high, whereas the
conductivities of the NH3(g) and CO2(g) solutions are low.
(c) Yes. The differences in electrical conductivity simply mean that more ions are formed in
some solutions than others. For example, even though both are quite soluble, the solution of
HCl(g) must form more ions that the solution of NH3(g). The solubility of CO2(g) is quite a
bit lower and this might account for the lower number of ions in its solution.
Worked Example 2.69. Molarity of saturated aqueous solutions of gases.
Check This 2.70. Molarity of saturated aqueous solutions of gases.
Worked Example 2.71. Molarity of a saturated aqueous solution of ammonia.
Check This 2.72. Molarity of a saturated aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride.
Check This 2.73. Compare solutions of NaCl and HCl.
Section 2.12. The AcidBase Reaction of Water with Itself

Use the concentration of hydronium ion, hydroxide ion, or the pH to tell whether an aqueous
solution is acidic or basic.
Write the equation for the reaction between Brnsted-Lowry acids and bases and identify the
Brnsted-Lowry conjugate acid-base pairs in any acid-base reaction.
system (dissolution, precipitation, or acid-base) at equilibrium.
Bse conductivity and/or pH data to determine whether a solute undergoes an acid-base
reaction with water and, if so, write the equation for the chemical reaction.
Consider This 2.74: Which aqueous solutions of gas are acidic? Which are basic?
Goal:
Use the pH results from Investigate This 2.67 to tell whether acidic or basic solutions are
formed and correlate with the electrical conductivities of the solutions.
Classroom options:
discussing their answers.
Time for activity:
5 to 20 minutes, depending on how much of the definition and discussion of pH you want to
students to incorporate into their conclusions.
Instructor notes:
This activity is used as an introduction to the pH scale and the equilibrium that exists among,
water molecules, hydronium ions, and hydroxide ions in water.
Review the electrical conductivity and pH results from Investigate This 2.67.
As part of the discussion of the pH of the solutions of gases, introduce the definition of pH
and the water autoionization equilibrium reaction: H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH(aq).
NOTE: The symbol is used because equilibrium double arrows are not available in this font.
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Use Figures 2.24 and 2.26 and the visualizations in the Web Companion, Chapter 2, Section
2.12, pages 2-3, to help students visualize the molecular level events summarized in the water
autoionization equilibrium reaction.
Aqueous solutions of CO2(g) and HCl(g) have pHs below that of water, so they are acidic.
The aqueous solution of NH3(g) has a pH above that of water, so it is are basic.
Distilled water and glucose solution have essentially the same pH and show no acid-base
character besides that of water itself.
There is a correlation between pH and conductivity in these solutions. The solutions that
conduct an electric current are also either acidic or basic compared to pure water. The
conductivity might be due to the presence of the higher concentrations of hydronium ion,
H3O+(aq), or hydroxide ion, OH(aq), in these solutions compared to water.
Consider This 2.75. How many moles of hydronium ion are present in water?
Special note--Mechanism for water self-ionization:
The mechanism for water self-ionization and hydronium ion and hydroxide ion movement
shown in Figure 2.26 is called the Grotthuss mechanism. A calculational study of the process
was published in 2001: Geissler, Dellago, Chandler, Hutter, and Parrinello, Auto ionization in
Liquid Water, Science, 2001, 291, 2121-2124. The Grotthuss reference (published in 1806!?) is
given in the article. Figure 1 (shown here) in the article shows snapshots taken every 30 fs
during the computer simulation.
The hydrogen-bonded chain of interest is highlighted with dark red oxygens in panel A (the
other water molecules that help produce the electric field in the medium are shown muted). In
panels B through D, the proton shifts occur to produce hydronium (yellow oxygen) and
ACS Chemistry FROG
39
Chapter 2
hydroxide (blue oxygen) which shift along the hydrogen bonding chain. (The first step when the
two ions are still adjacent is not captured in these panels, but happens between A and B.)
Between panel D and E, the hydrogen bonding chain breaks (statistical fluctuations in the field
bring this about) and the ions are now separated. Before this happens they can readily get back
together by retraversing the chain and the authors argue that it is the chain breaking, not the
initial formation of the ions that is responsible for the equilibrium amounts of the ions in water.
They suggest that the actual instantaneous number of ions is much higher, but most/many
recombine before becoming independent and measurable on our usual time scales. This
suggests experiments trying to probe this hypothesis, but they have yet to be done.
Consider This 2.75: How many moles of hydronium ions are present in water?
Goal:
Determine whether a compound dissolved in water is a Brnsted-Lowry acid based on the
hydronium ion concentration of the solution.
Classroom options:
discussing their answers.
Instructor notes:
Reinforce the definition of Brnsted-Lowry acids and bases.
Review the relationship between pH and molarity of hydronium ion in aqueous solution.
The compound is a Brnsted-Lowry acid because [H3O+(aq)] = 104 M > 107 M, that is,
there is more hydronium ion formed in the solution than in pure water. The extra hydronium
ion must be formed by the reaction of the compound to transfer a proton to water.
Section 2.13. Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solutions

Recognize the formulas for oxyacids and oxyanions (including nucleic acids) written in a
form that emphasizes the bonding of the acidic proton to an oxygen atom in the acid. See the
relationship between these formulas and the conventional formulas that do not provide this
information.
Use these structures to review and extend knowledge of Lewis structures.
If students need extra assistance in understanding Lewis structures, please have them study the
Personal Tutor exercises on this topic.
NOTE on Table 2.7:
Some instructors and some textbooks show the Lewis structures of perchloric, sulfuric, and
phosphoric acids with an octet of electrons on the central atoms, Cl, S, and P, respectively. The
structures are:
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2

H
O
O Cl O
O H
O H
O S O
O H
O H
O P O
O H
In these structures, the O atoms that are not bonded to both the central atom and an H would
have a formal -1 charge and the central atoms would have compensating +3, +2, and +1 formal
charges. Formal charge has not been introduced at this point, so it would be confusing actually
to put them in the structures. The argument for these structures is that they retain the octet rule
(with which many students are familiar) and help rationalize why the oxygens on these oxyacids
and their anions are so negative.
We do not use these alternate Lewis structures, mainly because we are trying to downplay the
octet rule somewhat and focus more on getting as much electron density between atomic cores
as possible, in order to make the bonding interaction as strong as possible. Later, in Chapter 6,
we talk about the delocalization of the electrons in double bonds in Table 2.7, and how that
affects the acid strength of these acids. The concept of pi bonds that can be delocalized, Chapter
5, is a powerful one and helps to rationalize a good deal of acid-base behavior (particularly the
acidity of the carboxylic acid O-H versus the alcohol O-H. Furthermore, calculations presented
by Gordon H. Purser, Lewis Structures in General Chemistry: Agreement Between Electron
Density Calculations and Lewis Structures, J. Chem Educ. 2001, 78, 981-983, show that the
electron densities in the bonds in these molecules are consistent with Lewis structures that
minimize formal charge (as the ones we are using do) but not with those that retain the octet
rule. In Chapter 6, Check This 6.60, after formal charge has been introduced and its
minimization suggested as a criterion for more stable structures, we present a problem based on
the different representations of the bonding in the oxyanions that have third period central
atoms, so students see the alternative representation, but can conclude (as the calculations
suggest) that the better Lewis structures are the ones we use, those without formal charge.
Section 2.14. Extent of proton-transfer reactions: Le Chatelier's principle

