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1. Introduction
Numerous accounting studies have addressed the question of why accounting
choices are made. The private sector has developed a body of literature and
empirical findings into a positive theory of accounting (Watts and Zimmerman
1986, p. 14). The governmental
accounting researchers have also addressed
accounting choice and quality of financial reporting questions; however, few
empirical studies have been conducted which focus on the unique aspects of the
governmental
institutional
environment.
Government
accounting researchers
(Zimmerman
1977, p. 133; Baber 1983, p. 221; Baber and Sen 1984, pp.
102-103; Evans and Patton 1983, pp. 168-173; Evans and Patton 1987, p.
148; Ingram 1984, p. 139; Magann 1983, pp. 30-40; Robbins and Austin
1986, p. 418; Banker et al. 1989, p. 37; Giroux 1989, p. 211) have recognized
Address
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WI 53201
(I992)
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the intercorrelation
of several economic and political measures with accounting
choice. These researchers used various measures of accounting disclosure
choice, making it difficult to compare the research findings. In addition, due to
multicollinearity
among the independent
variables,
data reduction methods
resulted in different measures being used for similar constructs in each
analysis. As a result of the differences in the selection of measures for both the
dependent and independent constructs, identifying specific variables that are
most important for explaining accounting choice has been problematic.
A
summary of governmental
accounting disclosure choice research is presented
in Table 1. A review of this table confirms the use of different variables for
similar constructs and the resulting lack of comparability of findings.
The purpose of my study is to integrate the findings of prior accounting
research with both the theoretical and empirical work in political science,
public choice, and public administration.
State accounting policy choices and
decisions to report financial information
are posited in my study to be
influenced by a number of factors in the political environment.
The political
science literature has introduced a wide array of social, economic, cultural,
political, and institutional
variables as potential factors influencing
public
policy in different political systems. In addition, the literature on public choice
provides an analysis of the complex political environment and is important to
my study for its explanation of why voters, interest groups, politicians, and
bureaucrats should be viewed as dominant actors in government decisions to
adopt particular accounting practices. The complementary theories in political
science and public choice literature provide a necessary basis on which to
model voter/politician,
voter/interest-group,
interest-group/politician/bureaucrat, and politician/bureaucrat
relationships and their effect on the outcome of
accounting disclosure choices, This body of research also helps to explain why
assumptions
in the models of prior accounting
studies may have led to
conflicting results.3 Integration of the complementary
theories of the political
environment with accounting research to date should provide additional insight
into state government financial reporting choices.
McCormick and Tollison (1981, pp. I- 12) provide a discussion of the unique characteristics
of the
political (market) environment,
the complexity of the government
agency relationships,
and differences
that exist in the constraints that are imposed on self-interested
agents in the political setting from those in
th5 capital markets.
See Mueller (1979, 1989) for a comprehensive
review of the vast public choice literature. See Dye
and Gray (1980) for a comprehensive
review of the development
of determinant
research in political
science.
3 Ingram (1984, pp. 138%l39), Baber (1983, p. 22l), and Baber and Sen (1983, p. 105) recognized
the
intercorrelation
of several economic and political measures in their research. Data reduction techniques
and ad hoc selection of measures for similar constructs were employed. As a result, it is difficult to
interpret their findings and identify the specific variables
that are most important
for explaining
accounting practice choices. My study employs a path diagram to sort out these relationships.
Institutional measures are included to interpret the link that management control of the accounting system may
have to accounting practices and the mediating effect of the bureaucracy on accounting policy decisions.
Length of
report,
Audited and
by whom
Form of
Political
government*-Factors
mayor YS.
-Form
of
manager
government
Independent
Variables
-Audttor
-Financial
ability
-Managerial
ability
Capacity
Cays
Internal
Officials
wages
Controlled
for:
PaflY *
--Voter
tUrnoUt
-..
agent
renumeration
PolitIcal
PaflY*
--Yoter
turnout
held by
minority
--Seats
--seats
held by
minorIt>
Polittcal
competmon
Participation
fund
-Profe\\lonally
acttve off&al*
-PrlW
participation*
Quahty of
Management
Form of
government*mayor I.
manager
CCP
Ctty
Evans and
Patton (1983)
GAAFR
State
Babcr and
Sen (1984)
Choice Research
Political
competitlon
state
Audit
Budget
state
Baber
(1983)
Dtsclosure
CPA
mayor YS.
manager
Audit Opinion,
MFOA Certlf.
* pages,
# exhibits,
Timeliness,
city
City
Magatltl
(1983)
Accountmg
Dependent
Variable(s)
Zimmerman
(1977)
of Government
system
Political
Study
Table 1. Summary
--
Management
-Accountant/
audttor selection*.
Administrator
Select10n
-Appomtivc
power*
COalltloll
of Voters
-Polltlcal
competition*
-Urbanization*
-Income*
-Educatwn
Index
Number of
pGKt,ces
state
Ingram
(1984)
\--
Income
Form of
government*mayor v\.
manager
Compound
Index and
Ingram (1984)
Index
Ctty
Robbtns and
Austtn (1986)
_-
CFO \alary*
CFO education
Profc\\lonally
active CFO
Prmr CCP
participation*
^-
Revemwwdent
Enrollment
mayor v.5
manager
ma>or 5.
milnager
PolItIcal
competition
Form of
government*-
-=~
budget
and statlstlC\
indice
Income
Average
tax*
competttion
POlltlCd
manager
Form of
governmentmayor \.
PensIon &
benefit,
city
Ciiroux
(1989)
Ingram tndcx.
Essential practice
School dtstnct
Banker. Bunch,
and Strau\\ (1989)
Form 01
government*--
CCP
Partlclpatlon
oty
Elan\ and
Patton (1987)
system
Polittcal
Study
Size
Controlled
for-
city
Ztmmerman
(1977)
Table 1. Continued
-Size*
-Financial
data
-Demographic
Population
size
Citys
Internal
Needs
-scope
-Complexity
Legislature
New debt
Federal
funds
State
Baber
(1983)
-Legislature
regulation*
-state
External
Constraints
-contracts
City
Ma&Q
(1983)
Turnover*
statutory
barriers
Debt
state
Baber and
Se (1984)
Population*
Debt*
Ctty
Evans and
Patton (1983)
Alternative
Information
-Newspaper
circulation
-Population
reYee
-Debt
--IntergLlerlet
state
Ingram
(1984)
firm we*
Population
Audit
Debt*
Intergovernment
revenue*
City
Robbins and
Austin (1986)
Population*
State GAAP*
Debt*
Tax revenue
complexity
city
Evans and
Patton (1987)
State GAAP*
Independent
Debt*
IntergOe~Xt
rwenuc
School district
Banker, Bunch.
and Strauss (1989)
CPA*
State GAAP
audit opmion
Tax revenue
complexfity
city
Glroux
(1989)
A politico-economic
model, including measures for factors hypothesized to
influence accounting disclosure, is developed and tested in my study. As many
of the relationships and concepts are not new, this is an attempt to integrate
these relationships
into a broader analysis. Due to the complexity of the
political context, analysis of covariance
structures (causal modeling),
frequently called LISREL (Linear Structural RELations),
is selected for this
study. The advantage of this approach to data analysis is that it is not necessary
to assume perfectly measured variables. A distinction is made between theoretical variables and their indicators. LISREL can be described as a combination
of multiple regression and factor analysis. It combines two statistical traditions:
the structural model from econometrics and the measurement, or factor, model
from psychometrics.
