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Buddhism for the Next Century

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BuddhismfortheNextCentury:
TowardRenewingaMoralThaiSociety
PhraPhaisanVisalo

AttheTurnofTwoCenturies
Astheendof19thcenturyapproached,Siamwasfacedwiththepowerfulforceof
westernization,whichbroughtgreatexcitementandanxietytotheThaielites.Equally
dramaticwasthechangeofSiamesesocietyinresponsetothisexternalpressure.One
interestingaspectofthatchangewasthetransformationofThaiBuddhismingeneralandof
theThaiMonasticSangha[1]inparticular.TherewasnochangeinthehistoryofThai
Buddhismaspowerfulandintenseastheonethatoccurredaroundtheturnofthe20th
century.
Twoyearsbeforetheendofthe19thcentury,theThaiSangha,undertheleadershipofPrince
Wachirayan,wasattheforefrontofintroducingamoderneducationsystemthroughoutthe
country.Schoolswerebuiltinmanywats(monasteries).WatsalloverSiambecamecenters
forthedisseminationofnewideasandinformationtothepeople.Anewsyllabusintroduced
ruralyouthtoWesternstylemathematicsandscience.Standardizedscriptandlanguage
replacedlocallanguages.Itshouldbenotedthatwhilesuchasyllabuswaspromoted
enthusiasticallybytheThaiSangha,itwasdoggedlyresistedbyitsBurmesecounterpart.[2]
Threeyearsafterthedawnofthe20thcentury,theThaiSanghawasthoroughlyreorganized
asneverbefore.Allmonksinthekingdomwereincorporatedintothesamestructureundera
centralizedleadershipinBangkok.Thecentralizedandbureaucratizedadministrationsystem,
thenconsidered"modern"and"effective,"wasintroducedtooneofSiam'soldestinstitutions.
Inthemeantime,theSangha'seducationsystemwasoverhauled.Newcurriculum,new
teachingandlearningmethods,andnewtextsweredeveloped.Buddhistteachingswere
reinterpreted,leadingtoanew"scientific"orthodoxy.Oneinnovationthatshouldbe
mentionedwastheintroductionofSiamesescripttoreplaceKhmerinwritingreligioustexts.
ItisapparentthatThaiBuddhismanditsSanghaattheturnofthecenturywerehighly
dynamicandvibrant.ItwasanimportantagentofchangenotonlyintheareaofBuddhism
itselfbutalsoinotheraspectsofSiameselife.TheroleoftheSanghainthecreationofa
modernnationstate,forexample,isbeyonddispute.
SuchdynamismisinsharpcontrastwiththestateoftheThaiSanghaattheturnofthe20th
century.Insteadofbeinganagentofchange,ithasbecomesahindrancetoit.TheSangha
educationsystem,especiallytheecclesiasticalone,isobsolete.Itshierarchyandgoverning
structure,modeledaftercolonialadministrations,areoutdatedandsquelchmonks'creativity
ateverylevel.Underthepresentstructure,anyrealreformcantakeplaceonlyatthe
"periphery,"andstopstherebecauseofthestrongresistanceinherentinthehierarchy.Instead
ofleading,theSanghaismerelyafollower,andnotaverycompetentoneatthat.Innovation
ispossibleonlythroughindividualmonks,neverbytheSanghaasaninstitution.
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Despitethestarkdifferences,theconditionsoftheSanghaattheendofbothcenturiesare
closelyconnected.TheobsoletesystemsofthecurrentSangha,suchas,theeducationaland
administrative,areinfactthelegacyofthechangesofonehundredyearsago.Overtimethe
reformledbyPrinceWachirayanhasbecomeanobstacletoanyrealchange,evenwhenthat
changeisvitalandnecessary.
Consequently,theSanghafailsasamoralforce.Themoralityandbehaviorofmonksare
increasinglyquestioned,whilevirtuousmonksstruggletostrengthenthemoralityofsociety
asawhole.Moraldeclinemanifestinginwidespreadcrime,corruption,drugs,andvarious
socialproblems,throughoutthecountryandinthewatsthemselves,indicatesthefailureof
theSanghaasamoralforce.
Worsethanthat,Thailand'smoraldecayreflectsamoreworrisomefact:Buddhismasitis
generallypracticedinthiscountryhasfailed.It'snottruethatThaisocietyhasbecome
increasinglysecularizedaswasanticipatedbysometheorists.Thefactthatmeditationhas
becomepopularandwidespreadamongthemiddleclass,andtherapidexpansionofsome
schools,Dhammakaya,forexample,aresignsofaBuddhistrevival.Thaisocietyis
increasinglyreligious.ThequestioniswhymoralityinThaisocietyisincreasinglydebased.
ApartfromquestioningtheroleoftheSangha,weneedtoinvestigateBuddhismascurrently
practiced,also.
TheLostUltimate
WithoutthereforminitiatedbyKingMongkut,andfurtherdevelopedbyhissonthePrince
Patriarch,thebeliefsaboutBuddhismofThaipeopletodaywouldbemuchdifferent.The
reformthathebeganasamonkintheearlypartofthe19thcenturyhasshapedmodern
Buddhismwithitsrationalityandscientificorientation.ThekindofBuddhistteachingsthat
hepropagatedthroughhisThammayutikasectleftalmostnoroomforsuperstitionor
transcendentalworlds.Referencetoheavensandhellsaccordingtothethreeworldsparadigm
wasgreatlyreducedandbeliefinthemwasdownplayedinitssignificance.Heonly
recognizedtheheavensandhellsofthemind.[3]
WhileabandoningthethreeworldsparadigmthathadinformedThaiBuddhistbelieffor
manycenturies,KingMongkutplacedmoreemphasisonachievementsthatcanbefulfilledin
thislife.HewasthefirstThaikingtoturnhisbackontheaimofbeingrebornasaFuture
Buddha.Thisdoesnotmean,however,thathewasmoreconcernedaboutattainingnibbanain
thislife.Thoughhereferredtonibbanaoccasionallyinhiswritings,heseemedtoregarditas
aremoteidealbeyondthereachofpeople.Histeachings,especiallyforthelaity,instead
stressedworldlyandpracticalachievements.[4]
AlthoughawaveofwesternizationwassweepingThailandatthesametime,KingMongkut's
Buddhistreformwasnotaimedatmakingitmoreresponsiveoradaptabletomodernity.His
objectivewastopurifyBuddhismthroughtheprocessofreturningtothe"roots,"makingit
truetotheoriginalteachingsandpracticesoftheBuddha.Butwhilerejectingtraditional
Buddhismasadistortionanddeviation,theBuddhismheintroducedwaswesterninfluenced
initsempiricalapproachanditsstressonthisworldachievements.
WesterninfluencewasevenmoreapparentintheteachingsoflaterThammayutikaleaders,
especiallyPrinceWachirayan.Nibbana,theultimaterealitywhichwastreatedasaremote
idealbyKingMongkut,wasvirtuallyignoredintheageofPrinceWachirayan.Therewasno
roomfortheultimatetruthrealityinthekindofBuddhismwhichhepropagatedamongthe
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generalpeople.InNawakowat,hisprimerthathasbeenthestandardandfundamentaltextof
ThaiBuddhistsforthelast80years,thesection"gihipanipatti"(codeofmoralityforthelaity)
mentionsnothingabouttheultimategoal(paramattha).Indiscussing"attha"(goalorbenefit),
onlytemporalandmentalgoalsarereferredto.Heconsiderednibbanaunnecessary,notonly
forthelaity,butalsoforthemonks.Thisresultedinthephrase"nibbanarealization"being
removedfromthevowofcandidacyintheordinationceremony.[5]Inhisteaching,the
benefitofmoralitywasemphasizedonlyintemporalterms,withoutindicatinganyconnection
totheultimateorspiritualgoal.Meditationhasalsobeenignoredintheentirelybookish
modernSanghaeducationsystem.[6]
Attemptsatreturningto"theoriginal"alwaysendupbackwith"thenew,"sinceone
inevitablylooksatthepastthroughtheeyesofthepresent.Returningtooriginsinvariably
involvesprocessesofinterpretationandselection.Whatoneseesandbringsbackisalways
differentfromtheoriginal.Inotherwords,theoriginalremainsthesameonlyifitisleftasit
was.Onceweinteractwithor"contact"it,howeverrespectfullyandcarefully,itbecomes
somethingnew,smearedwithour"fingerprints."