Use the limiting reactant concept to determine the concentrations of all species formed or
remaining in solutions when the reaction is complete.
Write equations for the reaction between Brnsted-Lowry acids and bases and identify the
Brnsted-Lowry conjugate acid-base pairs in any acid-base reaction.
system (acid-base) at equilibrium.
Carry out these interconversions: grams moles of a compound, volume of a solution of
known concentration moles (grams) of solute in that volume, and moles (grams) of
reactant moles (grams) of product in a stoichiometric reaction.
Use the concentration of hydronium ion, hydroxide ion, or the pH to tell whether an aqueous
solution is acidic or basic.
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Chapter 2
Consider This 2.79: What are the reactions in an aqueous solution of carbon dioxide?
Goal:
Compare the pH of a solution of CO2(g) in water from Investigate This 2.67 to a calculated
value from its solubility to draw conclusions about the reaction with water and extent of
hydronium ion formation.
Classroom options:
Assign students, working in small groups, 3-5 minutes to work on part (a) and about 5
minutes to work parts (b)/(c). Pause to discuss student responses to part (a) before going on to
(b)/(c).
This activity could be also conducted as an open class discussion.
Time for activity:
From 10 to 20 minutes, depending upon how much of the discussion of complete and
incomplete transfer of protons from acids to water you wish students to incorporate in their
conclusions.
Instructor notes:
Review the pH of CO2(g) dissolved in water from Investigate This 2.67 and the results of the
solubility calculations from Check This 2.70.
Connect to the previous section on oxyanions through the formation of carbonic acid when the
CO2(g) dissolves: CO2(g) + H2O(l) (HO)2CO(aq).
NOTE: The representations of carbon dioxide solutions and the equilibria therein are simplified
for these early discussions. The simplifications are mainly sins of omission in not telling the
detailed story of the species present in these solutions, but they have no effect on the
stoichiometric arguments we are making. The largest simplification is to assume that all
dissolved CO2(g) can be represented as carbonic acid. In fact, only about one part in 1000 of the
dissolved gas is present as carbonic acid. The remainder is aquated carbon dioxide molecules,
CO2(aq). The equilibrium reaction to form the acid is relatively slowly attained and the slow
rate of reaction can readily be demonstrated (see Chapter 11, Section 11.10). The rate is not
relevant for the stoichiometric results in the systems studied in this chapter. The equilibria and
rates are discussed in Carbon Dioxide Equilibria and Reaction Rates: Carbonic AnhydraseCatalyzed Hydration, J.A. Bell in Chemical Demonstrations, B.Z. Shakhashiri, ed., (University
of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1985), pages 122-126 and references cited therein.
(a) If CO2(g) does react with water when it dissolves, as shown by Equation (2.27), it makes
sense that more of the gas could dissolve than might otherwise be the case. We know that
gases that do not seem to react with water (oxygen and nitrogen) have much lower
solubilities than carbon dioxide. Formation of carbonic acid, H2CO3(aq), and subsequent
proton transfer to water, as in the previous section, would explain the acidity of the solution.
(b) If reaction (2.23) went to completion, the concentration of the hydronium ion would be
0.035 M. The pH = log[H3O+(aq)] = log(0.035) = 1.46. The pH measured in Investigate
This 2.67 is higher than this calculated value, that is, the concentration of hydronium ion,
[H3O+(aq)], is less than 0.035 M. This observation can be explained by suggesting that not all
carbonic acid molecules transfer a proton to water; reaction (2.23) does not go to completion.
(c) Yes. The observed electrical conductivity of the solution of dissolved carbon dioxide was
weak. This means that there are few hydronium ions and hydrogen carbonate ions in solution,
which is consistent with the observed pH being higher than the calculated pH.
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Chapter 2
Check This 2.80. Proton transfer from acetic (ethanoic) acid to water.
Investigate This 2.81. Are CO2 solutions affected by added acids and bases?
Consider This 2.82. How are CO2 solutions affected by added acids and bases?
Worked Example 2.83. Stoichiometry of addition of acid in Investigate This 2.79?
Consider This 2.84. What is the stoichiometry of addition of base in Investigate This 2.81?
Investigate This 2.85. What happens when ammonium and hydroxide ions mix?
Consider This 2.86. How do ammonium and hydroxide ions mix?
Investigate This 2.81: Are CO2 solutions affected by added acids and bases?
Goal:
Determine how the dissolution of CO2 in water is affected by the acidity or basicity of the
solution.
Set-up time:
10-15 minutes (assuming solutions have been prepared).
Time for activity:
10 minutes (which will be spread over a longer time, if the class discusses the observations
and implications at each step of the procedure).
Materials:
Two 125-mL Erlenmeyer flasks.
3-hole rubber stopper (to fit the flask).
Small balloon.
3 plastic pipets with graduated 1-mL stem (cut off one bulb to accommodate the balloon).
Reagents:
150 mL seltzer water.
0.6 g of solid sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHOCO2 (sodium bicarbonate).
5 mL of 6 M hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq).
10 mL of 6 M sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq) solution.
About 2 mL of universal indicator.
NOTE: Good pipets to use for this activity are plastic pipets with a graduated 1-mL stem. The
stem is the right diameter to make a good seal in the holes in the three-hole stopper and the
raised ridges of the graduations help to make the seal even better. When completely full, these
pipets hold about 6 mL of solution. Part of the bulb of one of these pipets can be cut off and the
balloon neck stretched over the open bulb. A plastic disposable tip from an automatic pipet or a
medicine dropper (without bulb) also works well for attaching the balloon. The lip on the pipet
tip or dropper helps to make a seal, but no matter which attachment is used, the balloon still
needs to be tightly sealed to the tip with a rubber band. 75 mL of seltzer water at room
temperature provides the equivalent of about 5.3 mmol of hydronium ion as dissolved CO2(aq)
plus (HO)2CO(aq). The 0.6 g of NaHOCO2(s) gives about 7.5 mmol of hydrogen carbonate ion,
HOCO2(aq), in solution.
Procedure:
Do this as a class investigation and have students work in small groups to discuss and analyze
the results as you proceed.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
SAFETY NOTES
Wear safety goggles
Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide are corrosive
wear gloves when filling the pipets
The set-up is shown in the photograph in the textbook. Use a 125-mL erlenmeyer flask, a
three-hole rubber stopper to fit the flask, 75 mL of a saturated solution of CO2(g) in water
(seltzer water), 0.6 g of solid sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHOCO2, and a few drops of
universal acid-base indicator solution.
Fit the three holes of the stopper with a plastic pipet about half full (3 mL) of 6 M
hydrochloric acid, HCl, solution, a second plastic pipet filled completely (6 mL) with 6 M
aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH, solution, and a glass or plastic tube to which a small
balloon is tightly sealed.
Place the sodium hydrogen carbonate and several drops of indicator in the flask, add the
seltzer water, and insert the rubber stopper to seal the flask. The photograph in the textbook
was taken at this point in the procedure. Swirl the flask gently to mix the contents. Record the
color of the solution, the state of inflation of the balloon, and any other observations on the
system. As a control solution, add several drops of universal indicator to 75 mL of seltzer
water in another flask and record its color. (You want enough indicator in the solutions to give
easily visible colors.)
Add the hydrochloric acid to the mixture in the flask by squeezing out the contents of its
pipet. Again swirl the flask gently to mix the contents and record the color of the solution, the
state of inflation of the balloon, and any other observations on the system.
Add the sodium hydroxide to the mixture by squeezing out the contents of its pipet. Again
swirl the flask gently to mix the contents and record the color of the solution, the state of
inflation of the balloon, and any other observations on the system.
Clean-up:
Dispose of the solution down the drain with copious amounts of water.
The photograph on the left shows the set-up after the seltzer water has been added to the flask
containing the sodium hydrogen carbonate and universal indicator. The center photo shows the
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
set-up after the hydrochloric acid has been added and the flask swirled. The photo on the right
shows the set-up after the sodium hydroxide solution has been added and the flask swirled.
The mixture of carbonic acid and hydrogen carbonate does not either produce or absorb a
discernible amount of carbon dioxide gas, so the balloon remains in its deflated state when
they are mixed and the indicator color (yellow) shows that the mixture is in the pH 5-7 range.
(The control solution without the sodium hydrogen carbonate provides a reference to show
that the solution with the hydrogen carbonate is more basic than the seltzer water alone.)
Three mL (half a pipet full) of 6 M hydrochloric acid provides about 18 mmol of hydronium
ion, which reacts completely with the HOCO2(aq) in solution, producing a strongly acidic
solution of carbonic acid, which evolves 150-200 mL of carbon dioxide gas that inflates the
balloon. The indicator in the solution is now red, an acidic pH color.
Six mL of 6 M sodium hydroxide provides about 36 mmol of hydroxide ion that reacts
completely with the unreacted hydronium ion as well as with all the carbonic acid (and/or
equivalent dissolved carbon dioxide) to give a basic solution of carbonate ion with all the
carbon dioxide gas redissolved and converted to carbonate, so the balloon deflates and the
solution is deep blue, a basic pH color.
These reactions are relatively rapid, but sped to equilibrium (or close to it) by swirling the
reaction mixture to accelerate the evolution of gas and its dissolution. The three stages of the
reaction are shown above.
Use Consider This 2.82 (probably while the activity is being performed) to initiate discussion
of the results of this activity.
Consider This 2.86. How do ammonium and hydroxide ions react?
Check This 2.87. Identifying Brnsted-Lowry conjugate acid-base pairs.
Check This 2.88. Species that can both donate and accept protons.
Consider This 2.82: How are CO2 solutions affected by added acids and bases?
Goal:
Correlate the acidity/basicity of the CO2 solution in Investigate This 2.81 with the amount of
gas dissolved in the solution.
Classroom options:
Students, working in small groups, should answer these questions as Investigate This 2.81 is
carried out. Then, review the discussion to verify and elaborate their explanations.
Time for activity:
Approximately 10 minutes.
Instructor notes:
This activity should be conducted during and after Investigate This 2.81.
(a) Yes, there is evidence for reactions when the acid and the base are added to the mixture in
Investigate This 2.81. When the acid is added, gas bubbles are observed, the balloon inflates,
and the solution turns red. When the base is added, the balloon deflates and the mixture turns
blue.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
(b) When the acid was added to the mixture, gas bubbles were evolved from the liquid and
the balloon inflated. It seems likely that the evolved gas is carbon dioxide, which means that
some reaction occurred to produce more carbonic acid (or dissolved carbon dioxide gas) than
the solution could hold. A possible series of reactions is:
H3O+(aq) + HOCO2(aq) (HO)2CO(aq) + H2O(aq)
(HO)2CO(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(aq)
When acid reacts with HOCO2-(aq), carbonic acid, (HO)2CO(aq), and water are produced.
The formation of more carbonic acid disturbs the solubility equilibrium and causes the
carbonic acid to decompose to carbon dioxide, CO2(g) and water. The released CO2(g) inflates
the balloon.
When excess base is added, the balloon deflates, which indicates that the carbon dioxide gas,
CO2(g), dissolves into the solution. If so, the CO2(aq) would react with water, forming
carbonic acid, (HO)2CO(aq). The carbonic acid would react with hydroxide ion, OH-(aq),
(which we know is present in the solution, because the indicator color shows that the solution
is basic) to form carbonate ion, CO32-(aq) and water:
(HO)2CO(aq) + 2OH-(aq) CO32(aq) + 2H2O(aq)
Use this discussion to introduce and discuss Le Chatelier's principle with respect to the
changes (disturbances) to the system in Investigate This 2.81.
Emphasize that Le Chatelier's principle states that a system at equilibrium responds to a
disturbance in a way that minimizes the effect of the disturbance. Its important that students
understand that the new state of the system after the disturbance has been minimized is
different from the initial state. That is, the disturbance is not eliminated by the response, but
simply reduced by an adjustment of the concentrations of the reactants and products.
Consider This 2.86. How do ammonium and hydroxide ions mix?
Consider This 2.84: What is the stoichiometry of addition of base in Investigate This 2.81?
Goal:
Use stoichiometric relationships to determine the species present after adding base in
Investigate This 2.81 and interpret the direction of the change in terms of Le Chateliers
principle.
Classroom options:
This activity can be conducted as an open class discussion, but have students work in small
groups to provide their results as the discussion proceeds. This can help keep everyone
engaged in the calculations and reasoning.
Time for activity:
Approximately 10-15 minutes. Will depend on the facility with which students handle the
stoichiometry.
46
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Instructor notes:
This activity should be conducted after students have completed studying Worked Example
2.83, from which it follows.
(a) Six mL of 6 M NaOH = (0.006 L)(6 molL1) = 3.6 102 mol (36 mmol) of hydroxide
ion.
(b) When hydroxide ion was added to the mixture, the balloon deflated. Reaction (2.27)
shifted toward products as CO2(g) left the gas phase and went back into solution.
(c) Recall that we started Investigate This 2.81 with 75 mL of a solution saturated with
CO2(g), in the flask. As we found in Consider This2.79, this dissolved carbon dioxide
produces a solution that is 0.035 M in (HO)2CO(aq). The number of moles of (HO)2CO(aq)
initially present = (0.075 L)(0.035 molL1) = 2.6 10-3 mol of (HO)2CO(aq). From Worked
Example 2.83, we know that an additional 7 10-3 mol of (HO)2CO(aq) were produced by
reaction of hydronium ion from the added hydrochloric acid with the hydrogen carbonate ion,
HOCO2-(aq), in the original solution. We assume that all this (HO)2CO(aq) returned to the
solution after the hydroxide was added, because the balloon deflated. From Worked Example
2.83, the number of moles of HCl(aq) added is 18 10-3 mol. Since 7 10-3 mol of the
HCl(aq) is used up to form (HO)2CO(aq), we have 11 10-3 mol of H3O+(aq) remaining from
the excess added in Investigate This 2.81(b). Each mole of (HO)2CO(aq) in the solution will
react with two moles of hydroxide ion and each mole of remaining HCl(aq) will react with
one mole of hydroxide ion. The total moles of hydroxide ion that react = 2(2.6 10-3 mol +
7 10-3 mol) + 7 10-3 mol = 2.6 102 mol (26 mmol) of hydroxide ion react.
(d) Yes, sufficient hydroxide ion was added (36 mmol) to react with all the acid present
(equivalent to 26 mmol hydroxide). The major ions present are OH-(aq) (from excess NaOH),
Na+(aq) (from NaOH and NaHOCO2), Cl-(aq) (from HCl) and CO32-(aq) [from reaction
(2.31)].
(e) Le Chatelier's principle states that a system at equilibrium responds to a disturbance in a
way that minimizes the effect of the disturbance. In this case, the system is responding to the
loss of (HO)2CO(aq) as it reacts with OH-(aq). The CO2(g) redissolves to form (HO)2CO(aq) to
minimize the loss. As more carbonic acid is formed it continues to react with the OH-(aq)
until finally all the possible (HO)2CO(aq) reacts, producing H2O and CO32-(aq). Because there
is an excess of hydroxide ion in this system, reaction (2.31) is driven essentially to
completion.
The discussion of Le Chateliers principle is important here, as this reaction system is its
introduction. It will recur in Consider This 2.86, in Section 2.16, and then often in the second
half of the textbook, so there are more opportunities for review and reinforcement, but try to
get off to a good start here.
Review Brnsted-Lowry acid-base chemistry as you go on to introduce ammonia as a
Brnsted-Lowry base.
Consider This 2.86. How do ammonium and hydroxide ions react?
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Chapter 2