The strength of LISREL is its ability to generate measures of theoretical
constructs by using several nonperfect indicators for each of these inherently
complex constructs. The method assumes that there is a causal structure among
a set of theoretical,
or latent, variables.
The latent variables appear as
underlying causes of the observed variables, i.e., indicators (Joreskog and
Sorbom 1986, p. 3). The model specifies the structural relationships among the
latent variables. In addition, the model provides for the estimation of the
measurement relations between the latent variables and their respective empirical indicators.
The use of LISREL for my study is important in order to expand upon prior
research which has relied on single measures for factors hypothesized to
influence accounting choice. This technique was developed especially to deal
with the complex measurement and structural modeling problems of the social
sciences, particularly psychology, economics, and sociology. LISREL is highly
regarded in other disciplines.
Its adoption could also serve to improve our
understanding of accounting choice in state governments.
My paper is organized as follows. A model to explain accounting disclosure
choice is developed from prior research in the next section. The research
method is explained in Section 3. Results of the statistical analysis are included
in Section 4. Conclusions
are made based on the results of the study,
with appropriate discussion of limitations and plans for future extensions in
Section 5.
and
A review of the literature suggests that accounting policy choices are not
simply a function of economic or political factors, but are a result of legislative/governor/bureaucratic
decisions shaped by voter preferences,
interestgroup pressures, party competition, institutional forces, external demands and
constraints, and the financial condition of the states. In the following discus-
sion,
1. Socioeconomic
factors
2. Political system factors
3. Characteristics of the bureaucracy
4. Factors that represent other external
demands
and constraints
Factors within these broad categories are called latent constructs. Each is
inherently complex and no single measure is likely to fully characterize each
latent construct. Thus, sets of potentially important observable measures are
suggested from the literature.
State Government
Accounting
Table 2. Comparison
Accounting
Practice
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Disclosure
of 1986 Practices
with
1978 Practices
Number of States
Adopting Practice
Description
1978
1986
35
34
44
32
29
18
18
17
13
8
8
7
4
44
38
32
21
36
25
22
25
12
12
39
A comparison of the number of states following each of the above major accounting practices is
indicated for the years 1978 and 1986. The 1978 practice data was reported in the Council of State
Governments
(1980) survey and summarized by Ingram (1984, Tables 2 and 3, pp. 132, 135). The 1986
data for the same twelve practices Ingram used in his 1984 study was developed by this author from an
analysis of the 1986 Comprehensive
Annual Financial Report (CAFR) of each of the 50 states. The
accounting disclosure choice indices used in my study are calculated from the above information.
Ingram
(1984, pp. 131- 134) calculated an index of disclosure choice based on the extent to which the practices
were adopted by each state. Each state was given a number representing the number of practices (from
the twelve listed) that were adopted (Ingram 1984, p. 134). I developed a 1986 practice index for my
study based on the same twelve practice categories as found in Ingram (1984, pp. 134- 135). The states
1986 annual financial reports were examined to determine the extent to which each state adopted each of
the above practices.
This information
was used to compile the 1986 practice index of accounting
disclosure choice. The accounting practice number and description were the same used by Ingram (1984,
p. 135) in his Table 3.
disclosure as suggested from the literature. Results of this analysis should lead
to a better understanding of the political environment and the complex linkages
among social, political, and economic factors, and disclosure practices. It will
also provide a comparison of factors that may help to explain disclosure
practices in 1986 with those that explain 1978 disclosure practices.
cian. The political system, comprised of voter, interest groups, and elected
politicians, is an important domain for the study of public policy decisions and
may also contribute to the study of accounting choice. The complex agency
relationships found in the political arena have been discussed by Downs (1957,
pp. 138-141); McCormick and Tollison (1981, pp. I-12); and Bendor and
Moe (1985, p. 757).
Measures for political competition, interest-group strength, and measures for
two key political actors, i.e., the governor and legislature
(that have a
significant role in the decision making of state government) are selected. As
discussed above, both interest groups and political parties organize individuals
to make claims upon government (Moorehouse 1981, pp. lOO- 101). However,
these two forms of political organization differ. The political party has a basic
function to organize a majority of citizens for the purpose of governing and is
less concerned with policy issues (Downs 1957, p. 137). Interest groups seek
to influence specific policies of government and give expression to the interests
of minority groups (McCormick
and Tollison 1981, pp. I- 12). Previous
accounting studies (e.g., Baber 1983, p. 217; Baber and Sen 1984, p. 96;
Ingram 1984, p. 131) have looked at the effects of interest groups or political
competition on accounting choice, but no study has used both forms of political
organization.
The governor and legislature must respond to the demands of
individual voters and interest groups. Prior research (e.g., Abney and Lauth
1986, p. 64; Brudney and Hebert 1987, p. 199; Moorehouse
1981, pp.
203-305;
Schlesinger 1971, pp. 220-234;
Stigler 1976, p. 31; McCormick
and Tollison 1981, pp. 61-77, pp. 113-121) suggests that characteristics of
these political actors, discussed later, will influence public policy outcomes and
may also help to explain accounting disclosure practices.
Political Competition
The general political environment of a state is defined by Baber (1983, p. 215)
as the strength of opposition that a political entrepreneur expects to encounter
in future elections. It is assumed in political science literature that strong
party competition and the accompanying
prospect of close partisan elections
will provide an incentive for the governor and legislators to exercise influence
over the bureaucracy (Dye and Robey 1980, p. 7; Schlesinger 1971, p. 227).
My study depicts political competition
as positively related to financial
disclosure because of incentives political participants
have to monitor the
behavior of the opposition in order to maximize the number of votes in an
election (see Downs 1957, p. 138). The impact of political competition will
manifest in pressures placed on the political structures to disclose accounting
information.
Many of the prior studies in political science and accounting have used the
degree of interparty competition (in political science, Dawson and Robinson
10
1963, p. 276; Dye 1966, p. 296; Plotnick and Winters 1985, p. 463; and in
accounting, Ingram 1984, p. 137; Baber 1983, p. 217; Baber and Sen 1984, p.
96), partisan control of state government (Ranney 1976, p. 61; Klass 1980, p.
146, Baber and Sen 1984, p. 96), and the level of voter turnout (Dye 1966, p.
258; Baber 1983, p. 217; Baber and Sen 1384, p. 96) as typical characteristics
of the political system which influence public policy. Consistent with this
research, indicators chosen for my study are: 1) an index of interparty
competition
developed by Ranney (1976, pp. 51-60) and recalculated by
Bibby et al. (1983, p. 66); 2) percentage of seats held by minority party in the
legislature; and 3) percentage vote for the winning party in the last gubernatorial election. A proxy for intraparty competition,
voter turnout in the most
recent gubernatorial primary, is also included in the model.
