Lecture 7.

Imperfections in Solids (2)

Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to do the following:

1. What type of defects exist in solids?

2. Can the number and type of defects be varied and controlled?
3. What are the solidification mechanisms?
4. How do defects affect material properties?
5. Are defects undesirable?

Reading
Chapter 4: Imperfection in Solids (4.54.10)

Multimedia
Virtual Materials Science & Engineering (VMSE):
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/CL_EWSTU01031_S/vmse/
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Lecture 7 - 1

Line Defects
Dislocations:
are line defects,
slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move,
produce permanent (plastic) deformation.

Schematic of Zinc (HCP):

before deformation

after tensile elongation

slip steps

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Lecture 7 - 2

Imperfections in Solids
Linear Defects (Dislocations)
Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are
misaligned (due to presence of an extra portion of plane of
atoms or half plane)

Edge dislocation:
extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure
b perpendicular () to dislocation line

Screw dislocation:
spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
b parallel (||) to dislocation line
Burgers vector, b: measure of lattice distortion

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Lecture 7 - 3

Imperfections in Solids
Edge Dislocation

Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
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Fig. 4.4, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Adapted from

A. G. Guy, Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, NY, 1976, p. 153.)
Lecture 7 - 4

Imperfections in Solids
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation

Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b

(b)
(a)
Adapted from Fig. 4.5, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
[Figure (b) from W. T. Read, Jr.,Dislocations in Crystals,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1953.]

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Lecture 7 - 5

Edge, Screw, and Mixed Dislocations

Mixed

Edge
Screw
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Adapted from Fig. 4.6, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

[Figure (b) from W. T. Read, Jr., Dislocations in Crystals,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1953.]

Lecture 7 - 6

Imperfections in Solids
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs

Fig. 4.7, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Courtesy of M. R. Plichta, Michigan
Technological University.)

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Lecture 7 - 7

Dislocations & Crystal Structures

Structure: close-packed
planes & directions
are preferred.
close-packed plane (bottom)

view onto two

close-packed
planes.

close-packed directions
close-packed plane (top)

Comparison among crystal structures:

FCC

FCC: many close-packed planes/directions;

HCP: only one plane, 3 directions;
BCC: none
Mg (HCP)

Specimens that
were tensile
tested.
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BCC

Brittle fracture

tensile direction

Al (FCC)
Ductile fracture
Lecture 7 - 8

Catalysts and Surface Defects

A catalyst increases the
rate of a chemical
reaction without being
consumed
Active sites on catalysts
are normally surface
defects

Fig. 4.11, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Single crystals of
(Ce0.5Zr0.5)O2
used in an automotive
catalytic converter
Fig. 4.12, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
[From W. J. Stark, L. Mdler, M. Maciejewski, S. E.
Pratsinis, and A. Baiker, Flame Synthesis of
Nanocrystalline Ceria/Zirconia: Effect of Carrier
Liquid, Chem. Comm., 588589 (2003). Reproduced
by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.]

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Lecture 7 - 9

Microscopic Examination
Crystallites (grains) and grain boundaries.
Vary considerably in size. Can be quite large.
ex: Large single crystal of quartz or diamond or Si
ex: Aluminum light post or garbage can - see the
individual grains

Crystallites (grains) can be quite small (mm or

less) necessary to observe with a
microscope.

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Lecture 7 - 10

Optical Microscopy
Useful up to 2000X magnification.
Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
orientation.

crystallographic planes

0.75 mm
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Courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.

Fig. 4.14(b) & (c), Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Micrograph of
brass (a Cu-Zn alloy)

Lecture 7 - 11

Optical Microscopy
Grain boundaries...
are imperfections,
are more susceptible
to etching,
may be revealed as
dark lines,
change in crystal
orientation across
boundary.

polished surface
surface groove
grain boundary
(a)
Fig. 4.15(a) & (b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
[Fig. 4.15(b) is courtesy of L.C.
Smith and C. Brady, the National
Bureau of Standards, Washington,
DC (now the National Institute of
Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD).]

Fe-Cr alloy
(b)
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Lecture 7 - 12

Electron Microscopy
Optical resolution ca. 10-7 m = 0.1 m = 100 nm
For higher resolution need higher frequency
X-Rays? Difficult to focus.
Electrons
wavelengths ca. 3 pm (0.003 nm)
(Magnification - 1,000,000X)

Atomic resolution possible

Electron beam focused by magnetic lenses.
e.g. - Transmission electron microscope and
scanning electron microscope.

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Lecture 7 - 13

Scanning Tunneling Microscope

(STM)
Employs a tiny probe with a sharp tip.
Raster scans the surface
Photos produced from the
work of C.P. Lutz,
Zeppenfeld, and D.M. Eigler.
Reprinted with permission
from International Business
Machines Corporation,
copyright 1995.

Carbon monoxide
molecules arranged
on a platinum (111)
surface.

Iron atoms arranged

on a copper (111)
surface. These Kanji
characters represent
the word atom.

Atoms can be arranged and imaged!

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Lecture 7 - 14

Summary
Line defects Screw and Edge Dislocations.
Defects may be desirable or undesirable (e.g., dislocations
may be good or bad, depending on whether plastic
deformation is desirable or not).
Microscopic Examination of Defects Optical and
Electron Microscopy

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Lecture 7 - 15

Homework 3
1. Describe both vacancy and self-interstitial crystalline defects.
2. Calculate fraction of atom sites that are vacant for Cu at its melting temperature
of 1084 deg C (1357 K). Assume energy of vacancy formation of 0.90 eV/atom.
Repeat this calculation at room temperature (298 K).
3. Is it possible for three or more elements to form a solid solution. Explain your
answer.
4. Home Ruthery Law: Using Table in Lecture 6.Which of these elements would
you expect to form the following with copper:
(a) A substitutional solid solution having complete solubility
(b) A substitutional solid solution of incomplete solubility
(c) An interstitial solid solution

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Lecture 7 - 16

Homework 3
5. For each of edge, screw, and mixed dislocations:
(a) describe and make a drawing of the dislocation;
(b) note the location of the dislocation line; and
(c) indicate the direction along which the dislocation line extends.
6. For an FCC crystal would you expect the surface energy for a (100) to be
greater or less than that of (111) plane . Explain why.
7. Explain what preparations are necessary for observation of the grain structure of
a polycrystalline material with an optical microscope.
8. Name and briefly describe the operation of each of the two types of electron
microscopes. How are they different from Scanning Probe Microscope.

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Lecture 7 - 17