Investigate This 2.85: What happens when ammonium and hydroxide ions mix?
Goal:
Observe the changes that occur when ammonium and hydroxide ions mix.
Set-up time:
5 minutes.
Time for activity:
10 minutes.
Materials:
Two small test tubes.
Plastic transfer pipet
Reagents:
0.25 g of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl.
0.50 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH.
Water
Procedure:
In order to avoid a room full of ammonia fumes, do this as a class investigation with student
volunteers and work in small groups to discuss and analyze the results.
SAFETY NOTE
Wear safety goggles
Sodium hydroxide is corrosivewear gloves
Ammonia has a strong, unpleasant odorcheck for odor
carefully
Add a few drops of water to about 0.25 g of solid ammonium chloride, NH4Cl(s), in a small
test tube. Carefully, determine whether this mixture produces any odor. Demonstrate for
students how to waft any gases from the test tube toward their noses, using a gentle motion of
the hand over the mouth of the test tube to move some the gas toward the nose.
Repeat the procedure, but use a mixture of 0.25 g NH4Cl(s) and 0.25 g NaOH(s). It is
important to use only enough water to begin dissolution of the solids. If too much water is
added, most of the ammonia may stay in solution and its smell will be undetectable.
Clean-up:
Dispose of solutions down the drain with copious amounts of water.
No odor of ammonia is detected when a little water is added to solid ammonium chloride (and
the test tube will feel cool, but that might not be noticed). When a little water is added to a
mixture of solid NH4Cl and NaOH the solution should give off a strong ammonia odor. The
dissolution of NaOH heats the solution and helps drive off the ammonia that is formed.
Use Consider This 2.86 to initiate discussion of the results of this activity.
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Consider This 2.86: How do ammonium and hydroxide ions react?

Goal:
Conclude that ammonium ion and hydroxide ion react in Investigate This 2.85 to produce
ammonia and interpret the change (compared to ammonium ion in solution without extra
hydroxide) in terms of Le Chateliers principle.
Classroom options:
Time for activity:
Approximately 10 minutes (or more if you wish to use this opportunity to extend the class
discussion of Le Chateliers principle).
Instructor notes:
Review the results from Investigate This 2.85.
(a) The solids dissolve in water in both cases, but the mixture of NH4Cl and NaOH produced
a strong ammonia odor.
(b) When sodium hydroxide is added to NH4Cl, the equilibrium represented in reaction
(2.33) is disturbed by the addition of a large amount of one of the products, OH(aq). The
system responds by NH4+(aq) reacting with OH(aq) the reverse of reaction (2.33) as
written to reduce its concentration, thus producing ammonia, NH3(aq). Some of this newlyformed ammonia escapes as gas, NH3(g).
Review the properties of solutions of gases and Brnsted-Lowry acid-base reactions as a lead
in to the remainder of the section.
Section 2.16. Extension CO2 and the carbon cycle

Extend and deepen knowledge of dissolved carbon dioxide chemistry.
Reinforce understanding of precipitation/dissolution equilibria and Le Chateliers principle.
Investigate This 2.89: What happens when CO2(g) is bubbled into limewater?
Goal:
Observe and record the changes (precipitation, dissolution, acidity) as carbon dioxide dissolves
in limewater.
Set-up time:
5 minutes, if limewater has been prepared.
Time for activity:
5 minutes (does not include discussion).
SAFETY NOTE
Wear safety goggles
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Chapter 2
Materials:
400 mL beaker.
Length of rubber or flexible plastic tubing.
Hardware required to connect tubing to the CO2 source and to control the gas flow.
Reagents:
About 200 mL of limewater, a solution of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. To prepare about a
liter of limewater, use a magnetic stirrer to stir a mixture of about 10 g of calcium hydroxide,
Ca(OH)2(s), and a liter of distilled water overnight in a stoppered flask or bottle. Carefully
gravity filter this solution with fine filter paper. Decant the solution into the filter funnel to
avoid getting too much solid on the filter. Store the limewater tightly capped. Ca(OH)2(s) is
more soluble at lower temperatures, so filtering the solution at a little above ambient
temperature will help assure that the solid remains in solution when stored.
Carbon dioxide, CO2(g), cylinder.
Alternative sources of CO2(g):
Dry ice is a good source of CO2(g), but you will need to add the equation CO2(s) CO2(g) to
those in the textbook to explain the sublimation that produces the CO2(g). Additionally, you
will have to explain why a fog of condensed water vapor forms over the solution and falls
around it. These are all very interesting phenomena, but they are distractions from the central
goal of the activity. A good rule of thumb is to pare any activity to as simple a set-up as
possible, so as to have the desired observations as obvious as possible.
Acid-base reactions that generate CO2(g), such as vinegar and baking soda or Alka-Seltzer
in water, will not produce enough gas for this activity unless the volume of limewater is
reduced to about 10-20 mL and it will probably take a longer time for the initially formed
precipitate to redissolve.
NOTE: This is a variation on the limewater test for carbon dioxide for which a saturated solution
of calcium hydroxide (or calcium oxide) is used. To make this activity work well and quickly,
use a saturated limewater solution diluted with about two volumes of water. The usual precipitate
of calcium carbonate will form, but then bubbling the carbon dioxide for another several seconds
will dissolve the precipitate to give a clear solution that is yellowish green (if the bromthymol
blue indicator is present). The dissolution will also occur with saturated limewater, but will take
a lot longer, especially with this volume of liquid.
Procedure:
Conduct this activity yourself, while students, working in small groups, focus on recording
and analyzing their observations.
Place 150-200 mL of diluted limewater (see above) in a 400-mL beaker.
Add a few drops of bromthymol blue acid-base indicator solution to the beaker to give an
easily observed blue color, but not so dark as to obscure the precipitate that will form.
From a CO2(g) cylinder, bubble a stream of CO2(g) into the solution in the beaker.
Call on different student groups to tell the class what they are observing and recording at
several times during the activity.
Stop the investigation when no further changes are observed and have two or three groups
summarize what they have seen.
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The photograph on the left shows the set-up before the flow of carbon dioxide is begun. The
photo in the center shows an intermediate point in the activity where a precipitate is easily
observed and the solution is still basic (some hydroxide remains unreacted). The photo at the
right is at the end of the activity when the precipitate has all redissolved to give a clear solution
that is no longer basic (the hydroxide has all reacted), but is at an intermediate pH determined
by the carbonic acid-hydrogen carbonate buffer system.
Use Consider This 2.90 to initiate discussion of the results from this activity.
Check This 2.91. Acid-base changes in carbon dioxide solutions.
Check This 2.92. The net reaction for dissolving CaCO3(s) with added CO2(g).
Check This 2.93. Applying Le Chatelier's principle.
Investigate This 2.94. What happens when Ca2+(aq) and HOCO2(aq) react?
Check This 2.95. Interpreting the reaction of Ca2+(aq) with HOCO2(aq).
Consider This 2.90: What reactions occur when CO2(g) is bubbled into limewater?
Goal:
Correlate observed pH and precipitate/dissolution changes in Investigate This 2.89 and consider
an interpretation.
Classroom options:
Allow students, working in small groups, about 5 minutes to complete this activity after
conducting Investigate 2.89. Then have groups report on and discuss their responses to the
questions.
Instructor notes:
The analysis of Investigate This 2.89 is a central part of this section and the questions here are
designed to begin the discussion.
(a) Yes, color changes were observed as the solution changed from a high pH (blue solution)
to lower pH (yellow/green solution) as CO2(g) is bubbled in.
(b) A precipitate formed soon after the CO2(g) began bubbling in. The only cation present in
the solution in relatively high concentration is calcium cation, Ca2+(aq). The analysis of
Investigate This 2.81 showed that CO2(g) dissolves in basic solution by reaction (via carbonic
acid) with OH(aq) to form carbonate ion, CO32(aq). Previous experience (Investigate This
2.32) and our solubility rules indicate that the precipitate is CaCO3(s).
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Chapter 2
(c) When the solution was basic (high pH) CaCO3(s) formed from Ca2+(aq) present in lime
water and CO32(aq) produced by OH(aq) reacting with carbonic acid, (HO)2CO(aq). As the
CO2(g) continued bubbling in, the pH of the solution dropped and the precipitate dissolved.
The decrease in pH signals the disappearance of OH(aq). Further dissolution of CO2(g)
produces carbonic acid that has no hydroxide to react with. Apparently the carbonic acid now
reacts with CaCO3(s) and dissolves it. A possible reaction might be:
CaCO3(s) + (HO)2CO(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2HOCO2(aq)
If the hydrogen carbonate ion, HOCO2(aq), does not form a precipitate with Ca2+(aq), this
reaction would explain the dissolution of the CaCO3(s) as more CO2(g) is added.
Check This 2.91. Acid-base changes in carbon dioxide solutions.
Check This 2.92. The net reaction for dissolving CaCO3(s) with added CO2(g).
Check This 2.93. Applying Le Chatelier's principle.
Investigate This 2.94. What happens when Ca2+(aq) and HOCO2(aq) react?
Investigate This 2.94: What happens when Ca2+(aq) and HOCO2-(aq) react?
Goal:
Observe the results when Ca2+(aq) and HOCO2-(aq) are mixed and determine whether chemical
reactions occur.
Set-up time:
Depends on how many groups you have to prepare pairs of samples for.
Time for activity:
Less than 5 minutes.
Materials:
2 capped vials per group of students.
Chemicals:
Calcium chloride, CaCl2(aq) (saturated). Prepare these saturated solutions by stirring excess
solid (see solubility in handbooks) with water overnight, allowing the mixtures to settle, and
decanting off the clear, colorless supernatant solutions. These high concentrations are required
to make the reaction foolproof.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHOCO2(aq) (saturated).
SAFETY NOTE
Wear safety goggles
Procedure:
Have the students work in small groups to perform this activity and have each group report
one observation they make that suggests that a chemical reaction has occurred. This will
provide the whole class the data required for their interpretation in Check This 2.95.
Each group has two capped tubes, each about one-quarter full of a clear, colorless liquid. One
of the tubes contains an aqueous solution of calcium chloride, CaCl2, and the other an aqueous
solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHOCO2.
Uncap the tubes and pour one of the solutions into the other.
NOTE: Gas will be evolved and the mixture will froth, but will not spill over the top of the vial,
if it is only about half full of the mixture. If you are concerned about this, test the reaction first
and use only the appropriate amount of solutions in the vials
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Observe and record all evidence that reactions have occurred.