Interest-Group Activity
The economic interest-group theory asserts that voters use interest groups to
reduce the vast quantities of information required to make informed decisions
in elections. The early work of Downs (1957, pp. 147-149); Olson (1965, pp.
22-23);
Buchanan and Tullock (1962, pp. 213-214);
Bartlett (1973, pp.
55-58);
and Stigler (1971, p. 12) focused on why rational voters would
delegate their information-processing
and decision-making
responsibilities
to
interest groups in order to reduce the high costs of monitoring government.
More recent elaborations of economic interest-group theory have assumed that
interest groups in turn exert much influence on politicians, voters, and bureaucrats (Peltzman 1976, pp. 221-222; Becker 1983, p. 372).
Interest-group
theory suggests that a principal-agent
relationship exists between government
officials and various interest groups (McCormick
and
Tollison 1981, p. 5). Interest-group theory views legislators, the governor, and
bureau administrators
as economic agents who respond to their institutional
environment.
Interest groups are the principals monitoring and lobbying for
political influence (McCormick and Tollison 1981, p. 5). Interest groups have
been linked with legislature influence (Brudney and Hebert 1987, p. 198),
legislative decision making (Weingast 1984, pp. 149- 151), governor monitoring of states policies (Crain and Tollison 1979, p. 165; McCormick and
Tollison 1981, p. 114), and as an important party in the legislator/bureaucrat
relationship (Bendor and Moe 1984, pp. 757-761).
Interest-group
strength is expected, a priori, to be positively related to the
monitoring of politicians behavior and the demand for accounting information.
The construct interest-group strength, however, is difficult to measure. Consistent with prior research, Moorehouses (1981, pp. 108- 112) impressionistic
classification of the states according to pressure-group
strength is selected for
my study. Abney and Lauths (1986, p. 101) index of the level of interaction is
used as another indicator of interest-group strength. In addition, the number of
Political Action Committees
(PACS) registered with the Federal Election
11
Legislative
Power
One of the most important premises of government agency theory is that, in the
absence of capital-market mechanisms, the legislature is the primary monitor
of bureaucratic behavior (Fama 1980, p. 295; Miller and Moe 1983, p. 311;
Weingast 1984, p. 148; Spencer 1982, p. 198; Shepsle 1986, p. 136; Banks
1989, p. 672). Legislators are viewed as attempting to maximize their chances
for re-election by providing
a monitoring
function on state bureaucratic
12
behavior (Bendor, Taylor and Van Gaalen 1987, p. 815). Where legislative
power is strong, active administrative
lobbying has been documented (Abney
and Lauth 1986, p. 69) A major strategy in lobbying is to provide neutral
legislators and those with influence with information. Legislative size (Stigler
1976, p. 31); appropriate authority (Schlesinger 1971, p. 227); appointment
power (Moorehouse
1981, p. 228); professionalism
(e.g., wages, length of
session, number of committees)
(Moorehouse
1981, p. 288); and tenure
(Patterson 1983, p. 155) have all been used in prior research as indicators of
legislature power and are included in this analysis. These factors are thought to
be related to monitoring incentives which may result in an increase in the
quantity of financial disclosure. Due to the lobbying reaction of the bureaucratic administrative departments and the resulting increase in political actions
of these units discussed in Rowley and Elgin (1985, p. 43), however, the
quality of financial reporting may not be significantly
related to legislative
strength.
Incentives, and
Political science and public choice researchers have emphasized the importance
of characteristics
of the bureaucracy
for public policy decisions (Niskanen
1971, pp. 24-35; Migue and Belanger 1974, p. 28; Bendor, Taylor, and Van
Gaalen 1985, p. 1044; Rowley and Elgin 1985, p. 48; Abney and Lauth 1986,
p. 5). The theory of institutions, particularly in the bureaucratic realm, argues
that dimensions of the bureaucracy and bureaucratic behavior are responsible
for variations in policy outputs (Downs 1976, p. 11). Niskanen (1971, pp.
45-52) provided the first economic-utility
maximization
model of the public
bureau. Niskanens model led the way for a rich body of literature in which the
bureaucracy is analyzed on the basis of universal self-seeking assumptions,
discarding the public-interest Weberian (Weber 1947) model of elected government. This institutionalism
considers the relative autonomy of political institutions and the importance of bureau interaction with the environment.
Abney
and Lauth (1986, p. 222) refer to the importance of neutral competence in
their study of state and municipal governments.
Famas (1980, p. 289) notion
about outside managerial market monitoring and the literature on fiscal illusion
(Pommerehne and Schneider 1978, pp. 384-385; Wagner 1976, p. 51; West
and Winer 1980, p. 617) also supports the inclusion of variables which
characterize management ability and incentives in my study.
In previous governmental
accounting research Ingram (1984, p. 137) used
salaries, CPA status, and selection variables to surrogate management ability.
Evans and Patton (1983, p. 161; 1987, p. 145) discussed quality of management as important and used bond ratings, education, and salary as surrogates
for management quality. Baber (1983, p. 218), and Baber and Sen (1984, p.
94) included political agent renumeration
as a proxy for quality. Consistent
13
with prior research (e.g., Downs 1976, p. 11; Ingram 1984, p. 137; Baber
1983, p. 218; and Baber and Sen 1984, p. 94), the following have been
selected as potential indicators of bureaucratic ability and quality of management: salary and professional
certification of the auditor general and chief
accountant; size of the auditing and accounting departments; number of CPAs;
whether these positions are appointed versus elected; mean wage of public
employees; and percentage of unionized positions.
Magann (1983, p. 23) and Ingram (1984, p. 139) have also argued that
bureaucratic complexity and financial ability to provide information may
impact on the amount and quality of accounting information; however, neither
used measures for complexity from the political science literature. In my study
an attempt is made to provide measures of this construct. Observable measures
to proxy for extent/complexity
of bureaucracy
include total expenditures,
number of full-time equivalent employees, and number of governmental units.
The financial ability of the government to provide information demanded of it
may also be an important determinant of accounting disclosure since the costs
of complying with generally accepted accounting practices must be weighed
against the benefits of reduced costs that result from contracting with interested
parties in the political market. Banker et al. (1989, p. 36) selected revenueper-student as a measure of fiscal ability. Ingram (1984, p. 139) found own
revenue as a percentage of total revenue to be significantly related to financial
accounting disclosure. This measure of financial ability is included in my study
and is expected to positively affect the quantity and quality of financial
reporting.
External
Demands
and Constraints
Political science literature and accounting studies have recognized other external influences on state policy decisions. Other agency relationships have also
been analyzed in public choice research. Four additional external forces
discussed below are: 1) contracting agreements in the debt market; 2) the
federal government; 3) outside audit firms; and 4) the press.
for a comprehensive
of governmental
capital
14
and bond yields (Wallace 1981, p. 511; Ingram and Copeland 1984, pp.
33-36; Wilson and Howard 1985, p. 222) suggest that there may be incentives
on the part of state officials to improve the quantity and quality of financial
reporting when there is outstanding debt. A review of government
finance
literature also reveals conceptual arguments and empirical findings which
suggest that the information included in municipal and state financial reports
may be relevant for the analysis of debt issues (Petersen 1974, p. 76;
Rabinowitz 1969, p. 136). In addition, Standard and Poors (S & P 1982) has
indicated that the quality of accounting disclosure will impact on their bond
rating decisions.