The"OriginalBuddhism"thatKingMongkutdiscoveredafterintensivestudyoftheTipitaka
isthereforeaBuddhismmixedwithhisownopinionsandinfluencedbyhisworldview,
consequentlymirroringtheideasexistinginthesocialmilieuinwhichhewasembedded.
Further,hisversionofBuddhismwouldnothavebecomesowidespreadwithoutthereforms
ofhisson,PrinceWachirayan,theSupremePatriarchinthereignofKingRamatheSixth.
HisunificationoftheSanghawassuccessfulnotonlyintermsofadministrationbutalsoin
shapingalongthesamelinestheunderstandingofBuddhismamongThaimonks.Forthefirst
timeinThaihistory,thedifferentteachingsandpracticesofBuddhismbasedindifferent
localities,werereplacedbya"standardized"orthodoxyintroducedfromtheexpansion
mindedcapital.[7]ThenewcentralizedstructurenotonlyenabledthestandardBuddhist
curriculumtobeadoptedeffectivelythroughoutthekingdom,butalsogaverewardsand
punishmentstolocalmonksbasedontheirresponsetothecentralpolicy.Nolessimportant
werethetextsforpropagatingtheneworthodoxy,stillinuse,ninetypercentofwhichwere
writtenbyoneperson,PrinceWachirayan.[8]KingMongkut'sBuddhism,previously
confinedtohissmallsect,therebybecametheofficialorthodoxyoftheSangha.
PrinceWachirayan,however,didmorethanpopularizetheteachingofhisfather.Asthenew
nationstatewasforming,Buddhistteachingswereinterpretedandselectedwhichfitthe
needsandagendaofthenation'srulers.[9]Obligationtothestateanditsrulerswas
emphasizedasasupremeBuddhistvalue.EvenThailand'sactiveengagementinthefirst
WorldWarwasencouragedandsanctionedbythePrinceasavirtuousact,conformingtothe
teachingoftheBuddha.ThisjustificationofwarwaslaterreinforcedbyKingRamatheSixth
whenhedeclaredthatwagingdefensivewarwasnotagainstBuddhistmorality.Underhis
reign,Buddhismwasusedtoenergeticallypromoteandsupportnationalism.
ThehighestgoalofBuddhismistoattainspiritualliberationandbefreefromsuffering.
However,sincetheageofPrinceWachirayan,thisliberatingaspectofBuddhismhasbeen
increasinglyoverlooked.Buddhismhasbeenreducedtoacodeofmorality,concernedwith
onlygoodandbad.[10]SuchmoralBuddhismwaspopularizedfurtherthroughthemodern
curriculumintroducedbytheMinistryofEducationtoeveryschoolthroughoutthecountry.
[11]Moreover,suchmoralityismerelymemorizedbutnotpracticedandthereforeisnot
internalized.
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Itisapparentthatinthepasthundredyears,Buddhismhasbeentransformedtofitwith
modernity.Ironically,whilesuperstitionwassupposedlyremovedfromBuddhisminthe
processofpurification,westernrationality,scientism,andnationalismreplacedit,resultingin
theremovaloftranscendentalandultimateaspects.Inotherwords,traditionalsuperstition
wasreplacedbymodern,foreignsuperstition.
Itisalsoironicthatdespiteitsemphasisonmorality,theofficialBuddhismhasfailedto
strengthentheactualmoralityofThaisociety.Whilemoralityhasbeenpropagated
continuouslyintheschoolsandmediaformanydecades,andwhilelargenumbersofpeople
gotomakemeritinthetemples,moraldegradationisstillagraveproblemforThailand
today.OneexplanationisthatthiskindofBuddhismlacks"thesacred."
"Thesacred"(saksit)herereferstothatwhichisbeyondthefivephysicalsenses,andis
inaccessibleandunexplainablebymererationality,butwhich,nonetheless,canbeattainedor
realizedbythemind.Ithasaqualityorpowerthatthosewhoaccessitcanreceiveandbenefit
from.Itisarefugeorsecurityforthosewhobelieve.Itsdynamismisbeyondsocialcodesand
isincomprehensibletotheuntrainedmind.Thewaystorealizeitarediverse,justasthereare
manywaysofconceivingofit.[12]
ThereweremanyformsofthesacredintraditionalBuddhism,forexample,deities,miracles,
reveredobjects,andnaturalsites.Beliefinheavenandhellplayedanimportantrolein
strengtheningpeople'ssenseofmorality.Someoftheancientlaws,forexample,theopium
prohibitionlawofKingRamatheSecond,evokedthefearofhelltodissuadepeoplefrom
opiumconsumption.OnceBuddhismwasreformedtobemorescientific,therewereno
tangiblesacredthingstotaketheplaceofdeities,heaven,spirits,andthelike.Eventhe
Buddhawasdemystifiedtobemademorehuman.
Nibbanaortheultimateis,infact,anotherformofthesacred,theunconditionedaspect
(sankhata).Yetit,too,wasremovedfromofficialBuddhism.Themoralcodeofofficial
Buddhismhasbeenrationalizedaswell.Peopleareexpectedtopracticemoralitythroughthe
sheerforceofintellectandrationalization,butintellectaloneisnoteffectiveenoughto
developamorallife.Moralityhastobedeepenedtothespirituallevel.Faithorfearofthe
sacred'spower,experienceofinnerpeace,andconnectionwiththeultimatethrough
meditation,areallnecessaryspiritualconditionsformaintainingone'smorality.Withthe
absenceofthesacred,themoralcodeofofficialBuddhismnolongerhadanyspiritual
supportormeaning.
Anotherconsequenceoftheremovalofthesacredisthespreadof"malign"superstition.For
theirownsecurity,ordinarypeopleneedthesacred.Oncethesacredcannotbefoundin
officialBuddhism,theyaretemptedtolookforitoutsideBuddhism,thatis,insuperstition.
Usually,thesesuperstitionswereonceapartoftraditionalBuddhism.Buddhistreform,rather
thangetridofsuperstition,merelyexpelledthemfromthewats.Onceoutsidethewat,there
werebeyondthecontrolofBuddhismandthusbecameamoral.Thisdegradedformof
superstition,aimingtogratifyanydesire,doesnotrequireanymoralityonthepartofthe
client.Thislackofmoralobligationisthemainfactorthatdifferentiatesmalignsuperstition
fromthesuperstitionthatwaspartoftraditionalBuddhism.
Despiteitsantisuperstitioninclination,officialBuddhismhascontributedtothewide
disseminationoftheverysuperstitionitsoughttosuppress.Themoreittriestoexpel
superstitionfromthewats,themoresuperstitionspreadstothem.Thisisanotherironyof
officialBuddhism.Moreover,thesuperstitionthatisnowspreadingtothewatsis
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simultaneouslygainingcontroloverBuddhism,andnotviceversaasbefore.
Thiskindofsuperstitionfitswellwiththenewinfluenceconsumerism.Ononehand,
consumerismstimulatessensualandmaterialdesire,motivatingpeopletoseeksuperstitionas
aquickandeasywaytogetwhattheywant.Ontheotherhand,consumerismhas
commodifiedsuperstition,makingiteasilyaccessibleanddiversified,aswellasmarketingit
withmodernmethodsandtechnology.Inshort,consumerismincreasesboththedemandfor
andthesupplyofsuperstition.
Withthiskindofsuperstition,peoplejustwaitforworldlyachievementtoarrive.Successis
expectedtocomeeasily,throughpurchasedamulets,withoutmakinganyeffortorpracticing
Dhamma,suchas,diligence,honesty,andselfcontentment.Moralityisthereforeregardedas
unnecessaryfordailylife.
Thewidespreadofsuperstitionthroughoutthecountry,eveninthewats,isthesignof
officialBuddhism'sfailureinitsattempttoremovesuperstition.Italsoindicatestheinfluence
ofconsumerismoncurrentBuddhism.BothphenomenonrevealtheweaknessofBuddhism
thatcanbetracedtothereformofKingMongkutandPrinceWachirayan.