Recap the vials and return them to the instructor.
Clean-up:
Rinse the vials and wash the solutions down the drain with copious amounts of water.
Students will observe bubbles of gas (CO2(g)) forming.
A white solid (CaCO3(s)) will precipitate.
The vial will get warm (exothermic reaction).
Follow-up discussion and activities:
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 2
Solutions for Chapter 2 Check This Activities

Check This 2.4. Exothermic energy diagram
(a) For an exothermic dissolution process, the magnitude of the solvation energy, |Esolvation|,
must be greater than the magnitude of the solute-solute interactions, |Esol-sol|, in order that the
net change upon dissolution, Edissolving, is negative, that is, Edissolving < 0. These relationships
are shown on this diagram.
(b) When urea dissolved in water in Investigate This 2.2, the container became cool to the
touch. When energy is removed from your skin, you feel cool. Since the dissolution process
made your skin feel cool, the process must have been taking energy from you and must be
endothermic (require energy from the surroundings). Conversely, when ethanol dissolves in
water, the container feels warm, so it must be and exothermic process that gives off energy and
warms the container and your skin.
Check This 2.7. Hydrogen-bonded network in watermethanol solution
(a) The water molecule at left center has one of its hydrogen atoms (positive end) oriented
toward the oxygen (negative end) in the methanol, but when it is moved in place of the left-hand
x its other hydrogen atom is oriented toward hydrogen atoms on the surrounding water
molecules and its oxygen atom oriented toward oxygen atoms on other surrounding water
molecules. The interaction with the methanol molecule is favorable, but the interaction with the
other water molecules is unfavorable. The orientation of the water molecule at the right center is
favorable toward both the methanol molecule and the other water molecules and this is the
preferred orientation.
(b) The network of hydrogen bonds in water is most favorable when the water molecules are
oriented so their positive and negative ends are attracted to both the polar methanol and other
water molecules. Thus, the methanol molecule sort of freezes the water molecules
surrounding it. Do not take freezing too literally, but the water molecules are not as free to
assume just any orientation as they are when the methanol is not present.
Check This 2.8. Energy diagram for hexane dissolving in water
For a dissolution process for which the net change upon dissolution is zero, Edissolving = 0, , the
magnitude of the solvation energy, |Esolvation|, must be equal to the magnitude of the solutesolute interactions, |Esol-sol|. These relationships are shown on this diagram.
54
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Check This 2.9. Predict relative solubilities

The Lewis structures for the three molecules are:
H H H
H
H
H
C
H H
H H
H
C
pentane
H
C
H
O
diethyl ether
ethanol
(a) Ethanol can form hydrogen bonds in its pure liquid. The others cannot, because they have no
hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative elemental atom.
(b) Ethanol and diethyl ether can form hydrogen bonds with water. The alcohol hydrogen in
ethanol can hydrogen bond to nonbonding pairs of electrons on water molecules and the oxygen
nonbonding electron pairs in both ethanol and diethyl ether can hydrogen bond with the
hydrogen atoms of water molecules.
(c) Ethanol forms the most hydrogen bonds with water and is the most soluble in water.
Pentane, a non-polar solute with no hydrogen bonding capability, is least soluble in water.
(d) Mineral oil is a non-polar solvent, so pentane is the most soluble in mineral oil. Since
ethanol is the most polar molecule of the group, it will be the least soluble in mineral oil.
Check This 2.11. Predict relative solubilities
(a) The Lewis structures for the two molecules are:
H
H
H
C
H
H H
C
H H H
H
C
C
H
H
O
H H
C
H
H H
H
H
C
H
polyethylene glycol (PEG 200)
H H
C
H H
C
H H
C
H H H H H H
H
C
H H
1,10-decanediol
(b) Since water can form many more hydrogen bonds with the polyethylene glycol, it will be
more soluble in water.
Check This 2.14. Properties of crystals
(a) Note that the crystal shown has four layers. The cations (grey) and anions (green) in the
second layer are directly beneath the anions and cations, respectively, in the top layer. Thus,
there are the same number of cations and anions in the two layers and this pairing continues
throughout the crystal. There is a 1:1 ratio of positive cations and negative anions in the crystal.
ACS Chemistry FROG
55
Chapter 2
Therefore, the net charge on the crystal in Figure 2.9(a) is 0. The net charge on the remaining
crystal in Figure 2.9(b) is also 0, because it has lost one cation (lower front corner) and one
anion (upper corner diagonally opposite from the cation site), leaving still a 1:1 ratio of positive
cations and negative anions.
(b) Yes, there are properties of crystals in the movie that are not shown in Figure 2.9(a). We can
observe the dynamics of dissolving salt in water. We observe the movement and vibration of
sodium ions and chloride ions in the crystal. These dynamic phenomena cannot be shown in a
single still picture. That is why the animations in the Web Companion are so important for
getting more of a feel for what is going on at the molecular level than can be conveyed in
writing or still pictures.
Check This 2.15. Ionic hydration layers and crystal dissolution
(a) In the schematic representation of ion hydration in Figure 2.9, four water molecules are
shown associated with the dissolved anion and cation. It should be evident that a fifth and sixth
molecule of water could interact from the front and back of the planar representation shown.
Thus, it is very likely that that most ions can accommodate at least six water molecules
surrounding them to form their first hydration layer. It is not easy to determine the number of
water molecules in the first hydration layer, especially because they often undergo relatively
rapid interchange with the molecules further away, but six is a reasonable number. In some
cases, cations actually form crystals in which they retain a hydration shell. For example, later in
the chapter, we will use the ionic compound that is usually written as CoCl26H2O. However, it is
more accurately written as [Co(H2O)6]Cl2, because the water molecules surround the cobalt
cation in an octahedral array (see Section 6.6, especially Figure 6.5).
(b) Yes, the answer in part (a) is consistent with the molecular level representations in these
animations. The two movies of the hydrated sodium and chloride ion show them with six waters
of hydration. Note carefully that the water molecules are oriented differently in their interactions
with the positive cation compared to the negative anion. In the dissolution animation/movie
water molecules interact with the ions in the crystal and you can see that there is a tug-of-war
between the attractions by oppositely charged ions in the crystal and the attractions to the
appropriate end of the water molecules. You can understand why ions are most easily lost from
corners where there are fewer surrounding ions from the crystal and easier access by several
water molecules. In the movie, three or four water molecules seem sufficient to pull an
individual ion away from its lattice. The freed ion is immediately surrounded by more water
molecules.
Check This 2.17. Formulas for ionic compounds
The formulas are: (a) NH4Cl; (b) Na2S; (c) CaCO3. In each case, the formula was written to
equalize the positive and negative charges.
Check This 2.19. Writing a balanced chemical reaction equation
Mg(g) + O(g) Mg2+(g) + O2(g) (Note that two electrons are transferred from Mg to O.)
Check This 2.21. Energy diagram for formation of one mole of CaCl2
The data from the problem are used to draw this energy level diagram for calcium chloride
formation. The combination of Eion formation and Elattice to give Extal formation and the numeric
result are shown on the diagram.
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Check This 2.26. Energy change for dissolving LiI in water