Baber and Sen (1984, p. 103) and Ingram (1984, p. 139) found an
insignificant relationship between debt and their measures of quality of financial disclosure for state government.
Evans and Patton (1987, p. 149) and
Robbins and Austin (1986, p. 418), however, found debt to be a positive and
significant explanatory variable for municipal disclosure quality. Banker et al.
(1989, p. 44) also found debt to be significant for school districts. These
findings suggest that debt may be more of a factor at the local level of
government than at the state level. Outstanding debt per capita is incorporated
in this study as positively influencing the quantity and quality of disclosure due
to incentives governments have to minimize the cost of debt. Further incentives
are expected if the state has a significant proportion of its bonds rated by the
rating agencies (Moodys or Standard and Poors) or if net interest costs are
high.
State Government
Accounting
Disclosure
15
argument
for the demand for audits. Baber (1983, p. 215)
selected state audit budgets as a surrogate for the amount of monitoring of state
bureaucracy. Magann (1983, p. 58) and Banker et al. (1989, p. 40) found state
auditing requirements
to be a significant determinant of financial disclosure
quality. Robbins and Austin (1986, p. 418) specifically looked at size of audit
firm as an important determinant of quality in municipal financial reporting.
Banker et al. (1989, p. 41) also found independent external auditors to be a
major influence in the level of financial disclosure and conformance to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
No study to date has looked at the influence of outside audit on state
government. Two variables from municipal research are selected in my study
as potential indicators of the impact of external audit on the decisions to report
financial information: 1) the existence of an independent private auditor, and 2)
the size of the state audit budget.
in his theoretical
The Press. Zimmerman (1977, p. 121) argued effectively that the press
plays an important role in monitoring the activities of public officials and,
therefore, a strong press will increase the incentives for public officials to
disclose financial information.
Downs (1957, p. 146) analysis of voting
behavior suggests that the press may play a significant role in voting decisions
by reducing the costs of information.
Alternatively,
as discussed in Zimmerman (1977, p. 121) the kind of information demand primarily facing the press
is an important factor in the role of the press in the agency relationship
between voters and politicians. Ingram (1984, p. 141) found a press proxy,
newspaper circulation per capita, to have a significant, but negative, relationship to accounting disclosure. Ingram speculated that the press may be a cost
effective substitute for disclosing accounting information, or that a strong press
may provide incentives for public officials to disclose less information
to
protect themselves from negative reports. Another explanation,
discussed in
Zimmerman
(1977, p. 121), may be voters demand for entertainment,
as
opposed to information, from the press.
In my study, the existence of a strong press is assumed to facilitate voting
decisions, as well as interest-group
formation,
and to result in increased
accounting disclosure consistent with the literature. Two indicators of a strong
press selected for this analysis are newspaper circulation per capita and the
number of newspapers per capita in each state.
General Hypothesis
Figure 1 is a graphical summary of the links among theoretical
the political environment
that may help to explain accounting
model posits eleven unobserved theoretical variables that directly
may affect the decisions to provide accounting information by
ments. Although prior accounting research has found proxies of
constructs in
choice. This
or indirectly
state governsome of these
16
indi-
State Government
Table
3. Theoretical
Construct/Indicator
Accounting
Constructs
17
Disclosure
and Observable
Indicators
Variable Definition/Measure
QUAL12
DIV
URBAN
INDUST
PINCOME
EDUC
POP
PC
MINOR
WINN
RANNEY
Political competition
percent legislative seats held by minority party
percent vote for winning party in last gubernatorial election
Ranney (1976) index of partisan control of state government
(governor, senate, and house)
voter turnout for last gubernatorial primary
QUA
TURNOUT
IGS
PACS
ACTIVITY
INTERACT
for 1986
Interest-group strength
number of groups/capita
registered with the Federal election commission
Moorehouse (1981) classification of states according to level
of interest-group strength
state interaction index (average deviation from mean)
GOV
GAPPT
GTENURE
GSALARY
GENINDEX
Power of governor
degree governor has sole power over 46 functions or offices
5-point scale of governors tenure potential
governors salary
Schlesinger (1971) formal index, 23 tenure potential,
appointive powers, budget powers, organization powers,
and veto powers
LEG
LSIZE
APPRAUTH
LWAGE
SESSION
COMMIT
TURNOVER
Legislative power
number of seats in house and senate
number of bills passed/number
of bills introduced
mean legislative wage
number of days in regular session
number of legislative committees
number of membership changes/total
number of members
BIA
WAGES
AUDREQ
AUDSAL
ACCTSAL
CPA
SIZEACAU
APPTELECT
UNION
EXPEND
FTES
18
Rita Hartung
Table
Cheng
3. Continued
Construct/Indicator
Variable Definition/Measure
GOVUNITS
OWNREV
DC
LTDEBT
NIC
Contracting
long-term debt/capita
average net-interest cost over three-year period prior to
financial statement
current Moodys bond rating (Moodys Municipal and
Government Manual 1986)
BONDRATE
FED
FEDFUNDS
Federal influence
intergovernmental
revenue from federal government/total
AD
AUDIT
ABUDGET
Outside audit
1 if use outside auditor; 0 otherwise
audit agency budget (1,000,000s)
PR
CPRCIR
CPRNUM
Press
newspaper circulation/capita
number of newspapers/capita
revenue
3. Research Method
The statistical procedure used to estimate the model developed in the previous
section is an application of the LISREL model developed by K. Joreskog
(1973, pp. 86-87)(j. The LISREL model consists of two parts, the measurement model and the structural model, which are estimated simultaneously.
LISREL allows the researcher to posit multiple observable indicators for the
underlying unobservable variable, or latent construct, and through the use of
factor analysis, to propose and test a measurement model of the construct and
its indicators (Joreskog and Sorbom 1986, p. 3). The measurement
model
specifies how each imperfect real-world measurement is related to the underlying latent construct and is used to describe the measurement properties, i.e.,
19
validities and reliabilities (Joreskog and Sorbom 1986, p. 3). The structural
model tests the causal relationships among the latent constructs (Joreskog and
Sorbom 1986, p. 3). In this analysis, accounting disclosure choice is specified
as a function of the latent constructs defined in the measurement model.
The general LISREL model (Joreskog and Sorbom 1986, p. 6) is defined by
three equations:
Structural equation model:
r] = BV + r[
+ [
(1)
Measurement
(4
Measurement
(3)
+ 6
where,
. . >7,) : a random vector of latent dependent
71 = (?l,,?l2,.
constructs
constructs
matrices
(disturbance
terms)
Equations 2 and 3 state that although the political and economic constructs, q
and .$ that are thought to affect accounting choice cannot be observed, a
number of other variables denoted as indicators y = (y,, y,, . . . , y,) and
x = (x,, x2,. . .) x,), that are imperfect measures of the political and
economic constructs, are observable (Joreskog and Sorbom 1986, pp. 5-6),
where,
y: the observed dependent
x: the observed independent
A,(p
x m): regression
variables
variables
(indicators)
(indicators)
(factor) matrix of y on v
(factor) matrix of x on C;
in y and x respectively
The use of structural equation (causal) models requires statistical tools which are based upon, but
which go well beyond, conventional
regression analysis and analysis of variance. A full mathematical
discussion of this method can be found in Hayduk (1987, pp. 87-138);
Lwhlin
(1987, p. 49-53);
Joreskog (1973, pp. 107-112); Carmines and McIver (1983, pp. 52-66). and Long (1983, pp. 13-28).
