Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

FOCUS ON ESSAY
BIOLOGY SEMESTER 3
Chapter 1: Gas Exchange
Learning objectives:
Structure of human respiratory system.
Structure of haemoglobin.
1.

(a) Explain how gaseous exchange takes place in the alveolar surface. [6]
(b) Describe the properties of haemoglobin that make them efficient in
transporting oxygen.
[6]
-

Air is drawn into the alveolus by the expansion of the walls of lungs because of the
negative pressure in the thoracic cavity.
Changes take place in the blood due to the low concentration of carbon dioxide in
the air.
HCO3- ions enter red blood cells, changed into H2CO3 and dissociate into water and
carbon dioxide gas which diffuses into alveolar space.
At the same time, oxygen from the air dissolves in the moisture lining of the inner
surface of alveolus.
Then into the red blood cells through the alveolar wall and capillary wall.
In the red blood cells, oxygen molecules bind with the haem group of haemoglobin
to form oxyhaemoglobin.
There is always a concentration gradient between the gas in the blood and alveolar
space by the rhythmic expansion and contraction of the alveolar walls.
Each haemoglobin has four haem groups to bind with four molecules of oxygen,
forming oxyhaemoglobin.
Very little oxygen is released when oxygen is transported through the arteries.
Can maintain a high saturation of oxygen (80%) because the change in partial
pressure of oxygen in the arteries is little.
Releases the oxygen to the tissues for respiration where there is a sharp drop of
saturation of oxygen.
Adapted not to deprive the tissues of sudden loss of oxygen because further drop
in partial pressure would cause a slow release of oxygen.
Release more oxygen when there is a higher concentration of H+ caused by higher
carbon dioxide concentration to supply more oxygen to the respiring tissues.
Foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen which enables it to get oxygen
from the mothers blood.

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Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

2.
-

Describe the structure of haemoglobin and how it carries oxygen.

[7]

Haemoglobin is a conjugated protein with haem group.

Haemoglobin has a quarternary structure.
It is made up of 4 polypeptide chains, which are 2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains.
It binds with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
The hydrophobic crevice of the polypeptide chain contains a haem group, with an
iron (Fe2+).
When the first oxygen molecule binds to the haem group, it causes a conformation
change in the haem group.
The affinity of the other haem groups for oxygen increases.
Haemoglobin shows cooperative oxygen binding.
Learning objectives:
Transport of oxygen
Bohr effect.

3.

(a)
(b)

Describe the transport of oxygen in human body.

Explain what is meant by Bohr effect.

[8]
[5]

Oxygen does not dissolve well in blood and body fluids.

Almost all oxygen (98.5%) is carried by haem groups of the haemoglobin.
Blood saturated with oxygen at very low partial pressure, this is called high affinity
of haemoglobin for oxygen.
O2 high; lung
Hb + 4O2
Hb(O2)4
O2 low, tissues
Initially slow uptake of oxygen molecules by haemoglobin.
Binding of the first oxygen alters the structure of haemoglobin.
Facilitate the binding of second and third oxygen molecules.
Give an exponential graph.
Dissociation of carbonic acid in the red blood cells causes an increase in the
concentration of hydrogen ions, resulting in the drop in pH.
This results in the oxyhaemoglobin dissociating to release haemoglobin which
binds with the excess H+ ions to form haemoglobinic acid, HHb, as a buffering
effect.
Increase in carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of oxyhaemoglobin
dissociation.

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Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

Thus, increasing the carbon dioxide concentration reduces the affinity of

haemoglobin towards oxygen, which is called the Bohr effect.
Bohr effect results in a shift of oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin to the
right.

Learning objective:
- Control of breathing mechanism.
4.
-

Explain the regulation of breathing in human.

[10]

The breathing mechanism is controlled by the breathing centre located in the

medulla oblongata.
The breathing centre consists of inspiratory centre and expiratory centre.
The inspiratory centre sends impulses to the outer intercostal muscles and
diaphragm bringing about contraction while the inner intercostal muscle relaxes.
This results in an increase in volume of the thoracic cavity, bringing about
inspiration.
Alveoli and bronchioles expand during inspiration stimulate the stretch receptors
within the walls of alveoli and bronchioles to send impulses to the expiratory centre.
The expiratory centre sends inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory centre.
The inspiratory stops sending impulses to the diaphragm and outer intercostal
muscles causing them to relax.
This brings about a decrease in the volume of thoracic cavity resulting in expiration.
When the volume in the alveoli and bronchioles are reduced, the stretch receptors
are no longer stimulated to fire inhibitory impulses to the expiratory centre.
Inspiratory centre one again sends impulses to the diaphragm and outer intercostal
muscles bringing about contraction and inspiration. The cycle is repeated.