The energy level diagram for LiI dissolving in water, using the data in Table 2.3 is given here.
We see from the diagram that Edissolving = Elattice + Ehydration = 63 kJmol-1.
Dissolving LiI is an exothermic process, Edissolving < 0, so when LiI dissolves in water, the
solution feels warm.
Check This 2.29. Electrical conductivity in Investigate This 2.27
Yes. Both equation (2.6) and Figure 2.17 show that there are ions in the solutions before and
after they are mixed, which explains the electrical conductivities observed in Investigate This
2.27. Most of the ions remaining after the precipitation reaction between Ca2+(aq) and SO42(aq)
are the Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) spectator ions.
Check This 2.31. Product of a precipitation reaction and net ionic reaction
Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) AgCl(s)
Check This 2.36. Predicting solubilities
(a) Yes, we would probably predict that sodium phosphate, Na3PO4, and cobalt (II) choride,
CoCl2, are both soluble in water. We are on firm ground with Na3PO4 because Na+ is a
monopositive cation and also because K3PO4 was one of the solutions used in Investigate This
2.32, and we assume that the ionic compound with sodium will be soluble as well. Our
ACS Chemistry FROG
57
Chapter 2
solubility rules suggest that ionic compounds with halide anions, such as Cl, are soluble and
CoCl2 fits this description.
(b) Yes, a precipitate would probably form. Co2+(aq) and PO43-(aq) are multiply charged and our
solubility rules suggest that an ionic compound a with multiply-charged cation and anion will be
insoluble. The net ionic reaction would be
3Co2+(aq) + 2PO43-(aq) Co3(PO4)2(s)
The other possible precipitate, sodium chloride, NaCl, is an ionic compound of a monopositive
cation and mononegative anion making it soluble in water.
In the formula unit for cobalt chloride hexahydrate, CoCl26H2O, there is 1 atom of cobalt, 2
atoms of chlorine, 12 atoms of hydrogen and 6 atoms of oxygen. In one mole of CoCl26H2O,
we have:
58.93 g
(1 mol Co)
1 mol Co = 58.93 g
35.45 g
(2 mol Cl)
= 70.90 g
1 mol Cl
1.008 g
(12 mol H)
= 12.10 g
1 mol H
16.00 g
(6 mol O)
= 96.00 g
1 mol O
The molar mass of CoCl26H2O is 237.9 gmol-1.
Check This 2.43. Mass-to-mole conversion
In one mole of Na3PO4 we have:
22.99 g
(3 mol Na)
1 mol Na = 68.97 g
30.97 g
(1 mol P)
= 30.97 g
1 mol P
16.00 g = 64.00 g
(4 mol O)
1 mol O
The molar mass of Na3PO4 is 163.94 gmol-1 = 164 gmol-1 (within the precision of our data).
1 mol Na3 PO 4
24 g Na3PO4 = (24 g Na3PO4)
= 0.146 mol 0.15 mol Na3PO4
164 g
As we found in Check This 2.43, the solution contains 0.15 mol (or 0.146 mol to three
significant figures which are not justified by the data) of Na3PO4 in 1 L of solution. Since
molarity is molL1, this solution is 0.15 M.
Check This 2.47. Volume-to-mole conversion
In 6.0 mL of 0.15 M Na3PO4 solution we have:
1 L 0.15 mol
= 0.00090 mol Na3PO4
6.0 mL Na3PO4 solution = (6.0 mL)
1000 mL 1 L
58
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Check This 2.49. Mole-to-mass conversion

The mass of 12.5 mol of H2O is:
18.02 g
12.5 mol H2O = (12.5 mol H2O)
= 225 g H2O are needed.
1 mol H 2 O
Check This 2.51. Mole-to-volume conversion
The volume of 0.050 M K3PO4 that contains 1.00 103 mol K3PO4 is:
1L
1.00 103 mol K3PO4 = (1.00 103 mol K3PO4)
= 0.020 L = 20. ml
0.050 mol K 3 PO4
Check This 2.53. Preparing a solution of known molarity
To solve this problem, we first determine the number of moles of glucose needed to make
0.0500 L of a 2.50 M solution to grams of glucose. Then we use the molar mass of glucose to
convert this number of moles of glucose to grams of glucose.
2.50 mol C 6 H12 O6
0.0500 L solution = (0.0500 L)
= 0.125 mol C6H12O6
1L
In one mole of C6H12O6 we have:
12.01 g
= 72.06 g
(6 mol C)
1 mol C
1.008 g
(12 mol H)
= 12.10 g
1 mol H
16.00 g
(6 mol O)
= 96.00 g
1 mol O
The molar mass of glucose is 180 gmol-1, so the mass of glucose required is:
180 g
0.125 mol C6H12O6 = (0.125 mol C6H12O6)
= 22.5 g of glucose
1 mol C6 H12O6
Check This 2.57. Moles of ions in an ionic compound solution
Na3PO4(s) 3Na+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
We see that each mole of Na3PO4(s) that dissolves produces one mole of PO43-(aq) in solution. In
Check This 2.47, we found that 0.00090 mol Na3PO4 is dissolved in Mixture 1, so there are
0.00090 mol of PO43-(aq) in Mixture 1. Using the mole ratio, we would write:
1 mol PO4 3
30.00090 mol Na3PO4 = (0.00090 mol Na3PO4)
= 0.00090 mol of PO4
1 mol Na3 PO 4
Check This 2.59. Moles of Co2+(aq) required for complete reaction with PO43(aq)
From reaction (2.10) we know:
3 mol Co2+(aq) = [reacts with written as an equality] 2 mol PO43(aq)
3 mol Co2+ (aq)
0.00090 mol of PO43-(aq) = (0.00090 mol of PO43-(aq))
2 mol PO3
4 (aq)
= 0.0014 mol of Co2+(aq)
ACS Chemistry FROG
59
Chapter 2
Check This 2.60. Limiting reactant

(a) From Table 2.5, the mole compositions for Mixture 2 is 0.00090 mol of CoCl26H2O and
0.00045 mol of Na3PO4. The numbers of moles of Co2+ and PO43- ions are also 0.00090 mol and
0.00045 mol, respectively, so the ratio of Co2+ ions to PO43- ions is 2:1 (or, equivalently, 4:2) in
this mixture. The molecular formula for the precipitate that tells us that the mole ratio of Co2+
ions to PO43- ions is 3:2 in the ionic compound. Our mixture has a higher ratio of Co2+ ions to
PO43- ions than needed for the ionic compound, so we reason that the limiting reactant is PO43ions. Checking our prediction, we note that
3 mol Co2+
2+
0.00045 mol PO43-(aq) = (0.00045 mol PO43-)
3 = 0.00068 mol Co (aq)
2 mol PO4
2+
We have 0.00090 mol Co (aq), which is more than enough to react with all the PO43-(aq).
(b) Yes. We observed that the resulting Mixture 2 supernatant was slightly pink, indicating the
presence of excess Co2+(aq). Also see the solution for Check This 2.62.
Check This 2.62. Mass of product formed in an ionic precipitation reaction
(a) From equation (2.10), we know 2 mol PO43-(aq) = [produces written as an equality] 1 mol
Co3(PO4)2(s), which can be written as the unit ratio:
1 mol Co3 (PO 4 )2 (s)
=1
2 mol PO4 3 (aq)
1 mol Co3 (PO 4 )2 (s)

366.7 g
(b) 0.00045 mol PO43-(aq) = (0.00045 mol PO43-)
3
2 mol PO4 (aq) 1 mol Co3 (PO 4 )2 (s)
= 0.083 g Co3(PO4)2(s)
This mass is about three quarters of the amount from Mixture 1 calculated in Worked Example
2.61. Mixture 2 seems to have less precipitate than Mixture 1, but it isnt possible to tell
whether it is three quarters as much.
Check This 2.63. Limiting reactant
There are two ways to reason about the limiting reactant in Mixture 4. First, the number of
moles of Co2+ and PO43- is the same. Our argument, based on the stoichiometric ratio for
Co3(PO4)2, is that we need 3 moles of Co2+ for every 2 moles of PO43-. Since we have only a 1:1
ratio of the reactants, there is not enough Co2+ to react with all the PO43-, so Co2+ must be the
limiting reactant. Second, the ratio of Co2+ to PO43-, 1:1, is the same in Mixture 4 as in Mixture
1 and we have calculated that Co2+ is the limiting reactant in Mixture 1, so it must also be
limiting in Mixture 4.
Check This 2.64. Illustrations of reactant mixtures
(a) On the left, the upper solution contains 6 PO43- with a total charge of 18 and 18 Na+ with a
total charge of +18; the upper solution is electrically neutral. The lower solution contains 6 Co2+
with a total charge of +12 and 12 Cl with a total charge of 12; the lower solution is
electrically neutral. In the center, all these ions are mixed together and there is a +30 positive
charge and a 30 negative charge to yield a neutral solution. On the right, the solution contains
2 PO43- plus 12 Cl for a total 18 charge and 18 Na+ with a total charge of +18; the solution is
electrically neutral. The solid contains 6 Co2+ with a total charge of +12 and 4 PO43- with a total
charge of 12; the solid is electrically neutral. Note that mass and charge are conserved
throughout the processes represented.
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
(b) One possible way to represent the reaction in Mixture 2 is shown here.
The amount of Na3PO4 has been reduced and the amount of CoCl2 has been increased. The
solutions are all still electrically neutral (check this), but now there is excess Co2+ and some is
left over after as much precipitate is formed as possible with the limited amount of PO43- now
available.
Check This 2.66. Concentrations of ions in a reactant mixture
(a) In Check This 2.60, we calculated that 0.00068 mol Co2+(aq) would react to form the
precipitate of Co3(PO4)2 with the 0.00045 mol of PO43-(aq) in the solution. The amount of
Co2+(aq) remaining in solution is:
(0.00090 mol Co2+(aq) initial) (0.00068 mol Co2+(aq) reacted) = 0.00022 mol Co2+(aq) left
0.00022 mol
(b) For Co2+(aq):
= 0.018 M
0.012 L
3 mol Na+
1
= 0.11 M
For Na+(aq): (0.00045 mol Na3PO4)
1 mol Na PO 0.012 L
3
1
2 mol Cl
= 0.15 M
For Cl(aq): (0.00090 mol CoCl26H2O)
1 mol CoCl2 6H2 O 0.012 L