While the multiple-indicator
methodology
is mathematically
complex, its logic is relatively straightforward. The estimation of indicator reliabilities
is analogous to factor analysis estimation of indicator
correlations with the underlying factor. The estimation of the construct-to-construct
link follows the logic
of path analysis, where the correlation between indicators equals the product of the paths connecting
them. In actuality,
the indicator reliabilities
and construct links are estimated by a single set of
simultaneous
equations,
rather than two distinct operations
(Joreskog and Sorban
1986, p. 2). An
appendix which includes a mathematical
discussion of the analysis of covariance structures is available
from the author of this paper to the reader upon request.
20
F=logJCJ
+tr(SC-)
-1og)Sl
(p+q)
(4
where tr(SX-)
is the sum of the diagonal elements, 1C ( is the determinant of
C, p and q are the number of observed y and x variables (Joreskog and Sorbom
1986, p. 28)
Table 4 presents the correlation matrix for pairs of indicators. This correlation matrix consists of three types of correlation
coefficients:
1) product
moment (Pearson) where both variables are continuous; 2) polychoric where
both variables are ordinal; and 3) polyserial where one variable is continuous
and the other is ordinal.8 This correlation matrix served as initial input for the
LISREL analysis. Significant correlations among several of the indicators are
evident from the correlation matrix. As discussed before, LISREL requires
that all the indicators for a given latent theoretical construct be correlated.
However, high collinearity between indicators causes interpretational problems
in LISREL similar to those in regression equations with proxy variables (Jagal
1982, p. 432). The principal advantage of this estimation procedure over
standard regression is that sources of multicollinearity
can be identified and
overcome (Hayduk 1987, pp. 175-176).
4. Analysis of Results
The statistical problem is this analysis is not one of testing a given hypothesis,
but rather one of fitting the model to the data and deciding whether the fit is
adequate. In addition to specifying a model and the mathematical fitting of this
model using the maximum likelihood technique, steps in the assessment of a
LISREL model include statistical evaluation of the fit of the model; criticism of
the reliability, validity, and areas of lack of fit; and proposed reformulation of
the model (Carmines and McIver 1983, p. 53). The last two steps are unique to
LISREL and allow for several nested, or alternative, models to be compared in
this analysis. Evaluation of several plausible models rather than a single
hypothesis facilitates testing, evaluation, and interpretation of a final solution.
a When observed variables are of mixed-scale type (ordinal and interval), the use of ordinary product
moment correlations
is not recommended
(Olsson et al. 1982, p. 338). Polychoric
and polyserial
correlations have been found (Olsson et al. 1982, p. 347) to be unbiased, efficient correlations,
in the
sense of being closest to the true p. The LISREL program was employed to produce a correlation matrix
consisting of all three types of correlations,
where each correlation was estimated separately (Joreskog
an$ Sorbom 1986, p. 43).
In evaluating competing models, Carmines and McIver (1983, pp. 63-65) suggest that differences in
x2 values can be examined. If the drop in x2 is large compared to the difference in degrees of freedom
(df), there is an indication that the change made in the model represents a real improvement.
If, on the
other hand, the drop in x2 is close to the difference in number of degrees of freedom, this is an indication
that the improvement
in fit is obtained by capitalizing
on chance,
and the added parameters may not
have any real significance or meaning (Carmines and McIver 1983, p.64).
21
Some judgment
is involved in this step because no specific correlation
standards for convergent
validity have been established.
Nunnally (1978, p. 95) has suggested that the correlation should exceed
0.5.
For example,
Ingram (1984, p. 139) addressed
multicollinearity
of the data by reducing the
independent variables into four broad factors, making the interpretation
of individual results difficult. In
addition, Babers (1983, p. 222) multivariate
tests of political competition
showed different results
depending on the measure of political competition used.
URBAN
POP
EDUC
PINCOME
INDUST
ACTIVITY
INTERACT
RANNEY
MINOR
WINN
TURNOUT
LSIZE
APPRAUTH
LWAGE
LSESSION
COMMIT
TURNOVER
GAPPT
GTENURE
GENINDEX
GSALARY
LTDEBT
NIC
BONDRATE
FEDFUNDS
AUDIT
1.000
.565**
.348**
.547**
.244*
- .378**
- ,198
.321**
.08.5
- ,043
-.121
.075
- .373**
.514**
,234
,137
- .416**
.190
.228
.270*
.375**
- .136
.04.5
.103
- .474*
- .310**
URBAN
1.000
,042
.279**
,199
-.147
-.154
,173
.158
- .216
- ,101
,191
- .312**
.589**
,164
.489**
- .387**
.253*
.353**
,119
.350**
- .250*
- ,038
,049
- .171
- ,148
POP
1.000
.654**
- .255*
- .367**
- .247**
- .251*
,221
- ,077
-.145
- ,065
- ,017
.232
,076
- ,215
.024
.060
.301**
.449**
,097
.332**
,003
-.103
- .451**
- ,099
EDUC
1.000
.047
.529**
,124
,095
,406
- .187**
- ,165
,013
- ,229
.588**
,151
- ,054
- ,182
,067
.285**
.374**
.336**
.394**
- ,069
,181
- .701**
-.189
-
PINCOME
,211
- ,074
,073
- .246*
.454**
- ,229
,068
,052
.325**
- ,094
,175
- .237*
- .161
,064
- ,223
,074
-.159
.245*
- ,068
,127
1.000
-.162