StructuralProblems
Thesituationdiscussedaboveistheconsequenceoftheneworthodoxythat,however,isonly
oneaspectofthereform.EquallyimportantisthestructuralaspectofSanghareorganization
beguninthetimeofPrinceWachirayanandcontinuinguntilnow.Underthenewcentralized
structure,monksofalllocalitiesinthecountrycameunderthepowerofthehierarchy,thus
makingthemlessresponsivetotheirowncommunities.Moreover,allowingthestatetoexert
influenceinmanyimportantaspectsoftheSangha,thisnewstructurevirtuallytransformed
theSanghaintoanextensionofthestate.Monksarethereforemoreinclinedtowardthestate
thanthepeople.
ThereasonthattheSanghastaysclosetothestateismainlybecausetheSangha'sleadership
believesthatitsunity,cohesion,andorderlinessdependuponthestate'ssupport.Buttheprice
ofhavingstateprotectionisthelossofautonomy.Further,manyreligiousaffairsthatwere
onceinthecontrolofthelocalcommunities,forexample,thebestowingofecclesiasticalrank
andtheestablishmentofwats,havebeenmonopolizedbythestatealmostcompletely.
Infact,thereareotherfactorsthatcontributetothewideninggapbetweenthemonksandthe
people.Someofthemaretheinstitutionalizationofsuchsocialservicesaseducationand
medicine,whichwereonceprovidedbythemonks,thedeclineofecclesiasticaleducation,
andthelackofmotivationinprovidingeducationformonks.Compoundedbythecentralized
andbureaucratizedstructure,thesefactorscontributetothereductionoftheSangha'srolein
promotingmoralityinThaisociety.ItalsoobstructsanyattempttoreformtheSanghaor
improveitssocialroleinresponsetothechangingworld.Withthisstructure,merely
maintainingthemoralstandardsofthemonksisalmostimpossibleasshownbytheSangha's
failuretocopewithalltherecentscandals.
NewReformMovements
Throughoutthepasthundredyears,ThaiBuddhismhasneverlackedattemptstoreformitself.
AfterPrinceWachirayan'sreform,theattemptbyBuddhadasaBhikkhuisthemost
prominent.Infact,theformerhadalotofinfluenceonthelatter,especiallyintermsofthe
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scientificandrationalapproachtoBuddhism,andtheantisuperstitioninclination.However,
BuddhadasaBhikkhuwasabletogobeyondPrinceWachirayanherecognizedthesupreme
valueoftheultimate.HedidmorethananyoneelseintherecenthistoryofBuddhismin
bringingtheultimategoalbacktoitscentralplaceinBuddhism.Moreover,hetriedtomakeit
moreaccessibletoordinarypeople.Histeachingaimedtointegratetheultimateintoordinary
life,makingtranscendenceandworldlylifeinseparable.Inotherword,nibbanahasbeen
reintroducedasthesacredforthecommittedBuddhist,inplaceofsuperstitionormiracles.
Furthermore,hisideaof"nibbanahereandnow"bringsthesacredclosertousinevery
momentofdailylife,withoutneedingtoretreattotheforestasmonks.
ThoughhealsoregardedBuddhismandscienceasidentical,hisunderstandingwasdifferent
fromPrinceWachirayan,wasmoreprofoundandlessimitative.Insteadofdefining
Buddhismtofitwithwesternscience,Buddhadasadefinedsciencetoconformwith
Buddhism,thatis,asinvolvingnotonlyphysicalaspectsthatcanbeexperiencedthroughthe
fivesenses,butalsoincludingmentalprocessesthatcanbeexperiencedwiththemind,the
sixthsense.BuddhadasaBhikkhu's"ScientificBuddhism"isthereforethescienceoftimeless
ultimatetruthwithmeditationisanintegral"technology."
BuddhadasaBhikkhu'sideasfindanechoinPhraDhammapitaka's(P.A.Payuttho)teachings
whichpresentBuddhisminitstotalitywithitshighestgoalfoundinspiritualliberation
throughtherealizationofultimatetruth.Theultimateisnotsomeremoteidealforthe
unworldlylifeinstead,itisrelevantandnecessaryforpeopleofthisworld,bothmonksand
laity.WhileBuddhadasaBhikkhuencouragedhisfollowerstolivewith"voidfreemind,"
PhraDhammapitakastressedthatnobleoneswhoattainatleastthefirstlevelof
enlightenmentareneededbythepresentworld.HisConstitutionforLiving,however
comparabletoPrinceWachirayan'sNawagowatinpopularityandcontent,concludeswiththe
chapterentitled"AttainerofDhamma:ALiberatedOne,"makingitstrikinglydifferentfrom
PrinceWachirayan'sorthodoxy.
ItshouldbenotedthatsciencehasasignificantinfluenceforbothBuddhadasaBhikkhuand
PhraDhammapitaka.(Bothenjoyedstudyingandexperimentingwithmachinesandnew
technologieswhentheywereyoung.)LikeBuddhadasa,PhraDhammapitakaelevatesThai
Buddhismbeyondtheworldlyrealmofwesternscience.Herecognizesthelimitsofscience.
Thus,itshouldbecomplementedbyBuddhisminordertohaveabetteranddeeper
understandingofthetruth,andtouseitinaconstructiveway.However,onecannothelp
beingimpressedhowthescientificapproachcontributesagreatdealtohisthoughtand
writings.LikeBuddhadasaBhikkhu,hisemphasisonthehumanbeing'spotentialtorealize
theultimatetruththroughhisownwisdomandeffortislikelytobeinfluencedbythe
humanismonwhichwesternscienceisbased.Thisdoesnotmeanthathumanismisaliento
Buddhismorthatitbelongsonlytowesternscience.Rather,itishighlyprobablethatthe
humanistinfluenceofsciencecontributedalottotheirperceptionandrecognitionof
humanismintheBuddha'steaching,leadingtotheiremphasisonandexplanationofthe
supremepotentialofthehumanbeing.Withouthumanistideas,itisdifficulttonoticeand
presentthehumanistapproachtoBuddhismastheydid.Thisisthereasonwhytraditional
Buddhismseldomexplainedhumanpotentialinsuchaway.Nibbanawasunderstood
traditionallyasaremoteideathatcouldbeattainedonlythroughmeritaccumulationover
countlesslives.Hence,noseriouseffortismadetorealizenibbanainthislife.
Despitetheirpopularityamongthemiddleclass,andespeciallythewelleducated,the
teachingofbothmonkshasnotbeenwellreceivedamongtheSanghaleadership.Their
thoughtandwritingshaveinfluencedonlylowrankingmonksorthoseontheperiphery,for
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example,"theSuanMokkhmovement."Untilnow,Sanghaeducationinstitutions,including
theSanghauniversities,stilladheretoPrinceWachirayan'sorthodoxy.Curriculumandtexts
developedandwrittenbyPrinceWachirayaneightyyearsagoremaininuseinboththePali
andNakThamsystems,whereasnoneofthebooksbyBuddhadasaBhikkhuandPhra
DhammapitakaarestudiedastextsintheSangha'secclesiasticaleducationsystem.
NocontemporarymonkinThailandhasputforthgreaterefforttoreformtheSangha
educationsystemthanPhraDhammapitaka.HewasthefirstmonktowarntheSanghaand
governmentaboutthevalueofhighereducationformonks.Despitesomesuccessafterthirty
yearsofeffort,onlyseculareducationformonksreceivessupportandimprovement,while
monasticandDhammaeducationisstillquitestuckinthepast,bothintermsofcurriculum
andadministration.Thefailureof"reformfromwithin"initiatedbyhimreflectsthestrong
resistancesodeeplyrootedintheSanghastructure.Thishasresultedinthesharpdeclineof
theecclesiasticaleducationsystem.Inevitably,monksincreasinglyhavelosttheirpositionof
leadershipinThaisociety.Insteadofleadingthelaitytolivewithwisdomandhigher
morality,theyfollowthelaityalongthefashionabletrends.Nowadays,isthereanytrend
morepowerfulthanconsumerism?