Check This 2.70. Molarity of saturated aqueous solutions of gases
1 mol O2 1
For O2(g): 0.039 g O2 = (0.039 g O2)
= 0.0012 M;
32 g 1.00 L
1 mol CO2 1
For CO2(g): 1.45 g O2 = (1.45 g O2)
=0.00330 M
44.0 g 1.00 L
Check This 2.72. Molarity of a saturated aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride
We need to find the volume of liquid that contains 1 kg of water and 0.695 kg of HCl, the
number of moles of HCl in 0.695 kg of HCl and then calculate the molarity of the HCl in
solution.
1L
= 1.41 L
volume of solution = (1.695 kg solution)
1.20 kg
1 mol HCl
mol of HCl = (695 g HCl)
= 19.07 mol
36.45 g
ACS Chemistry FROG
61
concentration of HCl =
Chapter 2
19.07 mol
= 13.5 M HCl
1.41 L
Check This 2.73. Compare solutions of NaCl and HCl

A solution of NaCl forms when water molecules are attracted to the ions in the crystal and begin
to surround them. For the ions, there is a competion between attractions to water molecules and
attractions to oppositely charged ions in the crystal lattice. If the hydration wins, the ion leaves
the crystal with waters of hydration surrounding it. In this system, the ions are present in the
crsytal and retain their identities, but surrounded by water molecules, in the solution. The
interactions are attractions of the negative and positive ends of the polar water molecules to the
positive and negative ions, respectively.
A solution of HCl forms when molecules of HCl interact with and react with water to transfer a
proton to water to form two new ions, H3O+ and Cl, that did not exist before the reaction. After
the reaction, these ions are hydrated, just as in the NaCl case; there is no difference between a
hydrated chloride ion, Cl(aq), formed from NaCl or HCl. The major difference in the two cases
is the source of the ions. In NaCl, the ions are present in the crystal. For HCl, there are no ions
present until the reaction with a water molecule occurs.
Check This 2.76. Reactions of BrnstedLowry acids with water
H2Te(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HTe(aq)
HF(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + F(aq)
Check This 2.77. Structures and reactions for BrnstedLowry oxyacids and oxyanions
(a) If you need assistance writing these Lewis structures for oxyanions start with the oxyacid
and remove enough acidic protons, H+ (those bonded to oxygen atoms), leaving behind the
electron pair that formed the OH bond. For example, for the carbonate ion, CO32, start with
carbonic acid, (HO)2CO, and remove the two protons:
O
H
carbonic acid
For the other oxyanions, we have:
2
O
O
62
carbonate ion
O
O Cl
sulfate ion
perchlorate ion
O
O
monohydrogen
phosphate ion
ACS Chemistry FROG
O
O
phosphate ion
Chapter 2
(b) Nitric acid reaction with water (conventional, structural, Lewis formulations):
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NO3(aq)
HONO2(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NO3(aq)
O
O
H
H
O
H
Dihydrogen phosphate ion reaction with water (conventional, structural, Lewis

formulations):
H2PO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HPO42(aq)
(HO)2PO2(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HOPO32(aq)
O
O
P
O
H
O
H
P
O
Check This 2.78. pH of a saturated magnesium hydroxide solution

Calculate the hydroxide ion concentration in the solution from the amount of Mg(OH)2(s) that
dissolves (and ionizes according to reaction (2.24) in Milk of Magnesia. Then use Figure 2.24
to get the approximate pH. The molar mass of Mg(OH)2(s) is 58 gmol1.
1 mol Mg(OH)2 2 mol OH
= 3 104 M
[OH ] = (0.01 gL Mg(OH)2)
1 mol Mg(OH)2
58 g
The hydroxide ion concentration in the solution is between 103 and 104 M. Figure 2.24 shows
that this range corresponds to a pH between 10 and 11. (A calculation you will learn to do in
Chapter 9 gives pH 10.5 for a solution with [OH] = 3 104 M, which is in this range.)
Check This 2.80. Proton transfer from acetic (ethanoic) acid to water
(a) The lower electrical conductivity of the acetic acid solution (compared to the hydrochloric
acid solution of the same concentration) indicates that there are fewer ions to conduct the
electric current in the acetic acid solution. Since we know that all the HCl(aq) molecules react
[reaction (2.16)] to form H3O+(aq) and Cl(aq) ions, we can conclude that all the acetic acid,
CH3C(O)OH(aq), molecules do not react [reaction (2.25)], because fewer ions are formed.
Reaction (2.16) goes to completion to products while reaction (2.25) does not.
(b) The hydrochloric acid solution has a lower pH than the acetic acid solution because more
hydronium ions are formed in the HCl(aq) solution than in the CH3C(O)OH(aq) solution.
ACS Chemistry FROG
63
Chapter 2
Check This 2.87. Identifying BrnstedLowry conjugate acidbase pairs

For each of these reactions, one Brnsted-Lowry conjugate acid-base pair is designated A1-B1
and the other A2-B2. The proton (shown as H in the formulas) that differentiates each acid-base
pair is shown in bold red (H).
(2.16) HCl(aq) + H2O(l) Cl(aq) + H2OH+(aq)
A1
B2
B1
A2
(2.21) HSH(aq) + H2O(l) HS(aq) + H2OH+(aq)
A1
B2
B1
A2
(2.22) (HO)2SO2(aq) + H2O(l) HOSO3(aq) + H2OH+(aq)
A1
B2
B1
A2
(2.23) (HO)2CO(aq) + H2O(l) HOCO2 (aq) + H2OH+(aq)

A1
B2
B1
A2
(2.25) CH3C(O)OH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3C(O)O (aq) + H2OH+(aq)

A1
B2
B1
A2
Check This 2.88. Species that can both donate and accept protons
(a) In the reaction with ammonia, reaction (2.33), water acts as a proton donor:
H2O(l) + NH3(aq) OH(aq) + NH4+(aq)
A1
B2
B1
A2
(b) Species in Table 27 that can act as both a Brnsted-Lowry acid and a Brnsted-Lowry base
are: H2O; hydrogen carbonate ion, HOCO2; hydrogen sulfate ion, HOSO3; dihydrogen
phosphate ion, (HO)2PO2; monohydrogen phosphate ion HOPO32.
Check This 2.91. Acidbase changes in carbon dioxidelimewater solutions
Yes. The indicator color in the original solution is blue, its color in basic solutions. The original
solution is basic because there is a high concentration of hydroxide ion from the dissolved
calcium hydroxide. As the precipitate forms, the color remains blue (but probably appears
lighter because the solution becomes cloudy with the white precipitate. During this part of the
reaction, the hydroxide ion is being used up by reactions (2.36) and (2.37) to form carbonate
that reacts with the calcium ion, reaction (2.38). As more carbon dioxide is bubbled in, the
solution begins to turn a more yellow-green, its color in solutions with pHs around 6 or 7, and
the precipitate dissolves. The change in color indicates that all the hydroxide ion from the
original calcium hydroxide has been used up. The added carbonic acid, from reaction (2.27),
must be reacting in some way to dissolve the calcium carbonate. The text following Check This
2.91 explains why the solid dissolves.
Check This 2.92. The net reaction for dissolving CaCO3(s) with added CO2(g)
(2.27a)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) (HO)2CO(aq)
(2.39a)
(HO)2CO(aq) + CO32(aq) 2HOCO2(aq)
(2.38a)
CaCO3(s) CO32(aq) + Ca2+(aq)
Sum: CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaCO3(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2HOCO2(aq)
When the reactions are combined, the (HO)2CO(aq) product from reaction (2.27a) cancels the
(HO)2CO(aq) reactant in reaction (2.39a). The same is true of the CO32(aq) as reactant in
reaction (2.39a) and product in reaction (2.38a).
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Check This 2.93. Applying Le Chateliers principle