INDUST
1.000
.067
.322**
- .331**
.021
.416**
- ,034
,123
- .328**
- .206
- .008
.056
- .313**
- .455**
- .561**
-.136
,008
,241
- ,053
.164
-.159
ACTIVITY
,071
,079
- .236*
-.175
.cy2
,036
,037
,223
.072
-.167
,138
1.000
- ,056
- ,144
-.183
- .022
,062
- ,024
- ,180
- .338**
INTERACT
1.000
- .477**
,090
.414**
.Oll
-.198
.056
,078
,182
- .070
.004
- .284**
- .247*
,227
-.142
.279*
.290*
- .014
-.139
RANNEY
1.000
- .314**
- .353**
-.154
-.174
.341**
.206
- ,051
- ,228
.051
.292**
,164
,110
,099
,164
- ,226
- .336**
,048
MINOR
,199
.024
.146
1.000
- ,234
,178
.301**
- .272**
-.lll
-.170
,022
- .284**
-.113
- ,066
-.102
- .252*
- ,054
WINN
1.000
- ,121
- .196
,057
- ,012
,084
.056
,029
- ,139
- .145
,105
.186
,208
- .105
- ,039
,040
TURNOUT
1.000
- .120
- ,004
-.127
.392**
.002
- ,075
-.160
-.133
,195
- ,212
p.163
- .023
.257*
-.181
LSIZE
.334**
.550**
,181
.359**
CPAS
SIZEACAU
APPTELECT
UNION
FTES
- .250*
COMMIT
,,
- .044
LTDEBT
.248*
.472**
- .479**
GSALARY
-.004
.095
.003
.449**
- .286**
GENINDEX
-.130
.356**
-.131
GTENURE
.219
- .132
,014
- .309**
1.000
.274*
LSESSION
.304**
-.125
,186
.398**
.328**
- ,133
.293**
.367**
.540**
,037
.114
- ,110
,031
.328**
,051
.657**
- ,003
EDUC
.353**
.374**
- .224
GAPPT
,153
- .079
LSESSION
TURNOVER
- .523**
1.000
LWAGE
APPRAUTH
1.000
.242*
- .443**
.273*
.I08
-.150
.618**
.355**
LWAGE
APPRAUTH
QUAL12
- .726**
.332**
CPRNUM
.321**
CPRCIR
- .098
.199
PACS
OWNREV
GOVUNITS
.050
,041
.911**
.475**
.349**
- .493**
.254*
ACCTSAL
.630**
- ,083
- .282**
.561**
AUDSAL
-.176
,160
AUDREQ
.274**
.607**
POP
- ,138
.426**
WAGES
EXPEND
.320**
ABUDGET
URBAN
Table 4. Continued
- .252*
.541**
- .191
.056
,046
- ,179
1.000
COMMIT
,205
-.159
.485**
.462**
.475**
,158
,156
.447**
.570**
,154
.332**
,013
.165
.562**
.127
.743**
.163
PINCOME
.482**
-.186
- ,096
- ,087
-.153
1.000
TURNOVER
,144
- .343*
,097
- ,073
- .306*
,128
- .389**
- .379**
,135
- .025
,170
,060
- ,087
,009
-.193
- .255*
.118
INDUST
,174
- ,064
.584**
,080
1.000
GAPPT
- ,105
.142
- .520**
- ,144
,068
- .217
.308**
.03 1
- .565**
- a40
- ,203
.149
- ,036
- .272*
-.144
- .379**
-.195
ACTIVITY
,068
- ,048
224
.519**
1.000
GTENURE
- .239*
.288*
- ,044
.014
.021
- .038
,136
- ,030
- .236*
,203
- ,069
- .034
- ,038
- .061
,169
,045
1.000
GEINDEX
.257*
- .431**
- .238*
,070
1.000
GSALARY
.014
.106
.439**
,191
,219
- .078
- .022
.396**
- ,056
,204
.296**
- ,209
- .003
- .087
- .066
-.169
,135
,088
.057
,169
- ,057
,126
-.116
.489**
.138
MlNOR
,149
.205
,151
-.106
-.164
- ,031
,064
- .309
RANNEY
INTERACT
1.000
LTDEBT
-.121
- ,026
- .217
- ,208
- .279**
- .280**
- .249*
NIC
,109
.099
- .240*
-.189
.300**
- ,220
.306**
.305**
-.103
- .266*
-.159
,184
-.107
.074
- ,030
- .045
- .268*
,051
- ,057
TURNOUT
- ,192
- .236*
- .002
,106
- ,088
,158
- .356**
- ,146
WINN
BONDRATE
,207
-.119
,066
-.lll
- .287**
.196
- .348**
- .299**
.116
,046
.217
,106
.068
.151
- .349**
- .241*
,222
LSIZE
,092
SIZEACAU
APPTELECT
QUAL12
CPRNUM
CPRCIR
.294**
- .320**
.288**
- ,101
.442**
- .262*
,190
.403**
.089
- ,141
OWNREV
PACS
.415**
- .017
-.180
.005
.379**
.399**
-.005
.620**
.271*
- .036
GOVUNITS
FTES
- .291**
- .383**
CPAS
- .122
- ,188
ACCTSAL
EXPEND
.355**
-.104
AUDSAL
UNION
.610**
- .282*
AUDREQ
.606**
- .207
.278**
WAGES
,519
.176
.065
- .357**
AUDIT
ABUDGET
- .475**
.191
FEDFUNDS
.308*
- ,188
,113
- .201
LWAGE
BONDRATE
NIC
APPRAUTH
Table 4. Continued
.215
- ,077
,069
- .023
- .163
.114
- .284**
- .340**
- .287
.144
.230
.221
.4&a**
- .292**
.OOO
.119
.066
.279**
- ,148
.282**
- ,039
.063
.096
.164
- ,097
,212
-.190
-.143
.109
- .356**
- .142
,179
-.004
- .189
.382**
.184
- .297**
.078
-.124
.049
,137
- .089
-.121
.235*
.057
- .198
,077
-.104
.260*
- .131**
,214
.248*
- ,140
.381**
- .006
- .193
,033
.425**
- .376*
,130
,008
.118
TURNOVER
COMMIT
- .362**
LSESSION
.096
,219
- .163
,168
.051
- .152
.164
- ,080
- .146
.326**
.151
.358**
- .OOl
,023
.012
- .283**
.037
.266*
- .090
.080
- .023
GAPPT
.021
-.141
.283**
,202
.013
.378**
- .244*
,041
.237*
,017
.364**
,130
.114
.327**
.449**
- .022
,164
,100
- .268*
,069
- .178
GTENURE
,111
- .184
.266*
,163
,156
.095
,093
,200
.567
- .053
.235
- ,046
.175*
,179
-.008
.400**
.237*
.233
-.113
- .149
- ,056
GINDEX
.223
- .258*
,179
,231
.207
.115
- ,077
,171
.109
- ,031
.406**
.281**
.565**
.545**
-.046
.239*
.368**
- .453*
- .240*
.143
,078
GSALARY
.673**
.818**
.359**
.097
,158
- .021
.209
,103
,072
.828**
- .278*
- .086
- .274*
.163
,143
.526**
- .083
,222
- .315**
- ,056
- .033
LTDEBT
,065
- .232
- .446**
.192
- .155
- .017
,111
- ,063
- .153
.261*
-.121
-.128
.OlO
- .OlO
.220
- ,201
- .352**
- .122
- ,014
.142
1.000
NIC
.002
-.004
- .013
,117
.202
.168
,130
,186
- .069
- ,011
,053
.136
.lll
.051
.060
,094
- .066
,141
- .262*
1.000
BONDRATE
FTES
1.000
- .493**
.711**
.032
- .087
.264*
- .051
**significant
at ,015
* significant at 10
FTES
GOVUNITS
OWNREV
PACS
CPRCIR
CPRNUM
QUAL12
FEDFUNDS
FEDFUNDS
Table 4. Continued
.148
1.OOO
-.199
.032
.296**
.008
GOVUNITS
AUDIT
1.000
.127
,100
.246*
,011
OWNREV
ABUDGET
1.000
.Oll
- .247*
.211
PACS
WAGES
1.000
.024
.085
CPRCIR
AUDREQ
l.ooO
- .404**
CPRNUM
AUDSAL
1.000
QUAL12
ACCTSAL
CPA.9
SIZEACAU
APPTELECT
.472**
- .266*
.392**
.105
UNION
1.000
.743**
- .225
.974**
.089
,096
.245*
.023
EXPEND
Factor loadings appear below each indicator name. Indicators assigned as unit of
measurement have loadings fixed at 1.0 and, thus, no standard errors. Asymptotic t
statistics for other loadings are in parentheses.