UndertheDominionofConsumerism
ConsumerismisthelatestideologyhavingastronginfluenceonBuddhism,afterwestern
scienceandnationalismhadalreadyshapeditforalmostacentury.Whilescienceand
nationalismhadtheirimpactonBuddhismsystemicallythroughitsredefinitionbytheelite,
consumerismhasshapedThaiBuddhismnotthroughtheconsciouseffortofanyindividual
butbecauseofitsowninternalweakness.
Withtheinfluenceofconsumerism,theBuddhistcommunityisconvertedintoamarketplace
wherenotonlyamuletsbutalsomeritandceremoniesaresoldascommodities.Duringthe
pastfewdecades,ThaiBuddhistteachings,beliefs,andpracticeshavebeentransformed
dramatically,takingonmanyofthecharacteristicsofconsumerism,asfollows:
*materialism:wealth,nothappiness,ispreachedandexpectedasthegoalofreligious
practice.
*stimulationofdesire:consumptionofallsortsareencouraged,includingconsumptionof
religiousexperience,forexample,visitingheavenandcatching"aglimpseofnibbana."
*moneyorientation:money,noteffort,isthemostimportantfactorforreligious
achievement.Oncemeritiscommodified,itcanbeaccumulatedwiththeaidofmoney.Even
religiousexperienceandtranquillityareexpectedfromofferingmoneyasmeritmaking.
*instantresults:religiousservicesandpracticesareexpectedtogiveinstantresults.
Superstitionbecomesattractivesinceitpromisestogivequickandeasyresults.
*individualism:religiouspracticeaimstosatisfyindividualdesires,withoutanyconcernfor
theconsequencesthatbefallothers.
Theproliferationofconsumerismhascontributedagreatdealtotheriseofsuperstitionsince
bothcomplementeachotherinmanyaspects.Consumerismstimulatesdesireandthe
maximizationofprofitwhilesuperstitionoffersa"shortcut"toworldlyachievement.
Consumerismcommodifiesasmanythingsasitcan,whilesuperstitionsellsmany
commoditiessuchasamulets,talismans,rituals,and"nibbanacertificates."
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Onceconsumerismspreadintothewats,superstitionfollowedit.Wats,however,notonly
consumesuperstition,theyalsoreproduceit.Aspreviouslymentioned,wats,once
propagatorsofofficialBuddhismwhichisantisuperstition,arenowincreasinglydominated
bysuperstition.Thisfailureingettingridofsuperstitionispartlybecauseitlacksthesacred
inwhichpeoplecanconfide.ItleavesnoroomforamysticalBuddha,deities,heaven,
miracles,andsoon.Eventheultimatenibbanaisprettymuchignored,ifnotperverted.
DespiteeffortsbyBuddhadasaBhikkhuandPhraDhammapitakatorevivethesignificanceof
nibbana,theyhavenotbeenacceptedmuchbytheSanghahierarchyandeducation
institutions.Notsurprisingly,officialBuddhism'sinfluenceincreasinglydeclinesevenamong
themonks.
ThosewhoturntheirbacksonofficialBuddhism,however,donotnecessarilyturntheirears
toBuddhadasaBhikkhuandPhraDhammapitaka.Despitethesacrednessoftheultimate
whichbothteacherstrytobringclosertothelifeofordinarypeople,onlythefewcanconnect
withit,sincesuchconnectionispossibleonlythroughmeditation.Formostpeople,whoare
notmuchinterestedinmeditation,thesacredthattheycanconnectwithisnottheonethatis
experienceddirectlywiththeirownmindsbuttheonethatisbasedinfaithandisembodiedin
physicalobjectsthatcanbeperceivedwiththefivesenses,forexample,MotherGuanYin
(Kannon),LuangPorToeappearingthroughamedium,ortheBuddha'smysticalpower
embeddedinanamulet.
Watsthatofferaccesstothismaterialistaspectofthesacredcanattractlargenumbersof
people.Themoretheycanadapttoconsumerism,themoresuccessfultheyarelikelytobe.
NoexampleismoreprominentthanWatPhraDhammakaya.Acleanandorderlyatmosphere
isthefirstimpressionmostvisitorshaveaboutWatPhraDhammakaya,butitisthesacred
thatbindsthelargenumberoffollowerstothiswatwithtenaciousfaith.Besidesitsreputedly
powerfulmiracles,itssacredisimmanentandtouchable.Itssacredischaracterizedbythe
Buddha'sDhammakayaandnibbana.ItsnibbanaandtheBuddha'sDhammakayaarenotonly
apermanentself(atta)butalsoperceivablelikematter(havingphysicalqualitieslikecoldand
soft).Moreover,ordinarypeople(thathavenotadvancedinmeditation)canhavecontactwith
theBuddha'sDhammakaya,throughtheir"riceofferingtoDhammakayainNibbana"
ceremony.
ThesacredaloneisnottheonlyreasonforDhammakaya'srapidexpansion.Itssuccessin
drawingpeople(arguablyalmostamillionfollowers)isalsoduetoitsadaptationto
consumerism.Dhammakayanotonlypromisesworldlyachievementtoitsfollowers,butalso
usesmarketingtechniquestocreateademandformeritthrough"directsale."Meritis
commodifiedanddiversifiedindifferentformsforfollowerstohavemorechoice.
Competitionisencouragedbetweenvolunteerswhosolicitdonationsandrewardsaregivento
thosewhocanachievethehighestamountofdonations.Thesetechniquesarederivedfrom
theideaofitsleaderthat"Buddhismisanexcellentcommoditythatgetsbadsalesbecauseof
thelackofgoodmarketingstrategies."
A"MegaChurch"likeWatDhammakayaisonlyoneaspectofconsumerizedBuddhism.
Anotheraspectisthemanysmallwatswithwidelydiversepracticesandbeliefs.Thereare
manywatsthatmixupvarioussymbols,ceremonies,anddeities,forexample,mixingthe
Buddha,Kannon,andShivatogetherinthesamewat.Thiscanbeexplainedbytheincreasing
socialdifferentiationinThaisociety,creatingdiversebeliefsanddemandsfordifferent
religiousexperiences.Suchreligiousbehaviorisbettercharacterizedbyreligious
"consumption"thanreligious"practice,"sinceitisdrivennotbystrongfaithinaparticular
practicebutbydesireforselfgratification,orevendesirefora"taste"ofreligiousexperience
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forawhile.
WhatlessonscanwelearnfromthecasesofWatDhammakaya,thereligiouscocktail,andthe
riseofsuperstition?Theyaretellingusthat:
1.UniformorstandardizedBuddhismisathingofthepast.ThaiBuddhismisreturningto
diversityagain,perhapstoagreaterdegreethanbeforethePrinceWachirayanreform.
2.Inthepast,uniformBuddhismwaspossiblebecauseofstateandcentralSanghacontrol.
ThetrendintheaboveisasignthatBuddhismisbecomingindependentofthestateandthe
Sanghahierarchy,returningagaintothehandsofthepeople.
3.ConsumerismisgaininginfluenceinshapingThaiBuddhism,partlythroughthe
"consumption"andselectionbyordinarypeople.
4.ThebeliefsandbehaviorofThaipeoplearedeviatingincreasinglyfromBuddhistteaching
andisrathermoreaboutselfgratificationthanreducingselfishness.
TowardtheReformNeededToday
ABuddhismthatisunderthedominionofconsumerismisnotconducivetothegoodlifeand
apeacefulsociety.Instead,itchainsourlivestosufferingandenslavesustomaterialthings,
nottomentionincreasingsocialconflicts.Eventheworldlyachievementsthatitpromisesare
hardlyrealizedsinceitdoesnotencourageeffort,selfreliance,orcooperation.Thecurrent
economiccrisisinThailandisthemostrecentexampleofhowitspromisehasfailed.
TheconsumeristdominationisonlyoneaspectoftheproblemsthatfaceThaiBuddhism
today.Liberationfromconsumerismisthereforeonlypartofthesolution,althoughavitaland
necessaryone.TherevivalofBuddhismneedsacomprehensivereformthatcopeswithother
factorsaswell.Inshort,therearethreemainfactorsonthepartofBuddhismthathavehada
greatimpactonthebeliefsandpracticesofThaiBuddhists,andonthequalityandroleofthe
monksduringthepastcentury,resultinginthedeclineofmoralityinThaisociety.These
factorsare:
1.Teachingsthatbecameofficialorthodoxy
2.Sanghastructureanditsrelationshiptostateandsociety
3.Buddhisteducation.