Increasing the concentration of hydrogen carbonate is a stress on the equilibrium system, an
increase in the concentration of the reactant, hydrogen carbonate, in reaction (2.39b). The
system reacts to reduce the stress by reacting to use up some hydrogen carbonate and form more
carbonic acid and carbonate ion. The formation of more carbonic acid is a stress on reaction
(2.27b), in which the acid is a reactant. The system reacts to reduce the stress by reacting to use
up some carbonic acid and form more carbon dioxide.
Check This 2.95. Interpreting the reaction of Ca2+(aq) with HOCO2(aq)
(a) Evidence for reactions included the formation of gas bubbles and a precipitate as well as the
increase in temperature of the reaction vessel.
(b) The likely reaction products are CO2(g) (formation of bubbles in a system that contained
hydrogen carbonate ion) and CaCO3(s) (formation of a precipitate in a solution that contained
calcium cation and a possible source of carbonate anion). The temperature of the reaction
mixture rose, indicating that energy is released by the reaction to warm the solution; the reaction
is exothermic.
(c) Before the solutions are mixed, the hydrogen carbonate ion is in equilibrium with carbonic
acid and carbonate ion, reaction (2.39), in one solution. Addition of a high concentration of
calcium ion to this solution, causes some of the carbonate ion to react to begin formation of a
precipitate of calcium carbonate, reaction (2.38). The loss of carbonate by this reaction is a
stress on the equilibrium represented by reaction (2.39), so the reaction proceeds to try to relieve
the stress by forming more carbonate ion. This reaction also produces more carbonic acid,
which is a stress on the equilibrium represented by reaction (2.27), so the reaction proceeds to
relieve this stress by using up some carbonic acid to form carbon dioxide. These reactions
proceed as follows to produce the precipitate and the gas:
(2.39)
2HOCO2(aq) (HO)2CO(aq) + CO32(aq)
(2.38)
CO32(aq) + Ca2+(aq) CaCO3(s)
(2.27)
(HO)2CO(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Sum:
Ca2+(aq) + 2HOCO2(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaCO3(s)
ACS Chemistry FROG
65
Chapter 2
Samples from the Classroom: Chapter 2 Quizzes

Chapter 2, Quiz 01 (Chemistry 131)
This quiz was contributed by Dr. Jeanette Reiter, Waldorf College, Forest City, IA. It has been
edited to conserve space.
Name (print)___________________________________
1. Answer the following questions about the following three molecules:
CH3CH2CH3 CH3OCH3 CH3CH2OH
A
B
C
(1) Which of the above compounds can form hydrogen bonds as pure liquids?
(2) Explain your answer to (1), using words and pictures.
(3) If you mixed all three of the above compounds, which ones would hydrogen bond with
each other, if any?
(4) Explain your answer to number (3), using words and pictures.
2. The overall solution process for dissolving ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, in water is
endothermic. Draw an energy diagram for this process that includes all the energy changes
involved and shows all the molecular-level processes involved.
Chapter 2, Quiz Section Exercise, Week 1
This and the following two Quiz Section Exercises were contributed by Dr. Priscilla Bell,
Whittier College, Whittier, CA. They have been edited to conserve space.
Name____________________________
1. Draw energy level diagrams for the following dissolution processes in water.
a) CaCl2 E ()
b) endothermic dissolution of KNO3
c) predicted dissolution of Octane C8H18
2. Show by 3-D drawings how triangular planar H2C=O would hydrogen bond to water.
3. Order the solubilities of the following molecules and briefly support your choices.
HOCH2CH2OH, CH3CH2OH, CH3CH2CH3, CH3CH2OCH3
______________<______________<________________<__________________
least soluble
most soluble
Because:
4. What is the formula for the following compounds? See tables 2.2 and 2.7 for this exercise but
realize these ions will need to be memorized by Quiz 3.
a) calcium sulfate_______________________
b) chromium (III) fluoride________________________
c) iron (II) phosphate____________________________
d) aluminum hydrogen carbonate_______________________
e) ammonium hypochlorite_______________________
5. Provide the IUPAC name for the following compounds
a) Na2SO4 ____________________________________
b) Co2O3__________________________________________
c) SnS2_________________________________________
d) Ba(ClO)2 ___________________________________
e) Ti(NO3)2___________________________________
66
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2

Contributed by Dr. Priscilla Bell, Whittier College, Whittier, CA.
Name____________________________
1. Draw energy level diagram for a salt MX with lattice energy of 648kJ/mole and hydration
energy of 692kJ/mole. Label each step and E.
2. Which will have a larger hydration energy, K2S or CaS? Why?
3. Which will have a larger lattice energy, IrO or CoO? Why?
4. Write the molecular, total ionic and net ionic equations for the predicted reaction between
a) sodium phosphate and nickel (II) nitrate
molecular__________________________________________________________
total ionic__________________________________________________________
net ionic__________________________________________________________
b) sodium sulfide and iron (III) chloride
molecular__________________________________________________________
total ionic__________________________________________________________
net ionic__________________________________________________________
5. a) How many moles of each reactant is added if 20.0mL of 0.245M sodium sulfide and
10.0mL of 0.110M iron (III) chloride are mixed?
b) What mass of the precipitate from 4b) could be made from each reactant in part 5a) if
there were enough of the other reagent?
c) What is the maximum amount of the precipitate that can theoretically be made? Which
reagent is limiting and which is in excess?
d) What mass of the reagent in excess is left?
Contributed by Dr. Priscilla Bell, Whittier College, Whittier, CA.
Name____________________________
1. a) What mass of titanium (IV) sulfide can be made from 10.5 g potassium sulfide and 15.2 g
of titanium (IV) chloride? In your answer provide a balanced equation and determine the
limiting and excess reactants.
b) What mass of excess reagent remains?
2. Fill in this table:
[ H3O+]
pH
6.44
acidic/basic
pOH
[OH-]
3.21 x 10-10
11.45
9.33 x 10-5
3. Consider the equations below; identify the Brnsted Acids and Bases on the lines below the
reagents.
+ H2O C2H3O2- + H3O+
a) HC2H3O2
__________
_________ _________
_____
ACS Chemistry FROG
67
Chapter 2
b) (CH3)2NH + H2CO3 (CH3)2NH2+ + HCO3__________ _________

___________
________
c) HCO3- + Ba(OH)2 BaCO3 +
__________ __________
________
H2O
__________
Chapter 2, Quiz 4 (CH 103)

This and the following three quizzes were contributed by Dr. Jonathon Mitschele, Saint Josephs
College, Standish, ME. They have been edited to conserve space.
Name: ____________
1. What carries electrical current (provide formulas where appropriate)
(a) in a wire?
(b) in a solution of potassium chloride?
(c) in a solution of ammonium phosphate?
2. Distinguish between a mixture and a solution.
3. The overall solution process for dissolving ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, in water is
endothermic. Draw an energy diagram for this process that includes all energy changes
involved.
Contributed by Dr. Jonathon Mitschele, Saint Josephs College, Standish, ME.
Name: ____________
1. Write balanced equations, including whether the reactant or product is a solution (aq) or
precipitate (s), for the result of mixing solutions of the following substances:
(a) sodium sulfate + calcium chloride
(b) ammonium carbonate + aluminum nitrate
(c) lithium hydroxide + potassium phosphate
Name: ____________
1. (a) What is the pH of a solution for which [H3O+] = 2.4 x 10-9 M?
(b) What is the pH of a solution for which [OH-] = 2.4 x 10-9 M?
(c) What is [H3O+] if the pH is 3.7?
(d) What is [OH-] if the pH is 3.7?
2. (a) If you dissolve 2.50 g of lead nitrate, Pb(NO3)2, in 250 mL of water, what is the molarity
of the resulting solution?
(b) What are the molar concentrations of the lead and nitrate ions in the solution of part (a)?
How many moles of nitrate ion are there in 15.00 mL of the solution of part (a)?
3. The conductivity of a 0.40 M solution of NaCl is less than twice the conductivity of a 0.20 M
solution of NaCl, even though there are twice as many ions to carry electrical current. Explain
why this is so.
68
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2

Name: ____________
1. (a) Write a balanced net ionic equation for the reaction of sodium sulfate with calcium
nitrate.
(b) What volume of 0.100 M Na2SO4 is needed to react exactly and completely with 25.0 mL
of 0.200 M Ca(NO3)2?
2. Label which substances are acids and which are bases (reactants and products) in the
following reactions. Complete and balance where necessary.
(a) HClO4(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
Ca(ClO4)2(aq) + H2O(l)
(b) CH3COOH(aq) + CH3NH2(aq)
CH3COO- (aq) + CH3NH3+(aq)
Samples from the Classroom: Chapter 2 Exams

Chapter 2 Examination (Chemistry 131)
This examination was contributed by Dr. Jeanette Reiter, Waldorf College, Forest City, IA. It has
been edited to conserve space.
Name (print)___________________________________
INSTRUCTIONS: Read each question carefully and write your answers legibly in the spaces
provided. Use complete sentences and correct grammar for explanation-type questions. SHOW
ALL WORK TO RECEIVE FULL CREDIT ON THE QUESTIONS THAT REQUIRE
NUMERICAL ANSWERS. Use the periodic table accompanying the test.
1. What is the molar mass of (NH4)2CrO4?
____________g/mol
2. What mass of (NH4)2SO4 (132.15 g/mol) is needed to prepare 50.00 mL of a 1.25 M
solution?
____________g
Complete the following acid-base reaction, and then answer the questions about it.
3. H2PO4 (aq) + H2O (l) ___________ (aq) + __________ (aq)
4. __________is the acid.
5. __________is the base.
6. __________is the conjugate acid.
7. __________is the conjugate base.
Fill in the blanks in the following table.
Oxyacid
H2SO4
Oxyanion
8.
9.
ClO10. Fill in the blanks in the following equation.
_____NH3 (g) + _____O2 (g) _____N2 (g) + _____H2O (l)
ACS Chemistry FROG
69
Chapter 2
Use the data in the tables below to answer the following questions.
Group Number Charge of Monoatomic Cation Charge of Monoatomic Anion
1
+1
------2
+2
------17
-------1
16
-------2
Polyatomic Cations Polyatomic Anions
NH4+
CO32H3O+
OH------NO3------PO4-3
------SO4211. _____________is the formula for the ionic compound made from potassium and sulfur.
12. _____________is the formula of calcium phosphate.
13. _____________is the formula of ammonium carbonate.
Circle the correct answer.
14. The reaction
HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) KCl (aq) + H2O (l) is classified as
a.
a combustion reaction
b.
an acid-base neutralization reaction
c.
a precipitation reaction
d.
none of the above
15. The reaction
Na2CO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq) 2 NaCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) is classified as
a.
a combustion reaction
b.
an acid-base neutralization reaction
c.
a precipitation reaction
d.
none of the above
16. In the following reaction, what mass of WCl6 is formed from the reaction of 13.75 g W and
13.75 g Cl2? CIRCLE THE LIMITING REAGENT.
g/mol
183.9
70.90
396.6
W (s) + 3 Cl2 (g)
WCl6 (s)
____________g
17. Next to each compound, indicate whether it is soluble or insoluble in 1-hexanol
[CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-OH] and explain why in words.
CH3OH
NH4NO3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
A chemist places Ba(NO3)2 in one flask, and Na2SO4 in another. Water is added to both flasks,
and the solutions are stirred. Then, the chemist pours the contents of one flask into the other.
18. What do the original solutions look like after they are
stirred?_________________________________
19. Write the balanced equation for what occurs when the contents of the flasks are mixed. Be
sure to include (aq), (s), (l), or (g).
20. Write the net ionic equation for what occurs when the contents of the flasks are mixed. Be
sure to include (aq), (s), (l), or (g).
21. What does the chemist see after the flasks are mixed?
70
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
Match the following items in the column on the left with the items in the column on the right.
22. __the calculated pH of a 1.25 x 10-3 M solution of HCl.
a) acid
23. __the word that describes the solution in number 22.
b) base
26. __the word that describes any solution that has a hydrogen
c) 3.10
d) 2.90
ion concentration that is less than 1.00 x 10-7.
Energy
The energy diagram on the right is for