Learning objectives:
Structure and function of stomata.
Opening and closing of stomata.
5.

(a)

With the aid of a labelled diagram, explain

(i) the structure of a stoma,
[2]
(ii) the mechanism of stomata opening and closing based on the
potassium ions accumulation hypotheses.
[8]
(b) Outline the environmental factors which influence the opening and
closing of stomata.
[5]
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Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

Opening of stoma
- Potassium ions, K+ are pumped from subsidiary cells into the guard cells. H+ are
pumped out of the subsidiary cells to maintain the electroneutrality.
- The increase of K+ and sugar (from photosynthesis) concentrations makes the water
potential of the guard cells more negative.
- Water from subsidiary cells diffuse into guard cells.
- The resultant increase in hydrostatic pressure causes the guard cells to become
turgid.
- The uptake of water causes increase bowing of the guard cells (owing to the greater
expansion of the outer wall than the inner wall) and the stoma open.
Closing of stoma
- K+ ions are actively transported out from the guard cells into the subsidiary cells,
H+ ions are transported into the guard cells.
- Photosynthesis does not occur and the carbon dioxide concentration increases and
the pH of guard cells fall.
- Sugar is converted into insoluble starch, therefore the water potential of guard cells
increases.
-

Light/ blue light stimulates guard cells to accumulate potassium and becomes turgid,
thus stoma open.
Light also promotes photosynthesis in guard cells chloroplasts making ATP
available for active transport of H+.
Increase in temperature promotes stoma opening.
Air movement
During dehydration (water stress), the guard cells lose turgidity and stoma close.
Mesophyll cells produce hormone abscisic acid which signals the guard cells to
close.
Depletion of CO2 within the air spaces of the leaves causes stoma to open.
Moisture/ humidity.
Copyright: ccy/SMKSI/2015

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Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

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STPM-format Questions
Instruction: Answer all questions.

Oxygen saturation percentage

of haemoglobin

1.
The graph below shows the effects of acid on the dissociation curve of oxygen
for rat.
100
pH = 7
50
pH < 7

|
5

|
10

|
15

Partial pressure of oxygen (kPa)

(a) Review the effect of the increase of the acidity on the oxygen dissociation
curve.
[1 mark]
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Why does pH changes in the respiring tissues?
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Describe the benefit of the Bohr effect from the physiological aspect.
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) Describe the decreasing effects of the partial pressure of oxygen in the
oxygen saturation percentage of haemoglobin for the rats.
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(e) State three ways on how carbon dioxide can be expelled from the respiring
tissues.
[3 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

2.

The diagram below shows structures involved in human breathing control.

P:
Q:
R:
S:

(a) Name the structures labelled P, Q, R and S.

[2 marks]
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

P:
S:

(b) Explain the role of P and S in the control of breathing.

[2 marks]
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

(c) Name two main stimuli which affect the rate of breathing.
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d)

(i) What happens to the breathing rate when we exercise? Explain.

[3 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) Describe how the breathing rate is brought back to normal. [2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

Percentage saturation of
haemoglobin

3.
The diagram below shows the oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin in
pigeons, humans and annelids living in muddy swamps.
100
80
K

60
40
20
0

|
10

|
20

|
30

|
40

|
50

|
60

|
70

|
80

Partial pressure of O2 / mm Hg

(a) Identify which oxygen dissociation curve represents the pigeons, humans
and annelids.
[3 marks]
Curve K: ___________________________________________________________
Curve L: ___________________________________________________________
Curve M: ___________________________________________________________
(b)
Curve K:

Explain your answers in (a).

[6 marks]
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Curve L: ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Curve M: ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(c)

Name the phenomenon which results in the curve being S-shaped.

[1 mark]
_____________________________________________________________________

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