RealreformofThaiBuddhismispossibleonlywhenthesefactorsareaddressedeffectively.
BeyondScience
Asearliermentioned,rationalizedandscientificBuddhism,thoughwelcomedbytheeducated
andmiddleclasses,hasreducedBuddhismtosuperficialteachings,voidofspiritualdepth.
Thesituationwasworsenedbyanationalismthatbecamereligioninitsownright.Such
secularizedBuddhismlacksthevitalityneededtoresistmaterialism,andthusiseasily
corruptedbytheconsumercapitalismthatgoeshandinhandwithdemoralizedsuperstition.
Scienceandrationalismarenottheaspectsthatshouldberejected.Theybecomeproblematic,
however,whentheyareallowedtodefineBuddhism,resultingintherejectionofteachings
thatdonotfitwithmaterialistscienceorthattranscendrationality.Itshouldbenotedthat
scienceandrationalismcanleadustosomelevelsoftruth,butnotall.Theultimateisalevel
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oftruthinaccessibletothemandthusbecomesoneoftheircasualties.
Nomatterwhatattitudesciencehastowardtheultimate,thekeypointforThaiBuddhistsisto
bringtheultimatebackintoBuddhism.Nibbana,orliberationofmind,shouldbeintegrated
intodailylifethroughtheeffortofordinarypeople.Thisisthetruesacredthatshouldnotbe
absentfromBuddhism,whereveritistaught,eveninschoolsforchildren.
Atthesametime,otherformsofthesacredshouldbeallowedaroleinBuddhism.Deities,
miracles,amulets,andothersfromtherealmofsuperstition,ifusedskillfully,canbe
instrumentalinleadingpeopletohigherlevelsofDhamma.Thepointisthattheyshouldbe
guidedbyBuddhism,andnottheotherwayaround.
Nothingcanprovideamoresolidbasisforone'smoralitythantheultimatetruth.Oncethe
mindisliberatedfromdefilementanddelusion,realhappinessandpeaceisrealized,withno
illwillordesiretoharmanyoneremaining.Thoughordinarypeoplemaynotattainthe
ultimatefully,amomentaryexperienceofitispossibleandwillhaveatremendousimpacton
theirlivesandtheirrelationships.
Forthosethatcannotexperiencetheultimate,lowerlevelsofthesacred,whenapproached
withaproperattitude,canrestrainonefromdoingevilorharmingothers.Ordinarypeople
thatlacksufficienttrainingalwaysneedsuchsacredbeliefstoacertainextent.Accordingto
BuddhadasaBhikkhu,unlessoneisArahat,theBuddhismthatonepracticesisneverapure
one.Acertaindegreeofsuperstitionwillcontinuetocreepintoone'spractice.Hence,he
concluded"Buddhismstillneedssuperstition."[13]
RestoringtheSocialDimensionofBuddhism
ThaiBuddhismisincreasinglyindividualizedeveryonepracticesandadaptsitarbitrarilyfor
herorhisownbenefitwithlessandlessinterventionfromthestate,Sanghahierarchy,or
evenone'sownfamilyandcommunity,aswaspreviouslythenorm.Withsuchanattitude,
Buddhismiseasilyusedtogratifyoneselfortomeetone'spersonaldesire,withoutconcern
forothers,nottomentionnatureandthespiritualdimension.
ItishighlylikelythatBuddhismwillcontinuetobereducedtoapersonallevelofteaching.In
fact,thisisnonewtrend.Inthepast,thebenefitsofthefiveprecepts,forexample,were
alwaysexplainedonlyonthepersonallevel,thatis,contributingtoapeaceful,happy
individuallife,whilethebenefitstosocietywererarelymentioned.Thoughtherearemany
teachingsonone'sobligationtosociety(suchastheaparihaniyadhamma,dhammasnever
leadingtodeteriorationonlytoprogress),theywerelessemphasizedthanteachingson
persontopersonpractice(liketheteachingofthesixdirections).[14]Eventeachingsabout
thefoursublimestatesofmindtheinterpersonalattitudesoflovingkindness,compassion,
sympatheticjoy,andequanimityreceivedmoreattentionthantheprinciplesorDhammaon
whichequanimityisbased.
AccordingtoBuddhism,sinceonehasobligationstooneself,others,society,andDhamma,
thereareteachingsforallfourcategories.However,onlythefirsttwocategoriesarestressed.
Nowadays,wedonotliveinvillagesanymore,butinabroadermorecomplexsociety.In
suchasociety,therearenotonlypersonalandinterpersonalrelationships.Therearealso
socialrelationships,relationshipwithsocietyasawhole,whichisincreasinglyglobal.Peace
andharmonyinsocietyandpersonalhappinessdonotdependonlyonproperbehavioramong
individuals,butequallydependonhowwerelatetoourownsociety,forexample,howwe
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abidebythelaw,takecareofpublicproperties,andrespectthesocialheritageandtraditions.
Buddhistteachingonourdutytothepublicworldorsociety,therefore,shouldbeemphasized
(andappliedappropriatelytothemodernworld)innolessdegreethanteachingsonpersonal
relationship.(Moreonthispointwillbediscussedlater.)
RestructuringtheSangha
TheThaiSanghaisnowfacingthreemainorganizationalproblems,asfollows:
1.Thecentralizedandinefficientstructure
2.Thecloserelationshipwiththestate
3.Distancefromsociety.
ThecomplexityanddiversityofthepresentsocietydemandsadynamicSanghaifBuddhism
istoplayasignificantroleincontributingtothegoodlife.Tobemoredynamic,theSangha
hastobedecentralizedandmoreopenforinitiativesfrommonksoneverylevel.
Insteadofitscurrenttopdownorientation,theadministrationbytheCouncilofEldersshould
bemoreresponsiveandaccountabletomonksthroughoutthecountry.Theirparticipation
shouldbeencouragedintheprocessofdevelopingimportantplansorschemes,Sangha
educationpolicy,forinstance.Nowadays,mostofsuchplansaredevelopedbybureaucratsin
theMinistryofEducationwithonlytokenparticipationallowedfromordinarymonks.
Apartfrommoreparticipationinshapingvariousplansandschemes,administrative
responsibilityshouldbedecentralizedtoalllevels.Thiswillenablelocalmonkstobemore
responsivetotheirparticularsituationsanddevelopcloserrelationshipswiththepeople.
Administrationontheregionalandlowerlevelscanbeimprovedifanadministrativebodyis
createdtoassisttheheadmonk(chaokhana)oneachoftheselevels.Membersofsuch
administrativebodies,ofcourse,shouldnotbeappointed(thecurrentpractice)butcomefrom
directelectionbyallmonksintherespectiveconstituencies.
RelationshipwiththeState
AbalancedrelationshipbetweentheSangha,rulers,andthepeoplehasalwaysbeenessential
forTheravadaBuddhism'shealth.Nowadays,theSangha,however,leansclosertothestate,
somuchsothattheformerbecameanextension,orevenatool,ofthelatter.Sucha
relationshipcontributestotherigidityoftheSangha,sinceitisineffectapowerless
bureaucracyunderthecontrolofacorruptone,andcreatesnothingbutinertiatowards
constructivechange.
TheSanghaconsistentlylosesmorethanitgainsfromthisrelationship.Unlikeindividual
rulersinthepast,modernstateshavenohearttocareforenlightenmentortheDhamma.The
State'sdominationoftheSangha(orChurch)isneverforthesakeofSanghaorreligion,but
onlyforthestateitself.Obviously,theSanghashouldkeepitsproperdistancefromthestate
anddecreasedependenceonit.
Forthattobepossible,theSanghashouldnotdependonthestateforitsbudget.Itshould
seekmorefinancialsupportfromcivilsocietyforitsactivities.Besidesdonationsfrom
individuals,financialsupportfromcivicbodiesisanecessaryalternativetostatesupport.