X= Li and Y = Cl and the following
reactions.
separated X+ (g) and Y- (g)
+
LiCl (s) Li (g) + Cl (g)
E1 = + 861 kJ/mol = Elattice
Li+ (g) + Cl- (g) Li+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
E2 = - 898 kJ/mol = Ehydration
LiCl (s) Li+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
E3 = ????? = Edissolving
27. What is the mathematical
relationship between E1, E2, and
E3?
E3 =____________________
E1
28. What is the mathematical
E2
relationship between Elattice,
Ehydration, and Edissolving?
Edissolving =___________________
29. What is the numerical value for
Edissolving?
________________kJ/mol
30. If you made a solution of LiCl, would it feel hot or cold? Explain.
Chapter 2, Examination II (Chemistry 121)
This examination was contributed by Dr. Philip Bays, Saint Marys College, Notre Dame, IN. It
has been edited to conserve space.
Name_______________________________________
1. This picture uses dashed lines to represent possible
ways in which water might hydrogen bond with ethanol.
Circle the numbers that identify the ways that hydrogen
bonding actually occurs. (Non-bonded electron pairs are
not shown, but you might want to add them.)
2. Identify each of the following as a favorable (F)
factor (enhancing) or unfavorable (U) factor (inhibiting)
for dissolving an ionic substance in water:
a. Increasing the hydration energy
b. Decreasing the lattice energy
c. Increasing the extent of solvent reorganization
d. Decreasing the polarity of the solvent
H
O
1
H
ACS Chemistry FROG
O
H
H
O
H
H
O
71
Chapter 2
e. Increasing the charge on the ion

3. The conjugate base of the HSO4 is:
b. H2SO4
c. H2O
d. H3O+
a. SO42
4. Which of the following can function as either a Brnsted acid or as a Brnsted base?
b. Cl c. H2SO4
d. PO4-3
e. H2O
a. HNO3
5. The correct formula for magnesium phosphate is:
c. Mg(PO4)2 d. Mg3(PO4)2 e. Mg2(PO4)3
a. MgPO4 b. Mg2PO4
6. When a certain ionic solid dissolves in water, the solution cools down. Circle any (and all)
of the following statements about this process that is (are) correct.
a. The process is exothermic.
b. The process is endothermic.
c. The magnitude of the lattice energy for this solid exceeds the magnitude of it hydration
energy.
d. The magnitude of the hydration energy for this solid exceeds the magnitude of it lattice
energy
7. Vitamin supplements are readily available in the developed world. Doctors are now
diagnosing cases of hypervitamanosis, an illness resulting from an excessive amount of
vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins are readily excreted and are not the problem. The culprit
vitamins are those that are fat-soluble. (You can consider fat to be a long chain hydrocarbon
longer than hexane). Using your knowledge of solubility, circle those structures below, which
you predict will be fat-soluble.
OH
H2C
HO
C
H3C
NH2
HO
C
C
CH2
CH2
CH3
CH2
CH
OH
H
C
CH2
CH
OH
CH2
C
N
OH
OH
H3C
CH2
CH3
CH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
CH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
CH2
CH3
8. Consider having 0.0500 M aqueous solutions of the following substances:

O
a.
b.
H3C
OH
H2C
HO
CH2
c. CaCl2
d. Na3PO4
e. KNO3
OH
acetic acid
ethylene glycol
a weak acid
When these are ranked in order of DECREASING concentration of ions in solution (largest
number of ions first, lowest number last), which of the following is the correct order?
i. a >b >c>d> e ii. d>e>b>c>a
iii. c>a>d>e>b iv. d>c>e>a>b v. d>c>e>b>a
9. Match the following items in the column on the left with the items on the right.
The calculated pH of a 1.25 x 10-3 M solution of HCl.
a. 3.10
c. acidic
i.
ii.
The word that describes the solution in i.
b. 2.90 d. basic
10. The formula weight for WCl6 is:
11. You have a bottle labeled 1.25 M Ammonium Oxalate. [(NH4)2C2O4 Formula Weight =
124.10]
a. How many moles of oxalate ion [C2O4-2] are in 1 L of this solution?
b. How many moles of ammonium ion (NH4+] are in one L of solution?
c. How many moles of oxygen atoms are in 1 L of this solution?
72
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 2
d. How many grams of ammonium oxalate are in 300 mL of solution?

12. A chemist places Ba(NO3)2 in one flask and Na2SO4 in another. Water is added to both
flasks and the solutions stirred. The chemist then pours the contents of one flask into the other.
a. Write a balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when the solutions are mixed. (Be
sure to include (aq), (s), (l) or (g) as appropriate.)
b. Write a net ionic equation for what occurs when the solutions are mixed. (Be sure to
include (aq), (s), (l) or (g) as appropriate.)
13. The same chemist wants to make about 1 g of solid barium carbonate (BaCO3 FW =
197.35). She chose to use exactly the calculated amounts of barium bromide (BaBr2 FW =
297.16) and ammonium carbonate monohydrate [(NH4)2CO3H2O] FW = 114.10].
How much of each did she use?
(NH4)2CO3.H2O
BaCO3
When she completed the reaction, she had only a 65% yield.
How much did she get?
How would you suggest that she might improve her yield?
14. In the organic chemistry course, the following two reactions are introduced in Chapters 5
and 6 of the text. The sulfuric acid serves as a catalyst in both cases.
H3C
CH3
Chapter 5
OH
C
H2C
CH2
H2C
CH2
+ concentrated H2SO4
H2C
CH
H2C
CH2
CH2
+ H2O + H2SO4
CH2
CH3
Chapter 6
H3C
OH
C
H2C
CH
H2C
CH2
+ dilute H2SO4
H2C
CH2
H2C
CH2
+ dilute H2SO4
CH2
CH2
Is this combination of reactions an example of Le Chateliers principle? Explain.

15. Although diethyl ether (shown below) has a relatively low solubility in water, HCl, which is
very soluble in water, is also surprisingly soluble in diethyl ether. There has been some debate
over the reasons for this solubility. It has variously been attributed to dipole-dipole interactions,
H-bonding, or ionization of HCl in the ether. Draw a picture to illustrate each of these potential
interactions between HCl and diethyl ether. (You may feel free to use a well-defined cartoon
representation rather than full structures where appropriate.)
CH2CH3
O
CH2CH3
A. Dipole-Dipole
B. Hydrogen bonding
C. Ionization of the HCl
D. Describe an experiment that could eliminate or confirm one or more of the possibilities.
ACS Chemistry FROG
73

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Chapter 2.

Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

ACS Chemistry FROG

Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

Section 2.8. Concentrations and Moles .....................................................................................27

ACS Chemistry FROG

Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

Check This 2.9. Predict relative solubilities .............................................................................55

ACS Chemistry FROG

Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

Chapter 2, Quiz 7 (CH 103).......................................................................................................69

ACS Chemistry FROG

Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

Materials for Chapter 2 Activities

2.2, 2.5, 2.22, 2.27, 2.67,

Small (10-mL) capped

2.5, 2.27, 2.81

1-mL graduated-stem pipets

2.12, 2.22, 2. 27, 2.67

2.12, 2. 27, 2.32

12- or 24-well microtiter

Small spatula or scoop

Small stirring rod

thin-stem plastic pipets

Centrifuge tubes for the

10-mL Graduated cylinders

125-mL Erlenmeyer flask

3-hole rubber stopper to fit

Length of flexible rubber or

Hardware to connect tubing

ACS Chemistry FROG

Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

Reagents for Chapter 2 Activities

Sodium chloride, NaCl

Calcium chloride, CaCl2 anhydrous

Ammonia choride, NH4Cl

1 M Calcium chloride, CaCl2

1 M Sodium sulfate, Na2SO4

1 M Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

1 M Sodium chloride, NaCl

1 M Lithium chloride, LiCl

1 M Barium chloride, BaCl2

1 M Potassium nitrate, KNO3

1 M Potassium bromide, KBr

1 M Potassium sulfate, K2SO4

1 M Potassium carbonate, K2CO3

ACS Chemistry FROG

Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

1 M Potassium oxalate, K2C2O4

1 M Potassium phosphate, K3PO4

Cobalt chloride hexahydrate,

Sodium phosphate, Na3PO4

0.1 M Ammonia, NH3, or

0.1 M Hydrochloric acid, HCl

Sodium hydrogen carbonate,

6 M hydrochloric acid, HCl

6 M sodium hydroxide, NaOH

Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl

Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

Saturated calcium hydroxide,

Carbon dioxide, CO2(g), cylinder

Bromthymol blue acid-base