Beta coefficients for paths in the
structural model are given with t statistics in parentheses. *p < . lO,**p < .05,***p <
.Ol
The Structural Model in Equation Form:
IGS = .764***DIV
(3.366)
GOV =
ABIL = .630***IGS
(2.617)
QUA =
(-
Coefficient of determination
Asymptotic
t statistics are
equations are derived from
deviations from their means.
,026 GOV
,165)
(-
.354***
(-2.623)
PR
DC + (::09;) BIA
State Government
Accounting
Disclosure
27
Factor loadings appear below each indicator name. Indicators assigned as unit of
measurement have loadings fixed at 1.0 and, thus no standard errors. Asymptotic t
statistics for other loadings are in parentheses.
Beta coefficients for paths in the
structural model are given with t statistics in parentheses. *p < .lO, **p < .05, ***p
< .Ol. An explanation of the Ingram (1984) Index is in the text.
The Structural Model in Equation form:
IGS = .541*** DIV
(2.186)
GOV = - .434***PC
(-2.375)
ABIL = .630***IGS
(2.617)
QUA = (:;;:)
-
.342** IGS
(2.425)
(-
.269 GOV
,885)
ABIL + (;4E12)
***GOV
.422***
(-3.942)
Coefficient of determination
Asymptotic
t statistics are
equations are derived from
deviations from their means.
.310***
(-2.734)
PR
DC + .384***BIA
(3.149)
28
Table 5. Parameter
Rita Hartung
Estimates
of the Measurement
Cheng
Model
Estimate
t Value
l.BQO
1.otxl
1.027
- .678
,442
(5.512)
(-4.455)
(3.079)
l.ooll
- ,841
- ,554
(-4.789)
(- 3.446)
l.GQO
- .391
.307
(-2.108)
(1.875)
1.000
,482
(2.404)
l.ooa
.803
.519
,710
.373
(5.894)
(2.596)
(5.633)
(2.525)
l.ooa
1.ocKl
1.000
.978
,997
(10.025)
(10.294)
The above results are for a measurement model with all paths of the structural model constrained to
zero. Indicators assigned as unit of measurement have loadings fixed at 1 .O and, thus, no standard errors.
Measures of goodness of fit for the whole model: x2 = 355.28 with 197 degrees of freedom; Goodnessof-fit index = .660; Adjusted goodness-of-fit = ,523; and Root mean square residual = .132.
The indicators for socioeconomic development and diversity that meet the
convergent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability criteria of LISREL
are education level of the citizenry (EDUC); personal income per capita
(PINCOME); federal funds flowing into the state as a percent of total state
budget (FEDFUNDS),
and the number of registered political action committees (PACS). The first two indicators are as predicted; however, the latter two
indicators are discussed in the literature as indicators of interest-group strength
and federal government influence, respectively. EDUC, PINCOME, and PACS
load positively on the latent construct, socioeconomic development and diver-
29
sity. FEDFUNDS loads negatively. The findings suggest that these are indicators of state development consistent with Ingram (1984). Ingram (1984, p. 139)
found personal income and urbanization
to be positively correlated with
intergovernmental
revenue, but did not term these variables as proxies for
socioeconomic
development.
He (1984, p. 128) designated this group of
variables as indicators of coalition formation. Other indicators that did not
meet the convergent and discriminant
validity were urbanization
(URBAN),
industrialization
(INDUST), and state population (POP). Although urbanization and population were found to be significant by Ingram (1984, p. 141) and
Baber (1983, p. 221), respectively,
these measures may be proxies for
something other than socioeconomic development.
Significant measures of interest-group strength are Moorehouses (198 1, pp.
108- 112) classification
of interest-group
strength (ACTIVITY),
unionism
(UNION), and press circulation
per capita (CPRCIR).
ACTIVITY
loads
positively on IGS; the coefficients for UNION and CPRCIR are negative. The
relationship of the press to interest-group
strength is not surprising.
This
finding is consistent with Downs (1957, pp. 146- 148), who considered interest
groups and the press as information specialists. The negative loading of the
circulation per capita measure suggests that when newspaper circulation is low,
information
costs are high, which causes elected officials to rely on and
respond to interest groups since their political careers depend on their ability to
assess and fulfill the desires of their constituency.
Unions also are another
source of information for the citizen/voter
and politician. When the percentage
of state employees covered by a collective bargaining unit is low, interest
groups provide the mechanism for information exchange and policy influence.
This finding could also explain Ingrams (1984, p. 139) negative correlation
between press and extent/quality
of financial reporting. Two new measures did
not load in the LISREL analysis. Abney and Lauths (1986, p. 101) state
interaction index (INTERACT) did not converge with any other indicators and
PAC, was highly correlated with the socioeconomic
indicators discussed
earlier.
Measures of political competition in the LISREL model are percent-minority
party in legislature (MINOR), voter turnout in last gubernatorial
election
(TURNOUT), and the Ranney index of political competition (RANNEY). The
measure percentage vote for winning party in last gubernatorial
election
(WINN) does not show significant factor loadings in any of the models. The
signs of the factor loadings are not all positive. Baber and Sen (1984, pp.
102-103) and Baber (1983, pp. 221-223) also found the above measures of
political competition to have different signs. One explanation is that RANNEY
is a comprehensive
index, and along with MINOR, measures interparty
competition. TURNOUT is a measure of intraparty competition and was also
found to be negative by Baber (1983, p. 221) in regression results when other
political competition measures were positive.
30
31
why prior accounting studies have not found level of state long-term debt to be
a significant explanatory
variable in understanding
the incentives of state
government to provide accounting information.
Results of the measurement model for debt market influence indicate a need
for better indicators of this ~eoretic~ly
important variable. Long-term debt
per capita (LTDEBT) and net interest costs (NIC) are used, but their factor
loadings are insignificant
(although in the expected direction). Bond rating
(BONDRATE) does not enter the model. Since LTDEBT is highly correlated
with EXPEND and OWNREV, NIC was used as the sole measure of debtmarket influence on quality of financial disclosure when the bureaucracy
measures were included in the model.
The two suggested measures for the audit variable, the existence of an
outside auditor (AUDIT) and size of the audit budget (ABUDGET),
do not
show significant factor loadings. In addition, ABUDGET is highly correlated
with other indicators and does not meet the dis~riminant
validity for the
LISREL model.
per capita
The two indicators
for the press, number of newspapers
(~PR~UM)
and newspaper circulation per capita (CPRCIR), are not highly
correlated. CPRCIR loaded well on interest group strength, while CPRNUM,
a measure not tested in prior accounting research, was retained as the sole
indicator of the strength of the press.