Secondly,theSanghashouldhavemoreautonomyinitsownadministration,withoutrelying
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upontheDepartmentofReligiousAffairs(MinistryofEducation),whichactsasthe
secretariatfortheCouncilofElders.Monksnowhavesufficientpotentialfortheself
governmentwhichisenshrinedinthenewconstitution.Sanghaselfdeterminationshouldbe
supportedbydecentralizationofresponsibilitiestolowerlevels,asmentionedearlier.
Thirdly,theSanghashoulddependlessonstatesanctionandapprovalofitsreligiousaffairs.
Stateinvolvementintheestablishmentofwatsortheappointmentofhighrankingmonks,for
example,shouldbeminimized.Titlepromotions,ifworthpreserving,shouldinvolve
representativesofpeoplefromallwalksofliferatherthangiveadominantroletothestate.
SanghaRelationshiptoSociety
Inthepast,watswerebothsupportedandcheckedbytheirsurroundingcommunities.The
wideninggapbetweenthewatsandtheircommunitiescontributedtomisbehaviorofmonks
ononehand,andtotheunresponsivenessofmonkstotheplightofsurroundingcommunities
ontheotherhand.
AcloserrelationshipbetweentheSanghaandsocietycanbedevelopedbymoreinvolvement
ofcivilsocietyinreligiousandSanghaaffairs.AlotofsupportthattheSanghanowreceives
fromthestatecanbeofferedbycivilsocietyinstead.Intheforeseeablefuture,thebudgetfor
Sanghaeducationandadministration,forexample,canbeprovidedby"provincialcouncils,"
thecivilbodiesbeingnurturedontheprovinciallevelthroughoutThailand,torepresentall
groupsineachprovince,aspartoftheEighthNationalEconomicandSocialDevelopment
Plan.Suchbodiesshouldreclaimtheresponsibilitiesthatarenowmonopolizedbythestate,
andreturnthemtocivilsociety,thatis,thepeople.Theseresponsibilities,ofcourse,should
includepromotionofreligiousaffairs,whichsofarhasbeeninthehandsoftheDepartment
ofReligiousAffairs.
Besidestheprovinciallevel,civicbodiesshouldbecreatedonmorelocallevelsinorderto
workwithandgivesupporttotheSanghaoncorrespondinglevels.Suchcoordinationwill
forgecloserrelationshipbetweentheSanghaandcivilsocietyonalllevels.Moresupportand
checksfromsocietyisessentialfortheimprovementofthequalityofthemonkhood.
SanghaEducationandRoleofWomen
RestorationofthecompleteBuddhistteachingsandthereorganizationoftheSanghamustbe
supportedbyreformofSanghaeducation,asitisnowinseriousdecline.Ecclesiastical
educationisoutdated,thatis,unabletoprovideanappropriateunderstandingoftheDhamma,
whileseculareducationformonksiseitherinsufficient,ofpoorquality,ortoo"worldly"
(offeringnobasisforunderstandingtheworldfromBuddhistorspiritualperspectives).The
currentSanghaeducationsystemneedsreforminacomprehensiveway,including
curriculum,learningmethods,texts,facilities,teachertraining,andmanagement.Underthe
existingSanghastructure,trueSanghaeducationreformisalmostimpossiblebecauseit
requiresagreatdealofenergyandinitiative,whichcanhardlybeexpectedfromthetwenty
septuagenariansintheCouncilofEldersinwhomallSanghapoweriscentralized.
AsapartofSanghareform,theroleofotherBuddhistsoutsidetheSanghashouldbeamatter
ofseriousconcern,especiallytheroleofwomen.Sofar,lessopportunityisgiventowomen
thanmenasfarasDhammatraininganddisseminationisconcerned.Thestarkdifference
betweenmonksandnunsisoneclearexample.Thepotentialofwomentostudy,practice,
realize,andteachDhamma,clearly,isnotinferiortothatofmen.Iftheformerreceive
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energeticsupportfromsociety,theywillmakeaninvaluablecontributiontotheBuddhist
communityandsocietyasawhole,muchgreaterthanbefore.Bhikkhuniordinationisone
optionforwomenthatshouldbetakenintoconsiderationbyThaisociety.However,other
optionsshouldbedeveloped,too.Creationofnewformsforfemalemonksandthepromotion
ofthestatusofnuns(maechi)inordertowintherespecttheydeservefromsociety,noless
thanmonksreceive,shouldbedevelopedconcurrently,regardlessoftheoutcomeofthelong
drawnoutbhikkhunicontroversy.
TimeforNewSocialRole
Allthereformsmentionedabovecanbecalledinternalreformor"reformforone'sown
welfare."AccordingtotheBuddha,therearethreekindsofwelfareorbenefit:one'sown
welfare(attattha),thewelfareofothers(parattha),andthebenefitofboth(ubhayattha).The
thirdshowsthattheprecedingtwogohandinhandandcannotbeseparatedConsequently,
reformforone'sownbenefitisjusthalfofthereformthatisneeded,andonitsownwillnot
getusveryfar.Theotherhalfisreformforthewelfareofothers,thatis,ofsocietyasa
whole.
ThepredominantsocialfunctionofBuddhismnowadaysisinritualservices,whileitsmoral
andspiritualinfluencehasbeendrasticallyreduced.TheonlysignthatThaisocietystill
adherestoBuddhismistheThaipeoples'relationshipstowatsandmonk,asexpressed
throughgivingalmsfood,meritmaking,and,recently,attendingretreats.However,ifwe
considertherelationshipsamongpeoplethroughoutsocietyitself,weseethattheinfluenceof
Buddhismisactuallymuchweakerthaninthepast.Selfishness,lackofgenerosity,and
worse,exploitation,crime,corruption,andmisuseofpublicpropertiesareincreasingly
prominentinThaisocietytoday.
Therearetwokindsofsocialrelationships:verticalandhorizontal.ABuddhistinfluenceis
moreprominentintheformer,asreflectedintherelationshipbetweenlaityandmonks,
childrenandparents,andevenpeople'srelationshiptothesacredliketheBuddha,Buddha
relics,andmerit.Buthorizontalrelationships,beyondthenarrowcirclesofrelativesand
friends,ismoreinfluencedbyconsumerismandmaterialism,thanbyBuddhism.
Buddhism'sinfluenceonverticalrelationships,howeverbeneficialitmaybetoindividuals
andsociety,isnotenough.Buddhismmustexpanditsroleandinfluencetohorizontal
relationships,inordertoincreasegenerosityamongpeople,toovercomeviolenceandcrime,
andtoworkformorepeaceinsociety.Sucharolecannotbeachievedmerelythrough
preaching,asbefore,butneedstoberadicallyrethoughtanddramaticallyadapted.
OutlineforStrengtheningMoralityinThaiSociety
Thaisocietybadlyneedsbindingmoralforcesthatencourageandhelppeopletolivetogether
withgoodwill,harmony,generosity,andcooperation,andwhichwillmakesocietymore
desirableandlivable.Itisimportanttonotethatsuchforces,whileweakinThaisocietyasa
whole,actuallystillexistinsmall,intimatecirclesoffamily,kinship,andfriends.Inthese
circles,everybodytreatseachotherwithhonesty,sincerity,andlove.Impoliteorselfish
behavior,howeverobvioustheyareinthestreets,cinemas,publicplaces,andeventhewats,
arerarelyfoundinthesesmallcircles.Inotherwords,Thaipeopledonotlackmoralityit's
justthattheyapplyitonlytotheirimmediateacquaintances.Thequestionishowmorality
canbeexpandedtootherpeopleandtotherestofsociety.
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ForThaisocietytohaveastrongermoralbasis,Buddhismcanplaythefollowingroles:
1.Extendingthecontextofmorality
WhydoThaisactmorallyonlywiththeiracquaintances?Mainlybecausethemoralitytaught
inthewatsandschools,notonlystressestheinterpersonallevelasearliermentioned,butis
likelytobeconfinedtoone'simmediateacquaintances.Forexample,therearethe"six
directions,"afrequentlyheardteachinginThailand,whichstipulatemutualresponsibilityin
sixkindsofrelationship:therelationshipbetweenchildrenandparents,wifeandhusband,
studentandteacher,workerandboss,laypeopleandmonks,andfriendandfriend.(Notethat
fiveofthesesixpairsorrelationshipsare,traditionally,verticalones.)
Suchateachingiswellsuitedtothevillagecommunitywhereeverybodyknowseachother.
Modernsociety,however,ismorecomplicated.Indailylife,onedoesnotrelatewithonly
one'sacquaintances,butalsowithpeopleoutsideone'ssmallcircles.Untilnow,traditional
Buddhistteachinghasgivenlessimportancetothislatterkindofrelationship.Buddhistmoral
teachingshouldthereforeberedefinedtoincludebroaderrelationships.Ifthesixdirections
teachingistobeimproved,forexample,atleastonepairofrelationshipsessentialtothe
modernworld,shouldbeadded:sellerandbuyer.
Modernpeoplerelatetoeachothernotjustthroughinterpersonalrelationships,butalso
throughinstitutions,organizations,andsystemsthatareimpersonalinnature.Thaisociety
requiresmoralguidelinesfortheseimpersonalrelationshipsaswell.Buddhismshould
developthiskindofmoralityotherwiseitsinfluenceinThaisocietywillbelimited.
2.Developingsocialconsciousness
Socialconsciousnessheremeansconcernforsocietyandcommitmenttoitswelfare.There
aremanyBuddhistteachingssupportingthisattitude,thatis,teachingsonthewelfareofboth
oneselfandallothers.However,"others"hastraditionallybeendefinedaspersonsandnotas
societyasawhole.Thoughtherearemanyteachingsonobligationstothecommunity,
communityisusuallyunderstoodassmallunitslikeintimatefamiliarsandvillages,and
seldomasthebroaderunitofsociety.PartlybecauseThaisaremostfamiliarwith
relationshipsononlythepersonallevel,community,tothem,isalwaysconfinedtothatwhich
ispersonalizedorconsistsofpersonswithwhomtheyhavedirectrelationships.Such
familiar,tangiblecommunityisdifferentfromsociety,whichismoreabstract,consistsof
unknownpeople,andinvolvesimpersonalrelationships,thosethatresultfromorganizations
orsystems.
Teachingsonresponsibilitytocommunity,notonlyneedmoreemphasis,butalsoneedtobe
definedinbroadertermssoastoincludeallofsociety.Suitableteachingsforthispurpose
includethesevenconditionsofwelfare(aparihaniyadhamma),meritoriousactionthrough
renderingservices(veyyavaccamaya),andwillingnesstogiveahelpinghandtothe
community(kinkaraniyesudakkhata).Here,BuddhadasaBhikkhu'sideaofDhammic
Socialismismostrelevant:itsethicalsystememphasizesobligationtothesocietyandthe
goodofthewhole,notjustpersonalbenefitorthatofotherindividuals.
3.Expandingsocialrelationships
Amoralattitudeormoralunderstandingisbutonefactorinmoralbehavior.Anotherequally
importantfactorissocialrelationship.Thaipeopleapplymoralityinanarrowwaybecause
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theirsocialcirclesaresmalltheirsocialinteractionisusuallylimitedthepeoplewithwhom
theyalreadyhavepersonalrelationships.It'srarethatpeopleofdifferentbackgrounds,
professions,andlocalities,andwhohavenopreviouspersonalrelationship,willcome
togetherorworktogether.Socialinteractionsbasedoncommonobjectivesorideasismuch
lessfrequentthanthosebasedonexistingpersonalbonds.Unsurprisingly,cooperationona
widerscale,eitherformutualbenefitorpublicgood,israre.
Relationshipsconfinedtoone'sownsmallcirclesareconducivetoanarrowmind,whereas
expansive(horizontal)relationshipscontributetoa"civicmind."Expansiveengagement
helpsbroadenone'srealmofconcern:fromselfconcerntoconcernforothersfromconcern
forfamilytoconcernforcommunityandsociety(andtheworld)fromconcernforpeopleto
concernforallofnature.Withthisattitude,one'sownwelfareandthepublicwelfareare
consideredidenticalsinceonehasdevelopedastrongsensethatoneispartofsocietyand
societyispartofoneself.
It'sessentialthatBuddhistmonksandlaitysupportselfhelpgroupsofvariouskinds,from
Dhammastudygroups,tocooperatives,toorganizationsforenvironmentalconservationand
communitydevelopment.Monkscanplayanimportantroleinenlarginghorizontal
relationshipsamongpeople,throughcreatingandnurturingnetworksamongthesegroups.In
additiontohelpingbroadentheirattitudesandconcerns,expansivesocialrelationshipswill
developpeople'sconfidencetocarryoutpublicactivitiesonawiderscale.Asmentioned,
therearemanyBuddhistteachingsthatcanbeappliedtothiswork.
4.Buildingtrust
Trustbuildingisonesignificantbenefitofcollectiveactionandenlarginghorizontal
relationships.Makingacquaintancesandworkingtogetheraredirectsourcesoftrust.Trustis
alsostrengthenedbythenormofreciprocitydevelopedthroughregularcooperationand
networksofrelationships.Onceanormofreciprocityisestablished,defectorsand"free
riders"areeasilysanctionedbythepublic.Socialsanctionofdefectorsdevelopstrustand
confidenceamongpeopletocooperatewitheachother.Notjusttheresultofcooperation,
trustalsoencouragescooperation,eitherformutualbenefitorpublicgood.Cooperationis
impossibleifpeopledonottrusteachotherorsuspectthatopportunistswillexploittheir
efforts.Trustis,therefore,animportantformofsocialcapital.
Thepresenceorabsenceoftrustisnotpurelyamatterofattitude.Italsodependsonsocial
conditions.Inasocietywhereanormofreciprocityisestablishedandsocialsanctionsare
effectiveagainstthedefectorsandopportunists,theleveloftrustishigh.Hence,itisnot
enoughtopreachtopeopletotrusteachother.Appropriatesocialconditionshavetobe
developedaswell.Expandinghorizontalrelationships,throughdevelopingnetworksofcivic
engagement,isavitalconditionfortrust.Thiscanbestbedonefrompracticalgrassroots
activitiesinwhichpeopleworktogetherformutualbenefitsagreeduponbyall.Thetightand
widenetworkcontributesnotonlytoactiveandintensiveengagementamongpeoplebutis
alsoessentialforeffectivesanctionstowardthecheater.Inasocietywherehorizontal
relationshipsamongpeoplearenarrow,andcivicengagementislow,trustisweakandsois
cooperationforsociety'swelfare.[15]
Theabovehelpsexplainwhytheattitudeof"everyoneforoneself"issoprevalentinThailand
today.Trustislow.Soissociety'scapacitytoimposeahighcostonthedefectorsand
cheaterssincetheyhaveweaktiesandlowengagementwithsociety.Corruptpoliticians,
bureaucrats,businessmen,otherelites,includingsomemonks,increasetheproblemby
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capitalizingonthisweakness.Thus,anetworkofengagementandexpansivehorizontal
relationshipsisneededforThaisociety.Itwillincreasethecapacityofsocietytopunishthe
defectorsandthusfostertrustamongitsmembers.Withahighleveloftrust,peoplehave
moreincentivetocooperatewithothers,beyondtheirsmallcirclesofpersonalacquaintances.
Again,forBuddhismtobeaneffectivemoralforceinThaisociety,itneedstodomorethan
justpreachaboutmorality.Italsoneedstohelpcreatethesocialconditionsrequiredtosustain
andsupportthemoralityitpreaches.Thiscanbeachievedthroughbroadeninghorizontal
relationships,thatis,supportingselfhelpgroups,communitycooperation,andcreating
networksamongdiversecommunities.Forastart,themonksmustlearntodevelopsuch
networksamongthemselvesonlocalandmoredistantlevels,andthenexpandthenetworksto
includevillagers,NGOs,progressivebusinesspeople,andothers.
FreeSocietyfromConsumerism
Thepromotionofmoralityasmentionedaboveemphasizescooperationandconcernforthe
welfareofothers.InBuddhistteachings,thisismainlycategorizedundersila.Tobefirm,
sila.mustbebasedonsamadhi(astrong,welltrained,integratedmind)andpanna(wisdom).
Moralitypromotionhastogiveimportancetotheworldviewandmentalqualitiesofpeople
tobesuccessful.