I2 Comparison
of Nested Models:
Model
1984)
X2
df
X/df
GFI
AGF
RMR
355.28
592.31
193.61
164.63
197
215
102
87
1.80
2.16
1.90
1.90
,660
.559
.721
,733
,523
,433
S82
583
.I32
.413
.136
.158
models,
and reported
t statistics
for these
32
complexity, sample size, and severe departures from normality and is not used
as a statistical test, but rather as a measure of relative goodness of fit.13 Other
measures of model fit include the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), a measure of the
relative amount of variances and covariances jointly accounted for by the
model (GFI is independent of sample size and has a value between 0 and 1; its
statistical distribution is unknown and no standard is available with which to
compare it); the adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), which adjusts the GFI
for degrees of freedom; and the root mean square residual (RMR), a measure
of the average size of the estimated residuals, which can be interpreted in
relation to the sizes of the observed variances and covariances in the data
(Joreskog and Sorbom 1986, pp. 40-41).
Standardized regression weights (beta weights) and corresponding
t values
are also given for each regression equation for latent constructs in the
structural model. In addition, squared multiple correlations, R's,are given for
each endogenous latent construct of the structural model as a measure of the
strength of relationship between two constructs. Finally, the coefficient of
determination
is a measure of the strength of the relationships in all of the
structural equations of the model. A large value is associated with a high
explanatory power (Joreskog and Sorbom 1986, p. 37).
The theoretical constructs identified in the structural analysis as directly or
indirectly affecting accounting disclosure choices are: 1) socioeconomic development and diversity; 2) interest-group
strength; 3) political competition; 4)
strength of the governor; 5) debt market influences; 6) press strength, and 7)
characteristics of the bureaucracy. The nested models do not include the latent
constructs, legislative strength, outside audit, or federal government influence,
because only the observable variables that meet the reliability and validity tests
of LISREL are included in the final model. In addition, several measures that
meet the convergent validity tests, and are discussed in the measurement model
section, but continue to violate the discriminant
validity of LISREL, are
constrained to zero in order to present and test a parsimonious model. Even
though the final model does not include these indicators, e.g., RANNEY,
FEDFUNDS, PACS, UNION, other indicators which measure the same latent
constructs, but are not highly correlated with many other variables are included. These findings improve our understanding
of the appropriateness
of
indicators for the theoretical constructs discussed in the political science and
public choice literature, and how multicollinearity
can confound results.
The model in Figure 2 constrains insignificant paths, socioeconomic development and diversity (DIV) to political competition (PC), and interest group
strength (IGS) to accounting disclosure (QUAL12), to zero in order to improve
I3 The probability level of x2 is the probability of obtaining a x2 value
obtained given that the model in correct. The objective is to develop and
small x2 relative to the degrees of freedom (df). Wheaton et al. (1977, p.
compute a relative x/df. Carmines and McIver (1983, p. 64) suggests that
to 1, or 3 to 1 are indicative of an acceptable fit between the hypothetical
33
34
quality of financial reporting. The findings suggest that low average net-interest
cost three years prior to disclosure, and amount of debt positively affect the
extent and quality of financial reporting.
Interest-group
strength (IGS) and governor (GOV) also have insignificant
direct effects on accounting
disclosure choice. These results suggest that
interest groups may not be interested in accounting disclosure nor in funding
the costly financial information
systems necessary for quality disclosure.
Carpenter (1987, p. 106) found similar results and suggests that the incentives
of interest groups to support or oppose funding requests by governments must
be incorporated into a theory of government accounting information production. The insignificant path between governor strength and accounting disclosure suggests that a strong governor will not determine the basic quantity of
accounting disclosure. Results of prior accounting studies, however, support
the contention that a strong governor may affect the outward show of quality,
e.g., awards for excellence in financial reporting.
The LISREL model for 1978 (Figure 3) supports the findings of 1986. The
model in Figure 3 is a test of the model developed above using Ingrams (1984)
1978 practice index as the sole indicator of accounting disclosure choice. The
analysis yields a x2 of 164.63 with 87 df. Other goodness-of-fit measures are
also indicative of a good fitting model. This analysis was performed to confirm
the robustness of the model and also to compare results with the 1986 analysis
(reported in Figure 2) and Ingram (1984, pp. 139-142). The results suggest
that the power of the governor;
debt market interest costs; bureaucratic
financial ability and incentives; bureaucratic accounting and audit ability, and a
strong press are consistent causal factors in the decision to provide quality
financial reports. An interesting finding is the strength of the positive causal
relationship of power of the governor and the relationship of high net-interest
costs three years prior to disclosure on the quality and extent of financial
reporting. These findings are different from the 1986 models. One explanation
for these results is that original forces for change in quality of financial
reporting came from the debt market (Standard & Poors, 1982). Initial
demands for change were very controversial and required the intervention of
the governor. By 1986 most states had made some improvement
to their
financial reporting, and the debt market costs and power of the governor had
less influence on accounting choice.
Robustness
An examination of the correlations between the indicators included in the final
model provides some insights into the robustness of the results. Correlations
that were problematic
in prior regression studies were effectively handled
through the stringent reliability and validity tests of the measurement model.
Many significant correlations that remain among indicators are reflected in the
beta weights of the paths among the theoretical constructs of the structural
model. The highest correlation between any two indicators included in the
35
GAAP
GAAP & 1986 practice index
X2
df
170.68
188.34
102
117
r/df
1.67
1.60
GFI
AGFI
.731
.728
,597
.608
RMR
,142
,139
Beta coefficients for each path in the alternative models and reported I statistics for these coefficients are
consistent with the model presented in Figure 2, which has the 1986 practice index as the sole indicator of
disclosure choice.
36
State Government
Accounting
Disclosure
37
Several
limitations
of the study should be noted. Although this paper
includes additional public choice and political science theories, in the past
thought to be competing, but now viewed as complimentary,
observed relations
can be misleading to the extent unspecified factors affect accounting choice. In
addition, although careful testing of content, convergent,
and discriminant
validity criteria was done throughout the paper, to the extent that the measurement model is incorrect, structural parameter estimates of the relationships
between the latent constructs are biased. Finally, the absence of theoretical
guidelines precludes accurate specification
of the time required for state
governments to react to changes in the political environment.
The results do not prove the model, merely that it is a plausible explanation.
The x2 goodness-of-fit
test may be quite sensitive to sample size, model
complexity, and severe departures from normality. Other goodness-of-fit measures are not sample dependent and were included to compensate for the x2.
Significance tests must also be interpreted cautiously since the observations do
not represent a random sample and, as such, they serve only as relative
measures of importance of the associations. Finally, even with the advancements in multivariate analysis, this study is cross-sectional;
therefore, we must
remain circumspect about drawing causal inferences. Further study is required
before the question of causality can be fully addressed.
Future research should investigate whether the effects found in this study can
be replicated by studying individual states more closely. A case-study approach
comparing several states may be helpful in sorting out the complexities of the
state government environment and the effect of the relationships in the political
market on accounting decisions. Replications must also be performed for other
years and for other government accounting policy choices.
This paper is based on my doctoral dissertation completed at Temple University in 1988. I wish to
thank Mary Anne Gaffney for her guidance and support throughout the entire research project.
This paper also benefited from the helpful suggestions and comments of Ruth Ann McEwen, Harry
F. Bailey, Jr., James Arbuckle, and three anonymous reviewers.
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