Buddhismcanplayasignificantroleinbothareas.Thaisocietyalsoneedsthiscontribution
fromBuddhism,sinceThaisarenowoverwhelmedbyconsumerism,whichisbecominga
kindofreligion,onedevoidofwisdomandpeaceofmind.Sufferingandconflictin
relationshipsareincreasinglyintensifiedoneverylevelbecauseoftheselfishconsumerist
worldviewandvalues.
ThaisocietyneedsaBuddhistperspectivetoreplaceconsumerism.Fordecades,theformer
hasbeensubjugatedbythelatter.Itnowshouldberevivedandpresentedinawayrelevantto
themodernworld.Thereisnowincreasinginterestindynamism,forexample,thedynamic
andholisticnatureofBuddhistperspectives.Itsspiritualperspectivesarealsoneededto
balancetheextremematerialismprevailingtoday.
Buddhistvaluessuchasnonviolence,selfcontentment,andfreedomofmindarenoless
important.Theseperspectivesandtheirvaluesystemshouldbedevelopedasaworldviewfor
society.Theyshouldbeintegratedasagoalforlifeanddirectionforsociety,constitutinga
basisforcollectivevisionandstrategy.Concretelyspeaking,insteadofaimingforthe
unlimitedgrowthofwealthandconsumption,societyshouldtakemeaningfulhappinessanda
higherqualityoflifeasitsgoal.
Forthistobepossible,abodyofknowledgebasedonBuddhistperspectivesandthe
correspondingvaluesystemhastobedevelopedtoofferanalternativeexplanationofreality
andtoprovidepracticalsolutionstoexistingproblems.Fortunately,duetoitsemphasison
naturallawandexperience,Buddhismcandrawonthemoreusefulcontributionsofscience
inthisendeavor.Yet,withoutcreatingitsownbodyofknowledge,anideacannotdevelop
intoaneffectivesocietalworldview.Buddhismmustbetruetoitself.
ReplacingconsumeristideologywithaBuddhistworldviewisessentialforfreeingsociety
fromconsumerismanditssourcecapitalism.ItwouldsimultaneouslystrengthenBuddhism.
Buddhistweaknesses,eitherontheleveloforthodoxyorinstitutions,are,toalargedegree,
theresultoftheconsumeristinvasion.IfBuddhismcannotliberateitselffromconsumerism,it
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hasnofuture.ThebestwaytodothisistohelpThaisocietybefreefromconsumerism,too.
DualMission
Anindividual'swelfareandthewelfareofothersareintimatelyrelated.HelpingThaisociety
tobefreefromthegripofconsumerismisthebestwaytohelpBuddhismitself.Similarly,
strengtheningThaisocietywillstrengthenBuddhismtoo.Thismeansthatreforming
Buddhism,asalreadymentioned,mustgohandinhandwithreformingsociety.Thelatteris
vitalforthewelfareofBuddhismbecausethereorganizationoftheSanghaisalmost
impossiblewithoutsupportandpressurefromsocietyatlarge.IfThaisocietyremainsweak,
lacksproperunderstandingofBuddhism,andhasnoconcernforpublicaffairs,wecannot
expectsociety'ssupportinthereformofBuddhism.
Buddhistreformcannotbeseparatedfromsocialreformtheyare"dualmissions"that
concernedpeoplemustcarryouttogether.Thecivilsocietymovement,arecentattemptto
createastrongersociety,mustgiveprioritytothereformofBuddhismsinceBuddhismhas
suchgreatpotentialtohelpliberatecivilsocietyfromthedominationofstateandcapital.
ReformingBuddhismistheonlywaytoliberateitspotentialtosupportcivilsociety.
ThisarticlebeganwiththequestionofhowBuddhismcanbeastrongmoralforceforThai
society.Buddhism,indeclinefordecades,haslostthatstatus.Restoringthewholenessofthe
teachingandreorganizingtheSanghaisthefirststageinrevivingBuddhism.Itneedsto
reformitsroleinsociety,too.Intheend,itsnewroleinhelpingtoelevatesocietywillinturn
helpelevateitselfoutofitsdeclineandthusbecomemoreviable.
ThisdoublemissionchallengingThaiBuddhismwillbeadecisivefactorindeterminingthe
statusandfateofThaiBuddhisminthenextcentury.
IwouldliketooffermysincerestthankstoSucittoBhikkhuandothersatDawnKiamfor
theirhelpineditingthisarticle.
PreviouslypublishedinSociallyEngagedBuddhismfortheNewMillennium(Bangkok:
SanthirakosesNagapradipaFoundation&FoundationforChildren,1999)
NOTES:
[1]Henceforthreferredtosimplyas"theSangha",accordingtoTheravadacustom.
[2]DavidK.Wyatt,Thailand:AShortHistory(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1984),
217
[3]KingMongkutcriticizedtraditionalteachingsthatevokeimagesofhellandheaven"asif
threateningwithhell,luringwithheaven."
[4]HewasperhapsthefirstThaitoinitiatethebirthdayparty(forhimself),reasoningthat
longevityisoneofthe"highestgains."Tocelebratethebirthofoneofhissons,theblessing
hegavewasonlyforworldlyhappiness,departingfromthetraditionpracticedbyhis
predecessors.
[5]Concerningthosewhoattainnibbana,heoncementionedthat"thereisnopersonlikethat
nowadays."
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[6]PrinceWachirayan'ssect,ThammayutikaNikaya,playedasignificantroleinpromoting
thisorthodoxythroughoutthecountry.ThoughPhraAjarnManPhurithattoandhisdisciples
belongtothissect,theirmeditativestyleofpracticeandemphasisontherealizationof
nibbana,hadnoinfluenceontheofficialorthodoxypropagatedfromBangkok.Theywere
mainlyontheperipheryoftheSanghaand,oftentimes,werecriticizedandthreatenedbythe
hierarchyoftheirownsect.Despitebeingrespectedbythehierarchylater,theirpopularity
amongpeoplewasused,bothbythemonasticandstatehierarchies,topromoteSangha
consolidationandnationalintegrationinremoteareas,especiallyinthenortheastwherethey
werebased.SeeJ.L.Taylor,ForestMonksandtheNationState(Singapore:ISEAS,1993).
[7]ConcerningtheconflictbetweenthelocalmonksandmonksrepresentingtheBangkok
hierarchy,andhowtheformerwerelatersubjugatedanddomesticated,seeKamala
Tiyavanich,ForestRecollections(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1997).
[8]YoneoIshii,Sangha,StateandSociety(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1986),94.
[9]AsimilarprocesshasoccurredinrecentdecadeswithsectsliketheDhammakaya
movementandcapitalism.
[10]SrisupornChuangsakun,KwamPlianPlankongKanaSong:SuksaKaranee
ThammayutikaNikaya[TheChangeintheSangha:CaseStudyofThammayutikaSect]
(Bangkok:ChulalongkornUniversity,1986).
[11]SuwannaSathaanan,PuttathaminRatThai[BuddhismintheThaiState](Bangkok:Thai
KhadiInstitute,1986).
[12]TheThaiwordsaksitisderivedbycombiningsakdi(status)andsiddhi(power),bothof
whicharemoreHinduinmeaningandoriginthanBuddhist.Thedefinitionof"thesacred"
givenhereispurposefullyasbroadaspossibleandattemptstospantheentirespectrumof
whatpeopletaketobesacred,someofwhicharediscussedbelow.Thisdefinitionalso
includesnibbanaasunderstoodinthePaliSuttas.Atthispoint,weneednotdistinguish
clearlybetweenthetrulysacredanditssublimationsandperversions(asunderstoodby
Buddhism).
[13]BuddhadasaBhikkhu,PutthasatkapSayasat[BuddhismandSuperstition]publisherand
datenotgiven.
[14]Thesixdirectionsrepresentdutiestowardparents,spouseandchildren,teachers,friends,
servantsandemployees,andspiritualguides.
[15]Seetherelationshipamongtrust,cooperation,andnetworksofcivicengagementin
RobertD.Putnam,MakingDemocracyWork(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,
1994).
PhraPhaisanVisalo
ExecutiveCommitteePhraSekhiyadhamma
email:psvisa@operamail.com
ooOoo
Source:BuddhistPeaceFellowship,http://www.bpf.org
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